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III. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE STRUCTURES

AND WATER MEASUREMENTS

Most irrigation water came from diversions from streams and reservoirs which
are, most often, are at a distance from the land to be irrigated. Irrigation water has to be
conveyed and the excess water has to be safely removed to natural channels or drainage
outlets, making the use of conveyance and control structures necessary to maintain and
control water flows and discharges.

A. Conveyance Structures

1. Inverted Siphon

A structure for carrying water

under pressure by gravity beneath roads,
railroads, rivers or streams, various types
of drainage channels and depression.
Compared to other structures used for the
same purpose, an inverted siphon is
economical, easy to design and very
reliable as a means of conveyance.
Fig 3.1. Inverted Siphon

2. Road Crossing

Structure used to carry water under roads or railroads. Concrete pipes are
generally used for small flows. Some road crossings are built with other structures
such as check structures.

3. Drops
Structures used to conduct water from a higher to a lower elevation and to
diffuse the force of the falling water. The inlet of the structure also serves as a
control to regulate the water depth in the canal upstream.

a. Rectangular Inclined Drop – A

rectangular shaped structure with an
inclined concrete chute that conveys
water from a higher to a lower part of
a canal system.

Fig 3.1.Rectangular Inclined Drop

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b. Vertical Drop – A drop structure,

rectangular at the middle, and wide at
both ends through which water falls
vertically from higher to lower
portion of a canal.

Fig 3.2. Vertical Drop

4. Chutes

Structures used to carry water from a higher elevation to a lower elevation

like inclined drops but they carry water over longer distances over flatter slopes
and through several changes in grade.

a. Pipe Chute – In this type of chute, the

chute section is made of concrete
pipes to provide a crossing or to allow
farming or grazing over the structure.

b. Open Channel Chute

Fig 3.3. Pipe Chute

5. Flumes

Structures used for crossing natural depressions or narrow canyons, and

for conveying water along steep sidehills, drainage creeks, roadways, and lower
irrigation canals.

a. Elevated Flume – A structure that

often serves as an alternative to a
siphon crossing a depression, stream,
drainage canal, or other man made
channels. It is concrete rectangular
structure with a hollow trough
through which water flows to the
other side. The structure is supported
above the ground by reinforced
concrete, structural steel or timber. Fig 3.4. Elevated Flume

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b. Bench Flume – Usually a rectangular

reinforced concrete trough supported
on a bench excavated into a hillside
and through which water flows into
an adjoining canal. In steep hillside
terrains, bench flumes are more
practical and cost considerably less to
construct than canals or pipelines.

Fig 3.5. Bench Flume

c. Si-Flume – A combination siphon and

flume that conveys water across a
depression, drainage canal or stream
usually from a higher to a lower
opposite bank. It is usually a closed
rectangular reinforced concrete
conduit supported above the ground
by columns or piers.
Fig 3.6. Si-Flume

6. Transition – these are special structures that are often used to join conduits of
varying sizes or shapes in order to avoid undesirable flow conditions or minimized
head loss.

7. Culverts – culverts are closed conduits usually circular, square, or rectangular in

cross sections. They are used for conveying water across and under an elevated
roadway, embankment, or dike.

8. Lined Canals – Concrete lining of some canal sections is necessary to prevent

erosion or excessive water seepage. Usually, canal linings and banks are extended
above the canal normal water surface as safety measure to protect the canal system
from overtopping or spilling over.

B. Water Control Structures

Structures built in certain sections of an irrigation system's canal network to

control or regulate the flow of water either leading to or out of the farmlands.

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1. Checks

Check structures are used to regulate

the canal water upstream of the structure
and to control the downstream flow.
These are built primarily to maintain the
water surface elevation required by
upstream water delivery systems
servicing nearby farms.
Fig 3.6. Check Structure

2. Division Box

This is usually consists of gate

structures at the head of each canal, so
that flow in each branch can be
regulated. The division box is used to
divide the flow of water in a channel into
two or more directions of approximately
equal amounts without actual
measurements.
Fig 3.7. Division Box

3. Paddy Drain

A structure built to convey excess water away from the paddy fields to a
drainage canal or reservoir. It is a concrete structure cutting through the
embankment or bank separating the rice fields and the drainage or reservoir.

4. Lateral Headgate

A structure built at the point where a lateral canal branches out from a main
canal to regulate or control water flowing into the lateral canal. This is operated
mechanically for controlled releases into the areas serviced by the lateral.

5. Turnouts

These are small outlets gates

along a supply canal used for delivering
water directly to rice paddies for farm
ditches.

Fig 3.8. Turnout

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6. Wasteways

These are structures used to divert canal flows into natural channels or
other suitable outlets as required during canal operations.

Conveyance Channels

Conveyance channels are mostly constructed from cheap, untreated earth

canals because they are much easier and cheaper to build. Conveyance channels are
designed to provide:

1. velocity of flow such that neither serious scouring or sidementation will

occur;
2. sufficient capacity to carry the design flow;
3. hydraulic grade at the proper level to provide good water management;
4. side slopes that are stable; and
5. minimum initial cost and maintenance.

Disadvantages of earth canals

1. Excessive seepage losses.

2. Large cross sectional area needed as a result of low velocities.
3. Subject to damage by burrowing of animals and erosion.
4. Favorable to growth of weeds and moss which retard velocity, increase water
losses due to evaporation, and require high annual maintenance costs.

Canals are usually lined with concrete, bricks, or colloid clay mixtures for
the purpose of:

1. Minimizing conveyance losses

2. Preventing breaks and weed growth
3. Decreasing erosion
4. Retarding moss growth
5. Increasing the canals capacity

Tables 3-1 and 3-2 present the maximum permissible velocities for lined and
unlined open canal.

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Table 3-1. Maximum permissible velocities for lined and unlined canals.

VELOCITY, ft/sec
CHANNEL
Water with abrasive
MATERIAL Clear water
sediment
Fine sand 1.5 1.5
Silt loam 2.0 2.0
Fine gravel 2.5 3.5
Stiff clay 4.0 3.0
Coarse gravel 4.0 6.0
Shale, hardpan 6.0 5.0
Steel * 8.0
Timber 20.0 10.0
Concrete 40.0 12.0

Table 3-2. Limiting velocities for essentially straight canals after aging
(IPP by Israelsen & Hansen)

VELOCITY (m/s)
Manning’s Water
MATERIAL Clear
n Transporting
Water
Colloidal Silts
Fine sand, colloidal 0.020 0.4 0.8
Sandy loam, noncolloidal 0.020 0.5 0.8
Silt loam, noncolloidal 0.020 0.6 0.9
Alluvial sites, noncolloidal 0.020 0.6 1.1
Ordinary firm loam 0.020 0.8 1.1
Volcanic ash 0.020 0.8 1.1
Stiff clay, very colloidal 0.025 1.1 1.5
Alluvial site, colloidal 0.025 1.1 1.5
Shales and hardpans 0.025 1.8 1.8
Fine gravel 0.020 0.8 1.5
Graded loams to cobbles when noncolloidal 0.030 1.1 1.5
Graded silts to cobbles when colloidal 0.030 1.2 1.7
Coarse gravel, noncolloidal 0.025 1.2 1.8
Cobbles and shingles 0.035 1.5 1.7

A typical earth canal cross section is trapezoidal. Other cross sections that
may be considered when designing open canals are shown in Figure 3-9.

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T T Berm
Berm
Freeboard
Freeboard t

D D
v d
d
h

b
D = total depth
D = total depth d = design depth
Rectangular Cross- Triangular Cross-section
d = design depth v/h = side slope
section Channel Canal
b = bottom width T = top width
T = top width

T Berm T Berm

Freeboard Freeboard
t
t
D
D
v d
d
h

b D = total depth
d = design depth D = total depth
b = bottom width Parabolic Cross-section
Trapezoidal Cross-section d = design depth
v/h = side slope Canal
Canal
T = top width T = top width

Figure 3-9. Open Channel Cross-Sections

Table 3-3. Channel x-section, wetted perimeter, hydraulic radius, and top width formulas.

Cross-
Wetted perimeter, Hydraulic Top Width,
Cross- sectional
P Radius, R (A/P) T, t
Section Area, A
bd
Rectangular A = bd P = b + 2d R=
b + 2d
T=t
t = 2dz
zd
Triangular A = zd 2
P = 2d z + 1 2 R= D
2 z2 + 1 T= t
d
bd + zd 2 t = b + 2dz
Trapezoidal A = bd + zd 2 P = b + 2d z + 1 2 R=
b + 2d z2 + 1 T = b + 2 Dz
t 2d a
2 R= t=
8d 1.5t 2 + 4d 2 0.67d
Parabolic A = 23 td P= t+
3t 2d  D
1
2
R= approx. T = t 
3  d 

The side slopes are designed to suit soil conditions, that is, soil texture and
stability. Typical slopes for earth canals are presented in Table 3-4.

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Table 3-4. Typical side slopes for earth canals

SIDE SLOPES
(HORIZONTAL:VERTICAL)
SOIL
Shallow Canals Deep Canals
(max. 4 ft. deep) (4 ft. & over)
Peat and muck vertical ¼:1
Heavy clay ½:1 1:1
Clay or silt loam 1:1 1 ½:1
Sandy loam 1 ½:1 2:1
Loose sandy 2:1 3:1

In designing open channels, the maximum hydraulic radius will give the
maximum discharge and will tend to minimize the cost of construction.

The best hydraulic radius or most efficient cross section is where:

R = d/2
b = 2d tan (θ/2)
where: d = depth of flow, L
b = base or bottom width, L
θ = angle between the side slope and the horizontal

Irrigation channels should be stable having negligible scour and

depositions of sediments. Scour can be eliminated by low velocities while
deposition of sediments can be minimized by high velocities.

Stream velocity is computed using:

a) Manning's Equation (applicable when channel slope is less than 0.10)

K 2 1
v= R 3 S 2
100

a
R=
P

Where: v = flow velocity, m/sec (ft/sec)

n = roughness coefficient (Tables 3-2 & 3-5)
S = water surface slope (bottom slope may be used)
a = cross sectional area of flow, m2 (ft2)
P = wetted perimeter, m (ft)
K = constant, 1 (1.486)

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Table 3-5. Values of the roughness coefficeint n (Linsley, et al., 1988).

CHANNEL MATERIAL n*
Plastic, glass, drawn tubing 0.009
Neat cement, smooth metal 0.010
Planed timber, asbestos pipe 0.011
Wrought iron, welded steel, canvas 0.012
Ordinary concrete, asphalted cast iron 0.013
Unplaned timber, vitrified clay, glazed brick 0.014
Cast-iron pipe, concrete pipe 0.015
Riveted steel, brick, dressed stone 0.016
Rubble masonry 0.017
Smooth earth 0.018
Firm Gravel 0.020
Corrugated metal pipe and flumes 0.023
Natural channels:
Clean, straight, full stage, no pools 0.029
As above with weeds and stones 0.035
Winding, pools and shallows, clean 0.039
As above at low stages 0.047
Winding, pools and shallows, weeds and stones 0.042
As above, shallow stages, large stones 0.052
Sluggish, weedy, with deep pools 0.065
Very weedy and sluggish 0.112
*
Values quoted are averages of many determinations; variations of as
much as 20% must be expected, especially in natural channels

b) Chezy's Equation

v = C [R x S] 1/2

Where: C = roughness coefficient

= 1/n R1/6

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Example:

1. Determine the rate of flow through an open channel having a bottom width of 4 ft,
side slope of 2:1, bottom slope of 1%. Coefficient for the Chezy's equation is 28 if
the depth of water is 3 feet.

Freeboard

D
V= 1 3 ft

H=2

4 ft
D = total depth
d = design depth
b = bottom width
Trapezoidal Cross-section
Channel v/h = side slope
T = top width

Given:
b = 4 ft
d = 3 ft
C = 28
h/v= 2 = z
S = 1%

Required: Discharge, q

Solution:
Q = av
v = C√ RS
R = a/P

a = bd + z d2
= 4 x 3 + 2 (3)2
= 30 ft2

P = b + 2d √ z2 + 1
= 4 + 2(3) (22 + 1)1/2
= 17.41 ft

v = 28 √ (30/17.41) (0.01)
= 3.67 ft/sec

Q = 30 x 3.67
= 110 cfs

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2. If the roughness coefficient of the channel in the above example is 0.06, compute
the discharge using the Manning's equation:

1.486
V = -------- R2/3 S1/2
n
1.486
= ---------- (30/17.41)2/3 (0.01)1/2
0.02
= 3.56 ft/sec
Q = 30 x 3.56
= 107 cfs

D. Water Measurements

For a more efficient allocation and distribution of water supply to the farm,
careful measurement of the rate of delivery is basic and important. The advantages gained
by better measurement of the discharge into the farmer's land are:

1. It will tend to reduce the waste of water in such cases where over delivery occurs
through mere estimation of the rate of flow.
2. It will increase the efficiency of irrigation on the farm especially where delivery is
for a short period of time; and
3. It will result ultimately in harmony among farmers being served because all are
subject to uniform and equitable distribution of irrigation water.

Stream flow measurement is based upon the application of the formula:

Q = av

Where: Q = discharge, m3/sec (cfs)

a = cross sectional area of flow, m2 (ft2)
v = velocity of flow, m/sec (fps)

Velocity Formula:

a) Manning's Equation (Discussed above)

b) Chezy’s Equation

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c) Float Method

In this method, the time it takes a floating object travels a certain distance
is obtained. The velocity is equal to the distance traveled divided by the time
spent. The velocity obtained is the surface velocity. The average velocity is
determined by:

VAVE = f (surface velocity)

f = 0.8 if depth is less than 1.5 feet

f = 0.9 if depth is greater than 1.5 feet

d) Current Meter Method

The current meter measures the velocity of flowing water in large open
channel. The device is a wheel having several cups or vanes. The wheel is rotated
by the action of the current and the speed of the rotating wheels indicates the
velocity of the current. The revolutions of the wheel are counted for a known
period of time and the velocity of the current is determined from a calibration
curve or equation. The average of readings taken at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth is
taken as the average velocity. For shallow streams, the velocity at 0.6 of the
depth is taken as the average velocity.

The velocity equation usually takes the form

V = a + bN

where V = the velocity of flow

a = the threshold velocity to overcome mechanical
friction
N = number of revolutions per unit time

Discharge Measurement:

1. Orifice

An orifice is an opening with a closed perimeter through which fluid flows.

Q = a √ 2gh Theoretical

Q = Ca √ 2gh Actual

where C = coefficient of discharge

= 0.6 to 0.8
a = cross sectional area of the orifice
h = static head loss across the orifice

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h h
Orifice Orifice
(Flow under (Submerged)
atmospheric
pressure)

2. Weir

A structure built across open canals to measure the rate of flow of water.
Water passes through an opening that is either rectangular, or trapezoidal, or
triangular in shape. Near the upstream side of the opening is a level indicator showing
the depth of water passing through.

a. General Formula

Q = C L H3/2

b. Suppressed Weir – width of crest almost equal to width of channel.

Q = C L H3/2 H

C = 1.84 (S.I.)
C = 3.33 (English)
L = canal width
Canal Width
Suppressed Weir

c. Contracted Weir – weir where its length is less than the width of the channel.

Q = C L' H3/2

L' = L – 0.2H (Two-end contraction)

L' = L – 0.1H (One-end contraction)

L L

H H

Crest Crest

Canal Width Canal Width

Two-End Contraction One-End Contraction

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d. V-Notch Weir - Triangular Weir

Q = C H2..5
H
C = 1.49 (S.I.) 900
C = 2.5 (English)
V-Notch Weir (Triangular Weir)

d. Cipolletti Weir – Trapezoidal weirs where its side slopes are equal to ¼ (1
horizontal, 4 vertical).

Q = C L H3/2

C = 1.875 (S.I.) θ /2 θ /2
C = 3.367 (English) Tan θ /2 = 1/4

Cipolletti Weir (Trapezoidal Weir)

3. Flumes

Specially shaped and stabilized channel sections are used to measure flow by
noting the loss of head cause by forcing a stream of water through a throat or section
with a depressed bottom. Two types of flumes:

a. Parshall Flume – A open channel measuring structure in which canal water flows
over a wide, flat converging section that widens at the outlet end.
The structure design provides a means of determining the rate of
flow from a single water depth measurement.

b. Cutthroat Flume – A cutthroat flume serves the same function as a parshall flume
but simpler in design and cost considerably lesser to construct.

References:

Hansen, V.E., O.W. Israelsen and G.E. Stringham. 1980. Irrigation Principles and
Practices. 4th Edition. John Wiley and Sons.

PCARR. 1982. The Philippines Recommends for Irrigation Water Management. Vol. 2
Upland Crops Conditions. Los Banos, Laguna.

Schwab, G.O., R.K. Frevert, T.W. Edminster, and K.K Barnes. Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons.

Schwab, G.O., K.K Barnes., R.K. Frevert and T. W. Edminster. Elementary Soil and
Water Engineering. 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons.

Irrigation and Drainage Structures