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Chapter 2 - Proof of Validity

This document provides an overview of discrete mathematics concepts including proofs, quantification, and algebraic approaches to quantification. It defines proofs as logical arguments that establish mathematical statements from basic assumptions known as axioms. Quantifiers are logical constants that express properties as applying to every or some members of a domain, while quantification rules govern universal and existential quantification. Algebraic approaches to representing quantification with relation, cylindric and polyadic algebras are also summarized.

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Jeremy Dalangin Posada
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368 views

Chapter 2 - Proof of Validity

This document provides an overview of discrete mathematics concepts including proofs, quantification, and algebraic approaches to quantification. It defines proofs as logical arguments that establish mathematical statements from basic assumptions known as axioms. Quantifiers are logical constants that express properties as applying to every or some members of a domain, while quantification rules govern universal and existential quantification. Algebraic approaches to representing quantification with relation, cylindric and polyadic algebras are also summarized.

Uploaded by

Jeremy Dalangin Posada
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

Objectives

After completing this course, you will be able to:

• Learn and understand the proof of validity quantifiers


• Explain Quantification rules
• Understand Algebraic approaches to quantification

1
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

Validity
• Is the extent to which a concept, conclusion or measurement is well-founded and
likely corresponds accurately to the real world.
• The word "valid" is derived from the Latin validus, meaning strong. The validity of
a measurement tool (for example, a test in education) is the degree to which the
tool measures what it claims to measure.
• Validity is based on the strength of a collection of different types of evidence
(e.g. face validity, construct validity, etc.) described in greater detail below.

Mathematical proof
• Is an inferential argument for a mathematical statement, showing that the stated
assumptions logically guarantee the conclusion.
• The argument may use other previously established statements, such
as theorems; but every proof can, in principle, be constructed using only certain
basic or original assumptions known as axioms, along with the accepted rules
of inference.

Proofs
• Are examples of exhaustive deductive reasoning which establish logical
certainty, to be distinguished from empirical arguments or non-
exhaustive inductive reasoning which establish "reasonable expectation".
• Presenting many cases in which the statement holds is not enough for a proof,
which must demonstrate that the statement is true in all possible cases.
• An unproven proposition that is believed to be true is known as a conjecture, or a
hypothesis if frequently used as an assumption for further mathematical work.
• Employ logic expressed in mathematical symbols, along with natural
language which usually admits some ambiguity
• Proofs are written in terms of rigorous informal logic.
• Purely formal proofs, written fully in symbolic language without the involvement of
natural language, are considered in proof theory.
• The distinction between formal and informal proofs has led to much examination
of current and historical mathematical practice, quasi-empiricism in mathematics,
and so-called folk mathematics, oral traditions in the mainstream mathematical
community or in other cultures.
• The word "proof" comes from the Latin probare (to test). Related modern words
are English "probe", "probation", and "probability", Spanish probar (to smell or
taste, or sometimes touch or test), Italian provare (to try), and
German probieren (to try). The legal term "probity" means authority or credibility,
the power of testimony to prove facts when given by persons of reputation or
status.

Quantifiers
• A quantifier turns a sentence about something having some property into a
sentence about the number (quantity) of things having the property.
2

2
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

Algebraic approaches to quantification


• It is possible to devise abstract algebras whose models include formal languages
with quantification, but progress has been slow[clarification needed] and interest
in such algebra has been limited.
• Three approaches have been devised to date:

Relation algebra, invented by Augustus De Morgan, and developed by Charles


Sanders Peirce, Ernst Schröder, Alfred Tarski, and Tarski's students. Relation algebra
cannot represent any formula with quantifiers nested more than three deep.
Surprisingly, the models of relation algebra include the axiomatic set theory ZFC
and Peano arithmetic; Cylindric algebra, devised by Alfred Tarski, Leon Henkin, and
others; The polyadic algebra of Paul Halmos.

Quantification Rules
• A universal quantification is a type of quantifier, a logical constant which
is interpreted as "given any" or "for all".
• It expresses that a propositional function can be satisfied by every member of
a domain of discourse. In other words, it is the predication of
a property or relation to every member of the domain.
• It asserts that a predicate within the scope of a universal quantifier is true of
every value of a predicate variable.
• It is usually denoted by the turned A (∀) logical operator symbol, which, when
used together with a predicate variable, is called a universal quantifier ("∀x",
"∀(x)", or sometimes by "(x)" alone).
• Universal quantification is distinct from existential quantification ("there exists"),
which only asserts that the property or relation holds for at least one member of
the domain.
• Quantification in general is covered in the article on quantification (logic)

Video links:
Four Basic Proof Techniques Used in Mathematics
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V5tUc-J124s
Universal and Existential Quantifiers, ∀ "For All" and ∃ "There Exists"
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GJpezCUMOxA
Negating Universal and Existential Quantifiers
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q1rKFGSiZE8
Reference:
• Cupillari, Antonella (2005) [2001]. The Nuts and Bolts of
Proofs: An Introduction to Mathematical Proofs (Third ed.)
• Peirce, C. S., 1885, "On the Algebra of Logic: A Contribution to
the Philosophy of Notation, American Journal of Mathematics,
Vol. 7, pp. 180–202. Reprinted in Kloesel, N. et al., eds.,
1993. Writings of C. S. Peirce, Vol. 5.
• Miller, Jeff. "Earliest Uses of Symbols of Set Theory and Logic"
3 • Hinman, P. (2005). Fundamentals of Mathematical Logic.

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