Selection of Gilts – Biomechanics

K. J. Stalder, PhD1, A. K. Johnson, PhD1, and L. A. KarrikerDVM, MS2

1
Department of Animal Science and 2Veterinary Diagnostic and
Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa

Introduction longevity are especially important when

Sow longevity or sow productive the pig production industry has been
lifetime as it is now sometimes called operating on very slim profit margins if
represents the sow’s ability to stay and any from 2008 and 2009. Improved sow
remain productive at an acceptable level productive lifetime will reduce
within commercial swine breeding replacement rates, the costs for
herds. Poor longevity challenges many replacement gilts, and improve
commercial sow herds in the US and downstream production because fewer
other countries worldwide (Engblom et offspring are produced from gilt litters
al., 2007; Rodriguez-Zas et al., 2003). (Moore, 2003) and thereby increases
The majority of sows are removed in net income. The input cost for a
their early parities, and many times they replacement gilt including gilt
are removed before they “pay for development costs are the same
themselves”. The parity where the sow regardless of the number of parities a
is sufficiently productive such that a sow produces. Gilts should therefore be
producer recovers his / her initial considered as an investment, an
investment is somewhere between the investment which should be used as
3rd and 4th parity under most economic efficiently as possible.
and productivity situations (Lucia et al.,
2000; Stalder et al., 2000; Stalder et al., Sow productive lifetime or sow
2003). The relatively high removal rates longevity is a complex trait and it is
from early parities likely reduce determined by many genetic and
commercial breeding herd production environmental factors. In addition,
efficiency since litter size typically culling breeding herd sows often
increases up to parity five. Today fewer involves a subjective decision by the
than 50% of the US sows produce five sow manager and often influenced by
litters. Poor sow longevity represents cull sow market prices. When making
substantial costs to the commercial pork culling decisions, breeding herd
operation. Furthermore, 30% of the US managers considers the sow’s parity
sows are removed before parity 3. The number, production, reproductive status,
high removal rates (voluntary culling, health status and herd structure, as well
involuntary culling, and mortality) could as access to replacement gilts of
be an indication for compromised animal relevant reproductive status. Today, the
well-being. Reducing high replacement majority of sow culling or removal is
costs due to high removal and poor
FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 1
unplanned (due to e.g. reproductive pasterns, 7. uneven toes, 8. goose
disorders and locomotor problems or stepping. Research has demonstrated
what is often termed involuntary culling) that genetic variation exists for many leg
and early, but if sow longevity would be soundness traits, thus it can be
improved would the proportion of sows improved through selection. Structural
getting removed due to old age and low soundness has been shown to be low to
production increase. This would not only moderately heritable.
increase productivity, ease planning at
farm level but also improve production Several feet and leg soundness
efficiency and profitability of piglet traits have been shown to impact sow
production. longevity or sow productive lifetime
(Serenius et al., 2004, 2006, 2007;
Gilt traits influencing sow productive Serenius and Stalder, 2004). Gilts that
lifetime have buck-kneed front legs leave the
In cooperation with Zinpro
herd earlier than their sound counter
Performance Minerals, we have
parts. Figure 1 shows 3 example
developed a Gilt Selection Guide
drawings of the front legs for a gilt. The
showing the desirable feet and leg traits
far right drawing (Figure 3) represent
for a replacement gilt in order to improve
buck kneed front legs which is an
lifetime productivity from individual gilts.
undesirable trait for a replacement gilt or
Feet and leg soundness, lameness, or
sow to possess. Gilts that have front
leg problems represent the second most
legs like this should be removed from
identifiable reason that sows leave
further consideration as a potential
commercial breeding herds (Stalder et
replacement gilt.
al., 2004). Evaluating feet and leg
soundness is even more critical to
The drawings on the left and in
evaluate in a commercial setting where
the middle of Figure 1 represent
internal multiplication is used to produce
desirable front leg structure. Correctly or
replacement breeding herd females.
normal structure for front legs is shown
in the left drawing of Figure 1. If
Structural soundness is typically
replacement gilt candidates possessing
evaluated subjectively or visually by
front legs like those shown in the
breeders supplying replacement gilts to
drawing on the left of Figure 1 should be
pork producers or by producers
selected or retained as a replacement
themselves who use an internal
for the gilt pool. Additionally, the middle
multiplication program to produce
drawing shown in Figure 1 shows a front
replacement gilts for their herd. Pigs that
leg from a pig that has “soft” or “weak”
are unsound display one or more of the
front pasterns. Research has
following symptoms: 1. splay footed, 2.
demonstrated that sows that have this
pigeon-toed, 3. buck-kneed, 4. post-
type of front leg structure are more likely
legged, 5. sickle-hocked, 6. straight

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 2
to remain in the breeding herd for a increase the risk of the animal becoming
longer period of time. Said another way, splay legged.
sows with soft front pasterns will have
better sow longevity or sow productive A fourth trait that research has
lifetime when compared to sows that demonstrated influence sow productive
have normal appearing front legs and lifetime is swaying hind quarters. It is
especially when compared to sows that impossible to show this trait figuratively
have buck kneed front legs. using still images. Producers that have
really studied or evaluated sows as they
The third feet and leg soundness walk likely have a clear image of this
trait where research has shown a condition in their mind. To describe this
negative influence on sow productive verbally you need to imagine one of the
lifetime is straight rear pasterns. Some longer sows that you have ever had in
producers also refer to this a upright your herd that was also a bit narrow
rear pasterns. Figure 2 shows drawings based, or the width between the
for rear leg soundness. The middle animal’s front legs and the rear legs is
drawing from Figure 2 shows a sow that relatively narrow. The sow or the
has upright rear pasterns and a really replacement gilt that has the swaying
straight or “post-legged” rear leg hind quarters often have their rear feet
structure. This type of rear leg structure cross or touch when the walk with their
is undesirable and gilts having this type normal gait. Typically, sows with
of rear leg structure should be swaying hind quarters have poorer sow
eliminated from the gilt pool or group of productive lifetime when compared to
gilt replacement candidates. the gilt or sow that walks with a more
normal gate (Van Steenbergen, 1990).
The drawing on the left in Figure
2 shows the proper position of the rear Identifying candidate replacement
pasterns and the entire leg that is gilts that have one or more of the
desirable for gilt replacement candidates undesirable feet and legs conditions and
to possess. The drawing on the far right culling them rather than allowing them to
of Figure 2 shows the rear legs of a gilt enter the sow herd may be one of the
that are positioned in such a way that it keys to improving breeding herd
would be termed sickle-hocked. This mortality and / or replacement rates.
gives the appearance that the legs are The lone trait shown to have a positive
up drawn up under the gilt or sow. Sows influence on sow productive life is soft or
housed in gestation stalls that possess weak pasterns on the front legs which
rear leg structure that are up under the has been shown to be favorably
animal or sickle-hocked appear to sit on associated with sow longevity and if
their butt or sit like a dog and may given a choice between animals

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 3
preference should be given to those uncomfortable standing for a sufficient
replacement gilts that have this trait. amount of time to consume adequate
There are several other traits that feed during lactation and result in
should be evaluated when examining utilization of a large quantity of body
feet and leg soundness among the gilt reserves to produce milk for her piglets.
replacement candidates. Toe size, This may in turn lead to a sow that does
placement and positioning are important not consume enough feed throughout
traits in maintaining foot health and lactation to support piglet growth and
integrity. The drawing on the far left of hence the demands on the sow’s body
Figure 3 shows a desirable foot that has reserves become greater. A sow under
even toes that has sufficient spacing this condition, once weaned, may have
between the toes. This foot should be delayed onset of estrus if she cycles at
contrasted to the middle and far right all. When this occurs, the sow is often
drawings from Figure 3. Replacement culled for reproductive failure or failure
gilt candidates that have relatively small to cycle, while the real situation is that
feet with the toes positioned close the entire group of events is the result of
together like those shown in the far right feet and leg problems. It may be that
drawing from Figure 3 should be feet and leg or lameness problems are
avoided. Uneven toes, specifically a likely underestimated as a reason for
small inside toe like that shown in the culling sows from the breeding herd.
middle drawing from Figure 3 where the
toe size difference is greater than 12.5 The feet from all replacement gilts
mm (1/2 inch), is a heritable trait or is should be carefully examined for the
under some genetic control. Uneven presence of cracks and other injuries
toes most often occurs on the rear feet that would result in the gilt being
in pigs and is associated with over prematurely culled from the breeding
grown heels and / or heel lesions on the herd. Research (Knauer et al., 2007)
larger toe. The overgrown heels and has reported that cull sows have a high
heel lesions occur because the larger of prevalence of foot lesions. Numerous
the two toes carries a disproportionately foot lesions are common among
greater amount of the animal’s weight. If breeding herd sows and replacement
the toes were even, the gilt’s or sow’s gilts and are depicted in Figure 4. The
weight would be more evenly distributed drawing on the left of Figure 4 shows a
across the foot. When uneven toes are normal foot that is the goal for all
present and more of the sow’s weight is replacement gilts to have upon their
on the larger outer toe, these toes are entry into the sow herd. Gilts that have
more susceptible to a variety of cracks foot conditions like overgrown heal as
that ultimately can lead to lameness. shown in Figure 4 (middle drawing)
While not scientifically evaluated, feet should be avoided prior to a gilt’s entry
problems may lead to a sow that is into the sow herd. Similarly Figure 5

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 4
shows additional foot problems that result in a higher feet and leg problems
replacement gilts might possess. If a gilt and / or lameness occurrence when
is identified that has one or more of compared to a pig that has the front legs
these foot problems, it should be culled properly positioned.
from the replacement gilt candidate
pool. The middle drawing in Figure 5 Figure 8 shows similar rear leg
shows visible horizontal and vertical conditions as described for the front legs
cracks that can occur among gilts in the in Figure 7. . The drawing on the right of
replacement pool. The far right drawing Figure 8 shows the proper rear feet and
shown in Figure 5 depicts a toe that is leg position of the pig that track or are
beginning to exhibit toe overgrowth. positioned straight forward. The middle
Replacement gilts that have visibly drawing in Figure 8 shows a pig that has
cracked or injured toes or that have toes the rear feet that are angled inward or
that are already beginning to become has rear feet that “toe in”. This can give
overgrown should be culled from the the appearance that the animal has rear
replacement gilt candidate pool. These legs that are bowed. The drawing on the
foot problems are more likely to become right in Figure 8 shows an animal that
problematic as the animal gets older. has rear feet that “toe outward” or that is
what some call “cow-hocked”. Like the
Figures 6, 7, and 8 depict proper case with the front legs, these rear feet
front and rear feet / leg positioning for and leg conditions are undesirable
an ideal replacement gilt that enter the because they do not achieve the correct
breeding herd. Cracked toes or uneven weight distribution and ultimately may
toes on the rear feet can cause the feet result in a higher occurance of lameness
and / or the entire leg to be improperly when compared to the animal that has
positioned. For example, a replacement the front legs properly positioned.
gilt with severly uneven rear toes (small Finally, Figure 9 is a drawing of a
inner toe) will result in a gilt that appears replacement gilt that has all of the
to toe out or when viewed from the rear correct feet and leg features. When
they appear to have their hocks angled combined, these traits should provide
in an inward position. Proper leg the replacement gilt with greatest
position when viewing the animal from chance of having a long and productive
the front is shown in Figure 7. The life in the breeding herd.
drawing on the left shows desirable feet
and leg positioning when viewing the pig Feet and leg evaluation
from the front. The drawings in the Evaluation of feet and leg soundness
middle and right show a pig that has its or lameness is currently visually or
feet toed in and toed out, respectively. subjectively evaluated by breeders or
These conditions do not correctly stockpersons. There can be differences
distribute the pigs weight which may how individual animals are evaluated or
score that is assigned to a given animal

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 5
because it is subjectively evaluated by a to perform evaluations. This can result
human. Many systems for scoring feet in scorer differences within an
and leg soundness have been organization in addition to the difficulty
developed (Lundeheim, 1996; Andersen ensuring that each scorer performs the
and Hansen, 1996; Grindflek and scoring procedures consistently every
Sehested, 1996; Velander and time gilts are evaluated. Additionally,
Holmstrom, 1996; Jorgensen, 1996). turnover among evaluators can result in
Some systems have used a few as 3 constant training of evaluators. This can
categories (Grindflek and Sehested, result in significant variation among
1996; Smith, 1966; Webb et al., 1983) evaluators because of their differing
while others have used a wider scale levels of knowledge and ability with
(Jorgensen, 1996a; NSIF, 1998; respect to conformation or soundness
Jorgensen, 1996b). The National Swine scoring. Ideally structural evaluation of
Improvement Federation has replacement gilts and / or lameness
recommended a scoring system for U.S. could be evaluated by more objective
pork producers (NSIF, 1998). The measures or procedures. Authors of this
scoring systems are composed a type of paper have been working on objective
linear scoring which assigns values that means to evaluate lameness using a
describe various feet and leg static force plate. This work appears to
conformations. For example a linear be promising in its ability to distinguish
score of front leg soundness might be relatively small differences in lameness.
composed of scores from 1 to 5 with 1 Additionally, initial work is being to
being the poorest (buck-kneed) and 5 develop to automate gilt feet and leg
being normal or sound. evaluation.

Many challenges exist with

subjective scoring for feet and leg traits.
Frequently the entire scale is not Summary
adequately used so the traits become Feet and leg evaluation is a key
more difficult to statistically evaluate. component of effective feet and leg
Use of a small number of categories, evaluation of replacement gilt
either purposefully or inadvertently, candidates. Once producers have a
results in the trait becoming categorical trained eye, they should be able to
in nature rather than a continuous trait distinguish between sound and unsound
which pose different constraints replacement gilts for entry into the
statistically. Finding people who really breeding herd. It is clear that genetic
understand and know what they are variability exists for feet and leg
evaluating can be challenging for many soundness and selection should be
production systems. Moreover, many effective at improving feet and leg
systems require more than one person soundness when accurate evaluation

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 6
and selection is practice on boars and marketed. Feet and leg soundness
gilts that are used in the breeding herd. evaluation is even more important to
This selection will have multiple commercial producers who utilized
benefits. First the operation should internal multiplication programs for
experience fewer feet and leg injuries producing replacement gilts within their
and reduced culling for feet and leg or herds. Finally, it could be argued that
lameness causes. Additionally, the the single biggest reason to improve leg
offspring from sires and dams (that have soundness is to increase the productive
been accurately evaluated for feet and lifetime of breeding herd females. This is
leg soundness) should have fewer feet not only of economic importance and
and leg problems, have better worker morale importance, but could
performance and reduced downers also become a significant welfare issue.
during transport and lairage when

References

1. Andersen, S, and Hansen, UG. Selection for conformation and longevity in the
Danish breeding system. In: Proceedings of the Nordiska Jordbruksforskares
Forening Seminar 265-Longevity of Sows. Ed. V. Danielsen, Denmark: Research
Centre Foulum, 1996. p. 72-76.
2. Engblom, L., N. Lundeheim, A.-M. Dalin, and K. Andersson. 2007. Sow removal in
Swedish commercial herds. Livestock Science 106: 76-86.
Jorgensen, B. 1996. The influence of leg weakness in gilts on their longevity as
sows, assessed by survival analysis. In: Proceedings of the Nordiska
Jordbruksforskares Forening Seminar 265-Longevity of Sows. Ed. V. Danielsen,
Denmark: Research Centre Foulum, p. 95-100.
3. Jorgensen, B. 1996. Longevity of breeding sows in relation to leg weakness at six
months of age. Proc. 14th Int. Pig Vet. Soc. Bologna, Italy, 1996. p. 545.
4. Knauer, M, L. A. Karriker, T. J. Baas, Colin Johnson, and K. J. Stalder. 2007.
Accuracy of sow culling classification reported by lay personnel on commercial
swine farms. J. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 231:433-436.
5. Grindflek, E, Sehested, E. Conformation and longevity in Norwegian pigs. In:
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Sows. Ed. V. Danielsen, Denmark: Research Centre Foulum, 1996. p. 77-84.
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Sows. Ed. V. Danielsen, Denmark: Research Centre Foulum, 1996. p. 70-71.
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8. Moore, C., 2003. Parity segregation, success and pitfalls. Proceedings of the Iowa
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9. National Swine Improvement Federation. Guidelines for Uniform Swine Improvement
1998. available at the following web site http://www.nsif.com/guidel/guidelines.htm.
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10. Rodriguez-Zas, S. L. et al. 2003. Bioeconomic evaluation of sow longevity and
profitability. J Anim Sci 81: 2915-2922.
11. Serenius, T., and K. J. Stalder. 2007. Length of productive life of crossbred sows is
affected by farm management, leg conformation, sow’s own prolificacy and sow’s
origin parity and genetics. Animal. 1:745-750.
12. Serenius, T., K. J. Stalder, T. J. Baas, J. W. Mabry, R. N. Goodwin, R. K. Johnson,
O. W. Robison, M. Tokach, and R. K. Miller. 2006. National Pork Producers Council
Maternal Line National Genetic Evaluation Program: A comparison of sow longevity
and trait associations with sow longevity. J. Anim. Sci. 84:2590-2595.
13. Serenius, T., and K. J. Stalder. 2004. Genetics of length of productive life and
lifetime prolificacy in the Finnish Landrace and Large White pig populations. J. Anim.
Sci.82:3111–3117.
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Large White populations. Acta Agric. Scand. Sect. A. Anim. Sci. 54:36–43.
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Prod. 1966. 8:345-348.
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average parity of culled females in a breed-to-wean swine operation using
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present value analysis of sow longevity and the economic sensitivity of net present
value to changes in production, market price, feed cost, and replacement gilt costs in
a farrow-to-finish operation. Prof. Anim. Sci. 16:33-40.
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Longevity. Pig News and Information. 25:53N-74N.
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21. Velander, I. H., and M. A. Holmstrom. 1996. A quantitative method of describing the
conformation of sows. In: Proceedings of the Nordiska Jordbruksforskares Forening
Seminar 265-Longevity of Sows. Ed. V. Danielsen, Denmark: Research Centre
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Figure 1. Desirable and undesirable front leg structure drawings as an aid in the
evaluation of feet and leg soundness for replacement gilt candidates.1

Footnote:
1
Drawing graciously supplied by Zinpro Performance Minerals, Eden Prairie, MN 55344
USA

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 9
Figure 2. Desirable and undesirable rear leg structure drawings as an aid in the
evaluation of feet and leg soundness for replacement gilt candidates.1

Footnote:
1
Drawing graciously supplied by Zinpro Performance Minerals, Eden Prairie, MN 55344
USA

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 10
Figure 3. Desirable and undesirable rear toe size drawings as an aid in the evaluation of
feet and leg soundness for replacement gilt candidates.1

Footnote:
1
Drawing graciously supplied by Zinpro Performance Minerals, Eden Prairie, MN 55344
USA

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 11
Figure 4. Drawings of the underside of a pig’s foot showing soft tissue and white line
cracks that producers should avoid when selecting replacement gilts for the breeding
herd.1

Footnote:
1
Drawing graciously supplied by Zinpro Performance Minerals, Eden Prairie, MN 55344
USA

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 12
Figure 5. Drawings of outer toe where horizontal and vertical cracks can develop as well
as toe over growth that should be avoided when selecting replacement gilts for the
breeding herd.1

Footnote:
1
Drawing graciously supplied by Zinpro Performance Minerals, Eden Prairie, MN 55344
USA

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 13
Figure 6. Drawings of properly and improperly positioned feet and legs in the pig.1

Footnote:
1
Drawing graciously supplied by Zinpro Performance Minerals, Eden Prairie, MN 55344
USA

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 14
Figure 7. Front view drawings of properly and improperly positioned front feet and legs
in the pig.1

Footnote:
1
Drawing graciously supplied by Zinpro Performance Minerals, Eden Prairie, MN 55344
USA

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 15
Figure 8. Rear or hind view drawings of properly and improperly positioned feet and
legs in the pig.1

Footnote:
1
Drawing graciously supplied by Zinpro Performance Minerals, Eden Prairie, MN 55344
USA

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 16
Figure 9. Drawing of the entire pig showing a composite of the desirable traits that
replacement gilts should possess.1

Footnote:
1
Drawing graciously supplied by Zinpro Performance Minerals, Eden Prairie, MN 55344
USA

FeetFirst® Sow Lameness Symposium II, Minneapolis, MN, USA, August 31-September 2, 2010 17