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1 © IWA Publishing 2020 Water Science & Technology | in press | 2020

Assessing the factors influencing the performance

of constructed wetland-microbial fuel cell integration
Huang Jingyu, Nicholas Miwornunyuie, David Ewusi-Mensah
and Desmond Ato Koomson

ABSTRACT

Constructed wetland coupled microbial fuel cell systems (CW-MFC) integrates an aerobic zone and Huang Jingyu
Nicholas Miwornunyuie (corresponding author)
an anaerobic zone to treat wastewater and to generate bioenergy. The concept evolves based on the David Ewusi-Mensah
Desmond Ato Koomson
principles of constructed wetlands and plants MFC (one form of photosynthetic MFC) technologies, Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and
Resource Development on Shallow Lake of
of which all contain plants. CW-MFC have been used in a wide range of application since its
Ministry of Education, College of Environment,
introduction in 2012 for wastewater treatment and electricity generation. However, there are Hohai University,
No.1 Xikang Road, Nanjing 210098,
few reports on the individual components and their performance on CW-MFC efficiency. China
E-mail: [email protected]
The performance and efficiency of this technology are significantly influenced by several factors such
as the organic load and sewage composition, hydraulic retention time, cathode dissolved oxygen,
electrode materials and wetland plants. This paper reviews the influence of the macrophyte [wetland
plants] component, substrate material, microorganisms, electrode material and hydraulic retention
time (HRT) on the CW-MFC performance in wastewater treatment and electricity generation.
The study assesses the relationship between these parameters and discusses the progress in the
development of this integrated system to date.
Key words | constructed wetland, electricity generation, microbial fuel cell, wastewater treatment

INTRODUCTION

According to the current sustainable development goals However, most recently, researchers also found that the
(SDGs) which focuses on a ‘win-win’ situation for environ- naturally existing stratified redox gradients in constructed
mental and economic goals to be complementary requires wetlands (CWs) are highly consistent with the conditions
the use of a more sustainable means of energy generation in MFCs, i.e. aerobic zone at the air-water interface and
and wastewater treatment measures (Williams ; UN anaerobic area in the inner/lower part. This makes their
2015). In 1911, Michael C. Potter studied and proposed integration very plausible by creating a synergy for the treat-
the first microbial electrochemical technology (MET) and ment of wastewater and energy generation sustainably.
bio-electrochemical system (BES) known as microbial fuel Through this integration, a newly merged technique was
cells (MFC) as sustainable biotechnology (Potter ). In formed which is called constructed wetland-microbial fuel
the last ten years, microbial fuel cell has been extensively cell (CW-MFC) (Yadav 2012; Doherty et al. a, b).
studied worldwide, and today, it is recognized as a sustain- The performance and output efficiency of this newly evolved
able biotechnology for both electricity generation and technology is controlled by the magnitude and conditions
wastewater treatment (Vitalis ; Singh et al. 2018). of certain component factors before and during its oper-
MFC technology provides a new method to offset waste- ations. Therefore, the appropriate selection of certain key
water treatment plant operating costs and energy demand component factors is paramount in the design and construc-
by extracting energy inherent in wastewater while treating tion of CW-MFC systems. Design performance is influenced
wastewater simultaneously. This makes wastewater treat- significantly by the choice of wetland plant species, sub-
ment more affordable and ecologically friendly for both strate material, microbial activities, electrode material, and
developing and industrialized nations, which is highly con- hydraulic retention time along with other variables of funda-
sistent with the aim of sustainability (Liu et al. ). mental importance such as flow regime for the success of
doi: 10.2166/wst.2020.135

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this technology (Shi et al. 2018). Earlier and recent reviews Recent studies reveal constructed wetlands and
by Doherty et al. (a, b; Shi a) and Srivastava microbial fuel cell technologies as possible technologies
et al. () on CW-MFC focused on different aspects of that can be merged as a hybrid system (Yadav et al. ).
the technology; Doherty et al. (a, b), focused on This is based on the fact that Constructed wetlands have
the performance of CW-MFCs functioning as CW regarding an aerobic surface layer and an anaerobic lower layer
wastewater treatment and CW-MFCs functioning as which establishes a naturally existing stratified redox
MFC regarding electricity generation. Whereas, Srivastava gradient which is similar to MFC’s redox reactions in its
et al. () also focused on constructed wetland coupled single of the two-chambered cell (Fang et al. ). Again,
microbial fuel cell technology; development and potential MFC’s bio anode is capable of wastewater treatment,
applications. However, this paper reviews the role of the which has been tested in diverse cases. This phenomenon,
wetland plant component, the electrode material, the therefore, makes CW-MFC integration meaningful and feas-
microbial activities, substrate material and the hydraulic ible. In the integrated system, a conductive material is
retention time of CW-MFC systems and their effect on embedded into the lower layer of a CW (as the anode)
power generation and wastewater treatment. This review whiles another in the surface layer (as the cathode), which
aims at summarizing the current situation on these essential can simultaneously treat wastewater and generate bioelectri-
components, investigating the potential of the technology city (Doherty et al. a, b), as shown in Figure 1.
and guiding future research, in the selection of appropriate This hybrid system, CW-MFC, seeks for the integration of
design materials. MFC in constructed wetlands by using the triple synergy
of the physical, chemical and biological aspects of the
substrate, plants and microorganisms for wastewater treat-
ment and electricity generation (Yang et al. a, b).
BASIC CONCEPT OF CW-MFC INTEGRATION The CW-MFC hybrid system combines the advantage
of two systems in an economical and effective way
Microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology has a dual advantage capable of achieving high levels of wastewater treatment
of wastewater treatment and electricity generation. Research and bioenergy.
efforts have been made to improve its power output. Since its introduction, numerous studies have been
However, MFC seems limited at the pilot scale and power carried out to improve the efficiency and scale-up of this
outputs appear to have plateaued. As such, some integrated technology. However, prior to that, COD was typically
technologies have emerged based on MFC. These hybrid used to demonstrate the ability that the integration (the
technologies have the larger potential for scaling up and hybrid system) can further improve COD removal efficiency
practical application compared with the pure MFC (Xu from wastewater as compared to MFC or CW standalone
). The MFC hybrid treatment system was proposed as (Wang et al. a, b). Srivastava et al. () found
an example of integrating MFC and relevant wastewater that the CW-MFC integration contributes to 27%–49%
technologies for improving treatment sustainability and COD removal (0.5 g/L–0.75 g/L glucose load) in a hybrid
energy generation (Das ). system compared to traditional CW, while this value in

Figure 1 | Schematic representation of Constructed wetland integrated with Microbial Fuel Cell.

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another work done by Fang et al. () is 12.6% (using bio- their results showed that the highest voltage was achieved
recalcitrant azo dye (ABRX3) as the substrate with a COD of in non-separator (NS) system (465.7 ± 4.2 mV with elec-
180 mg/L). Similarly, found that 33% of the total COD was trode spacing of 5 cm), which is 48.9% higher than the
removed in the anode zone, which only resided in 13.6% of highest value generated in GW system (312 ± 7.0 mV with
the liquid volume of the CW-MFC. electrode spacing of 2 cm). And the highest power density
was produced in NS system (66.22 mW/m2), which is 3.9
times higher than the value in GW system (17.14 mW/m2).
CW-MFC CONFIGURATION AND OPERATION In addition, the configuration of a CW-MFC reactor like
a characteristic constructed wetland has its lower anaerobic
At the lab scale, the CW-MFC reactor is usually made with compartment filled with a layer of gravels or soils as a sup-
acrylic/polyacrylic or polyvinyl chlorides (PVC) tanks with porting substrate for the anode electrode and the oxidation
drilled inlet and outlet holes for influent and effluent reaction required for the removal processes and electrons
respectively. Araneda et al. (), constructed a CW-MFC transfer by the microbial community (Yang et al. a,
reactor tube using acrylic column, whereas some other b). The upper cathode compartment is planted with
researchers like Yang et al. (a, b) and Wang et al. macrophytes, which supply dissolved oxygen to the cathode
() used materials like the polyvinyl chlorides and via plant root respiration, which contributes greatly to the
Perspex containers respectively, with varying dimensions. reduction reaction. Macrophyte also plays a key role in
However, the designs and dimensions vary based on their CW-MFC as biofilters and accumulators in the treatment
study scale. Other researchers have used materials such as; process. According to Fang et al. () the presence of
polycarbonate plastic cylinder and polyester chambers (Liu plants promotes the oxygen concentration in the cathode
et al. ; Saz et al. ). through their photosynthesis. A CW-MFC with plants
A typical CW-MFC like a microbial fuel cell has two generated an average voltage output of about 15% higher
main regions; the anaerobic region and the aerobic region than unplanted CW-MFC.
respectively containing the anode and the cathode materials
acting as electrodes (Araneda et al. ; Yang et al. a,
b). The electrodes are connected using titanium wires MAJOR COMPONENT FACTORS AFFECTING THE
with an external resistance to close the circuit for electricity PERFORMANCE OF CW-MFC
generation. Carbon and graphite are commonly used as
electrode materials since they offer long term sustainability The performance and output efficiency of every technology
owing to their high electrical conductivity, non-oxidative is being controlled by the magnitude and conditions of
nature and the fact that they provide a good medium certain factors and components before, during and after
for the attachment and growth of microbial community the operation of the technology. Studies have reported the
(Doherty et al. a, b; Yadav et al. ). The lower influence of numerous component factors that significantly
anaerobic region is often separated from the upper cathodic affect the performance of this hybrid technology, such as;
region by the use of separators, to keep the electrodes apart. wetland macrophyte, substrate and electrode material,
Such an arrangement is done to create a sharp redox microorganisms and hydraulic retention time (HRT). Details
gradient in the system needed for microbial reactions and of their mechanism, how they affect performance and their
electron transfer. The first CW-MFC constructed by Yadav relationship with each other are explained into details in
et al. (), under up-flow regime employed the use the sections below.
of glass wool as a separator and some other studies from
Villaseñor et al. (), Doherty et al. (a, b) and
Yang et al. (a, b), similarly used same material or WETLAND MACROPHYTE (PLANT)
a bentonite layer as a separator. However, in recent studies,
the use of separators is avoided due to systems susceptibility Aquatic macrophyte is aquatic plants large enough to be
to clogging and overall increase in the internal resistance of visible to the naked eye. They grow in water or wet areas
the system and thus lower bioelectricity generation when (Brix ). Some are rooted in the sediments, while others
separators are used. In a study conducted by Xu et al. float on the water’s surface and are not rooted in any sub-
(a, b), to assess the influence of glass wool (GW) strate. This varying growth location gives rise to four types
as separator on bioelectricity generation in a CW-MFC, of macrophyte classification: the submerged, the emergent,

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Figure 2 | Schematic representation of the different types of macrophytes and the most commonly used species in CW-MFC.

the free-floating and floating leaved macrophytes (Brix ; THE ROLE OF MACROPHYTE IN REDOX REACTIONS
Vidal ), as shown in Figure 2. The species of macro-
phytes used in CW-MFC is crucial to the success of the In MFC, electricity production is basically the result of oxi-
system. Various studies considered certain selection criteria dation and reduction reactions which releases (the anode)
with the aim of enhancing performance, this includes cri- and accepts (cathode) electrons within a biochemical or
teria such as: (i) Good natural adaptation to the local electrochemical system. One acts as an electron donor
climate; Sierra et al. () concluded that native species while the other essentially serves as an electron acceptor
are best preferred. In their study, the most common aquatic (Gude ). The chemical compounds that are responsible
plants in the region proved better performance in CW-MFC for accepting electrons are called terminal electron accep-
(Sierra et al. ; Oodally et al. ). (ii) Rapid growth and tors (TEA). In this system, materials such as transitional
high biomass production; (iii) Nutrient absorption capacity; metals or nitrate can also be used as electrons acceptor
(iv) Adaptation and ease of propagation; (v) Good root (Clauwaert et al. ; Jadhav et al. ). However,
development: In a sediment microbial fuel cell (SMFC) oxygen is commonly used owing to its inherent sustainabil-
with wetland plant experiment conducted by Chen et al. ity and comparatively high redox potential (Xu ). For
(), their experiment revealed that young roots were example, in the case of the organic matter [substrate] and
able to excrete more oxygen than the mature or aging oxygen as the electron acceptor.


Anode : C6 H12 O6 þ 2H2 O ! 2CO2 þ 8H þ 8e Oxidation Reaction
Redox reaction
Cathode : O2 þ 4Hþ þ 4e ! 2H2 O Reduction Reaction

roots. This indicates that the maturity of the root and its The need for oxygen in the upper cathodic compartment
development is an important factor to consider in macro- to aid reduction reaction makes the plant component in the
phyte selection. (vi) Oxygen transfer capacity to the roots CW-MFC an important part of the system’s performance
by creating an aerobic environment. and efficiency (Yadav et al. ).
However, due to the great diversity of flora, further Likewise, the macrophyte plays a very essential role in
research is needed concerning the evaluation and selection the cathode region by making oxygen available. They
of plant species having potentials for use in CW-MFC for excrete oxygen through their rhizosphere during photosyn-
simultaneous wastewater treatment and electricity pro- thesis. The use of air-cathode at the air-water interface was
duction (Vogelmann et al. ). used by some researchers to increase the cathodic reaction

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by harnessing the dissolved oxygen at the air-water interface However, the plant component is recognized as a versatile
(Doherty et al. a, b). However, the use of air-cathode player in the treatment effect.
was recognized to increase the spacing between the anode Besides the release of oxygen which influences the
and the cathode and hence increases the internal resistance redox potential, the root system of submerging plant releases
(Chen et al. ; Shi et al. b). This distance can be exudates or carbon compounds through a process called
reduced by exploiting the oxygen excreted by the roots of ‘rhizodeposition’ that act as a form of carbon source for
macrophyte. In an experiment designed by Fang et al. denitrifiers for the removal of nitrate (Doherty et al. a,
() comparing planted and unplanted CW-MFC, the b; Sierra et al. ). In addition, wetland plants play
plants promoted the oxygen concentration in the cathode an essential role in supporting a wide range of microbes
through their rhizosphere. Also, the average voltage of the by providing an attachment surface for degradation by bac-
planted CW-MFC was 15% higher than that of the teria. Through their root structure, they also play the
unplanted. Liu et al. (), also developed a constructed filtering and adsorption effect needed for the removal of
wetland coupled with MFC on the principles of photosyn- contaminants (Brix ). Liu et al. (2016) reported that wet-
thetic MFC by utilizing root exudates of Ipomoea aquatica land plant species have a major effect on the pollutant
as part of fuel. They achieved the maximum power density removal efficiencies. In the study of Liu et al. (), the
of 12.42 mW/m2 produced from the CW-MFC planted root exudates of Ipomoea aquatica was utilized as a part
with I. aquatica, which was 142% higher than the of the fuel in photosynthetic MFC. Liu et al. (), reported
5.13 mW/m2 obtained from the CW-MFC without plants. that wetland plant species have a major effect on the pollu-
tant removal efficiencies as well as on the microbial
communities. Phragmites australis had better removal of
ROLE OF MACROPHYTE IN TREATING NH4-N than Iris pseudacorus and can enhance the nitrifica-
WASTEWATER tion process in the rhizosphere as a result of stronger radial
oxygen loss (ROL). Furthermore, plants may uptake pollu-
Another important role of the plant component in CW-MFC tants such as N, P and heavy metals; however, several
is the role macrophyte play in wastewater treatment. Gener- studies reported that plant uptake is inappreciable with
ally, treatment in CW-MFC takes place when the wastewater respect to heavy metals (Brix ; Vymazal ). In a
flows through the different sections (levels) of the artificial recent study by Oon et al. (a, b) using Elodea nuttal-
wetlands, where physicochemical and biological processes lii CW-MFC under artificial aeration, they achieved 98%
such as: filtration, sedimentation, adsorption, bioaccumula- COD removal efficiency (Table 1). Saz et al. (), also
tion and denitrification by microbial community, occurs. assessed the effect of vegetation on treatment performance
Soil or gravel substrate and plant macrophyte produce a and electricity in CW-MFC comparing four species; Typha
treated effluent. These processes mimic the exact processes latifolia, Typha angustifolia, J. geradii and C. divisa. At the
that occur in natural wetlands for wastewater treatment end of his experiment, Typha angustifolia recorded the high-
for the removal of contaminants (Sierra et al. ). est power density of 18.1 mWm2 with 88% COD removal

Table 1 | Comparison of COD removal efficiency and power density between different macrophyte based on earlier studies

2
Plant species HRT (hr.) COD Removal Efficiency (%) Maximum Power Density(mWm ) Reference

Canna indica 96 75 15.73 Yadav et al. ()

Ipomoea aquatic 85.7 5.62 Fang et al. ()
Phragmites australis 90.0–95.0 20.76 Villaseñor et al. ()
Phragmites australis 76.5 12.37 Zhao et al. ()
Ipomoea aquatic 48 85.7 12.42 Liu et al. ()
Iris pseudacorus 99 9.6 Wu et al. (2015)
Phragmites australis 64 10.51 Doherty et al. (a, b)
3
Typha latifolia 91.2 93 mWm Oon et al. ()
Elodea nuttallii 97–98 184.75 mW/m3 Oon et al. (a, b)

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efficiency. In South Africa, Oodally et al. () also investi- and local availability are the two rudimentary factors
gated the performance of wetland plants in CW-MFC determining the selection (Dordio & Carvalho ). More
by comparing the performance of three indigenous South significantly, the physical (e.g., particle size, porosity,
African wetland plants: Cyperus prolifer, Wachendorfia hydraulic and electrical conductivities, specific surface
thyrsiflora, and Phragmites australis with regards to removal area, mechanical strength), chemical (e.g., surface charge,
efficiency and bioelectricity generation. From their study, toxicity, and chemical stability), and biological (e.g., electron
the highest power density and voltage was obtained from donors/acceptors) characteristics of the substrates must
the Cyperus prolifer plant species (229 ± 52 mW/m3; be considered to enhance the system performance. For
510 mV). The removal efficiency of chemical oxygen example, the sizes of the substrate particles have a determin-
demand was 97 ± 1% for C. prolifer, which was higher ing effect on both the hydraulic characteristics and the
than W. thyrsiflora (94 ± 1%), P. australis (94 ± 1%) porosity. Its permeability affects the wastewater flow in the
and the control (unplanted) (90 ± 2%). In addition, the system and it is where chemical and biological transform-
C. prolifer plant species achieved higher orthophosphate ation by microorganisms occurs (Dordio & Carvalho ).
removal efficiency (98 ± 0%) than the control (72 ± 7%), Therefore, a very porous media is often considered ideal,
W. thyrsiflora (58 ± 6%) and P. australis (81 ± 4%). since it provides greater surface area for treatment contact
C. prolifer was the most suitable wetland in terms of electri- and biofilm development. Several studies have employed
city prodiction, COD, ammonia and phosphate removal the use of gravels, sand, compost, alum sludge and crushed
among the compared species (Oodally et al. ). marbles, both conventional and emerging substrates as
Despite the contribution of wetland plants to treatment filtration media for CW-MFCs. However, in recent times,
efficiency and power generation, macrophytes particularly natural zeolite is often preferred because of its crystalline
emergent plants have been identified to cause significant and porous nature with larger specific surface area and
water loss in CW-MFCs through evapotranspiration. The adsorption ability. Natural zeolites are hydrated alumino-
treatment efficiency could be affected as the volume of silicates of alkali and earth metals that possess infinite,
wastewater flows through the system declines due to water strong, open, one- or three-dimensional crystal structures
loss especially when the evapotranspiration rate exceeds (Noori et al. ; Tuszynska & Obarska-Pempkowiak
2.5 mm/d (Białowiec et al. ; Oon et al. a, b). ; Shuib & Baskaran ). They are good adsorbent of
Besides, in the absence of light, plant cell and microorgan- small molecules, have a high ability of riveting microorgan-
ism respiration will take place and consume O2. Hence, isms, a higher removal efficiency of NH3, NH3-N from fluid
the DO level in the reactor reduces as the DO consumption solution and its low cost which singles it out as a sustainable
exceeds production in the evening [absence of light]. The material for CW-MFC substrate material (Milán et al. ;
plant’s photosynthesis and respiration alter the oxygen Tuszynska & Obarska-Pempkowiak ). In an experiment
dynamics of the reactor which ultimately will lead to voltage conducted by Yakar et al. (), aimed at investigating the
fluctuations (Doherty et al. a, b). Further studies are effect of various types of filtration media on the wastewater
required in these areas as far as the utilization of plant treatment process and bioelectric production in an up-
photosynthate in CW-MFC is a concern. flow constructed wetland coupled with a microbial fuel
cell (UCW-MFC). The UCW-MFC system with zeolite (clin-
optilolite) as filtration media had higher treatment efficiency
SUBSTRATE OR FILTRATION MEDIA compared to other UCW-MFC systems with sand and volca-
nic cinder, with an average COD, NHþ 
4 , NO3 and TP
Substrates, also known as media, support matrix/material or removal efficiency of 92.1%, 93.2%, 81.1% and 96.7%,
filling material is another major component in CW-MFCs. respectively. On the other hand, the maximum power den-
Substrates play an integrated role in physical, chemical sity was also recorded to be higher 15.1 mW/m2 compared
and more significant biological functions to eliminate to the other substrates used in the experiment. In another
(including filter, trap, adsorb, biodegrade) the pollutants experiment conducted by Shuib & Baskaran (), compar-
(Yang et al. a, b). It also serves as a support matrix ing different substrate; zeolite, gravel and alum sludge, the
for the living organisms and provides storage for many con- use of zeolite as the substrate achieved a significantly
taminants. In a CW-MFC, the preference of substrate or higher COD and TN removal with a 4-days HRT compared
filtration media to be used is of a major significance to the to gravel and alum sludge substrate. Often, the use of fine
functioning of the entire system. On a practical level, cost conventional substrates like sand or clay with too small

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Figure 3 | The principal reactions for the overall process of the CW-MFC. (1) Plant roots release O2 and excrete (CH2O)n. (2) Electrons are produced at the anode from the anaerobic
 
degradation of (CH2O)n and C6H12O6. (3) NHþ
4 was converted to NO3 by Nitrifying bacteria in the rhizosphere. (4) O2 and NO3 were electron acceptors at the cathode.
(5) Electricity production.

part size (less than 0.2 mm) results in clogging (as shown in MICRO-ORGANISMS
Figure 4), short-circuiting and lack of oxygen transfer.
Aside from the use of natural zeolite with high removal The type of microorganisms that play an essential role
efficiency for NH3, NH3-N, the use of alum sludge has in the performance of CW-MFCs is generally known as
widely been used in CW as a P-sorption substrate for the effi- electroactive bacteria (EAB) or electrogens. These are
cient removal of phosphorus (P) because of its chemical bacteria with the ability to generate electrical energy
constituent (Al-richness). Further studies, however, are through the oxidation of organic matter and transferring
required in this area since different emerging substrates are the generated electrons to an acceptor outside of their
specialized in certain targeted pollutants (Yang et al. a, cells (Yadav et al. ; Guang et al. ). Electrogenic
b). In addition, exploring the use of more conductive microorganisms are widely found in natural and polluted
materials like biochar, carbon stones, charcoal needs to be environments. Anaerobic sludge from industrial or dom-
assessed and the exploration of composite substrate material estic wastewater treatment plants, anaerobic sediment,
can also be considered for optimum removal efficiency of primary industrial or municipal effluent and even farm
all sources of contaminants since these materials similarly soil are identified as gem sources for EABs (Shi et al.
owe the possibility of being used as filling materials. 2018; Guang et al. ).

Figure 4 | Different types of Substrates, their backslash and removal efficiency.

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In CW-MFC, the activities of EABs are one of the major Several electrode materials have been tried for their use
determinants in the efficiency of the system. EABs catalyze and applicability as the anode and/or cathode in CW-MFCs.
substrate oxidation in the anodic compartment and simul- These include mainly carbon-based (e.g., graphite rod or
taneously chemical and/or microbial substrate reduction plate, carbon cloth, carbon paper, carbon felt, granulated
reaction occurs in the cathodic compartment (see Figure 1). activated carbon), metal-based stainless steel and platinum
Anaerobic substrate oxidation by EABs produces carbon as shown in Table 2. However, the carbon-based electrodes
dioxide, protons, and electrons. The protons are transferred are widely used because of their ideal characteristics
to the cathode and the electrons are transferred first to the (Doherty et al. c; Xie et al. ).
anode and then flow to the cathode through an external Aside from the appropriate selection of electrode
circuit thereby producing electricity as the main product material, another common bottleneck associated with
(Yadav et al. ). The metabolism of EABs, though impor- CW-MFC electrodes is the electrode spacing. Electricity pro-
tant, is influenced by certain factors such as substrate duction to a large extent is also influenced by the electrode
composition, pH and temperature which favours predomi- spacing (Doherty et al. a, b). To increase the avail-
nant species in CW-MFCs have been well documented ability of oxygen (O2), cathodes are positioned near the
(Srivastava et al. ; Guang et al. ). air-water interface and rhizosphere zones (Yadav et al.
; Fang et al. ). However, because the anodes need
to remain anoxic, they are buried deep from the surface of
the CW-MFC, this results in large electrode separation.
ELECTRODES Such separation increases the internal resistance of the
system thus, lowers power output (Doherty et al. c;
As introduced earlier, electrodes are the main host for the Wang et al. a, b; Xu et al. a, b; Srivastava
redox reaction in the system and as a result, have a signifi- et al. ). In an experiment conducted by Wang et al.
cant influence on the overall performance of the system. (a, b) to assess the effect of electrode spacing on
The choice of electrode material plays a pivotal role in electricity production performance of CW-MFC, they
CW-MFC (Shi et al. 2018). For a typical CW-MFC there considered 10 cm, 20 cm and 30 cm spacing between elec-
are two kinds of electrodes; the anode electrode and the trodes in three different reactors. Their results indicated
cathode electrode, both buried respectively in the anaerobic that the maximum power density of CW-MFC was
and aerobic regions of the reactor (Kalathil et al. ). By 2.55 W·m3 when the electrode spacing was 10 cm, which
burying the anode and placing the cathode at the surface, was 30% and 50% higher than those with an electrode spa-
CW-MFC can take advantage of the natural redox con- cing of 20 cm, and 30 cm respectively. The power density
ditions approaching anaerobic at the anode, while the differences of CW-MFC with regards to different electrode
cathode is supplied with dissolved oxygen from the atmos- spacing is however, attributed to internal resistance. It is evi-
phere and oxygen leakage from the rhizosphere of wetland dent that the maximum power densities of CW-MFCs are
plants (Kalathil et al. ). The optimization of this redox lower mainly as a result of large ohmic losses (due to incre-
gradient between the anode and the cathode is very crucial ment in internal resistance) and electrode potential losses
in CW-MFC development for power generation (Doherty (Wang et al. a, b). Therefore, for CW-MFCs to
et al. a, b). advance, it is significant that the large internal resistances
According to Doherty et al. (a, b), the position be combated. In view of this, aside the need for appropriate
of, and the material used as the anode and the cathode is selection of electrode material, the optimal spacing between
highly essential for the entire system performance, since it anode and cathode electrodes is also very imperative. There
bears a greater effect on microbe-electrode interaction is the need for further investigation in order to achieve a
needed for biofilm development, substrate oxidation and desired higher power density.
electron transfer (Kalathil et al. ). Therefore, materials
with good electrical conductivity and low resistance,
porous, strong biocompatibility, chemical stability and HYDRAULIC RETENTION TIME
non-corrosive, large surface area, good mechanical strength,
easily made at low-cost, recyclable and scalable natural Hydraulic retention time, also known as hydraulic residence
materials are considered very ideal as electrodes (Kalathil time (HRT), is a measure of the average length of time that a
et al. ; Shi et al. 2018). soluble compound remains in a constructed bioreactor.

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Table 2 | Summary of selected studies in CW-MFC using different substrates, macrophytes and electrode materials and their respective output efficiency (2012–2018)

COD
Initial COD removal
Author Substrate Macrophyte Electrode Material (mg/L) (%) HRT(hr) Max. Power

Yadav et al. () Gravel Canna indica Anode–Graphite plate 1,500 74.9 96 15.7 mW/m2
Cathode–Graphite plate
Zhao et al. () Gravel Phragmites australis Anode–Graphite plate 1,058 76.5 9.4 mW/m2
Cathode–Graphite plate
Fang et al. () – Ipomoea aquatica Anode–Granular Activated Carbon 180 86 72 0.302 W/m3
Cathode–Granular Activated Carbon
Villaseñor et al. – Phragmites australis Anode–Graphite plate 250 80–100 0.15 mW/m2
() Cathode–Graphite plate
Liu et al. () – Ipomoea aquatica Anode–Granular Activated Carbon 193–205 94.8 48 12.42 mW/m2
Cathode–Granular Activated Carbon
Fang () – Ipomoea aquatica Anode–Granular Activated Carbon 300 72.5 72 0.852 W/m3
Cathode–Granular Activated Carbon
Doherty et al. (c) – Phragmites australis Anode–Granular Graphite 411–854 64 0.268 W/m3
Cathode–Granular Graphite
Oon et al. () – Typha latifolia Anode–Carbon Felt Cathode–Carbon 314.8 100 6.12 mW/m2
Felt
Doherty et al. (c) – Phragmites australis Anode–Granular Graphite 583 64 0.276 W/m3
Cathode–Granular Graphite
Srivastava et al. – Anode–Granular Activated Carbon 770–887 90.9 43.63 mW/m3
() Cathode–Granular Activated Carbon
Srivastava et al. Anode–Granular Graphite 770–887 80.9 0.10 mW/m3
() Cathode–Granular Graphite
Srivastava et al. – Anode–Granular Graphite 770–887 84 320.8 mW/m3
() Cathode–Pt coated Carbon Cloth
Srivastava et al. – Anode–Granular activated Charcoal 770–887 91.4 92.48 mW/m3
() Cathode–Pt coated Carbon Cloth
Corbella et al. () Gravel – Anode–Cylindrical Graphite rod 323 61 62.4 36 mW/m2
Cathode– Cylindrical Graphite rod
Oon et al. () Gravels Taifa latifolia Anode– Activated Carbon 624 99 24 93 mW/m3
Cathode–Activated Carbon
Xu et al. () DAS and PAC N. A Anode–Powder activated carbon 500 80 60 87.79 mW/m2
Cathode–Granular Graphite
Corbella et al. () Gravel Phragmite australis Anode–Cylindrical Graphite rod 323 60.6 62.4 131 mW/m2
Cathode– Cylindrical Graphite rod
Xu et al. () DAS N. A Anode–Granular gravel 300 88.7 N. A 2 W/m3
Cathode–Granular Activated Carbon
Fang et al. () Gravel N. A Anode–Granular Activated Carbon 300 91.05 72 0.38 W/m3
Cathode–Granular Activated Carbon
Wu et al. () – Anode–Graphite plate 1,178 78 121 mW/m2
Cathode–Graphite plate
Oon et al. (a, – Elodea nuttallii Anode–Granular Activated Carbon 643 97–98 24 184.75 mW/m3
b) Cathode–Granular Activated Carbon
Srivastava et al. Gravel Canna indica Anode– Graphite felt 78.71 72 31.04 mW/m3
() Cathode– Carbon Cloth
Song et al. () Gravel Phragmites australis Anode–Granular Activated Carbon 200 90.45 48 0.20 W/m3
Cathode–Granular Activated Carbon
Xu et al. (a, Sand and Phragmites australis Anode- Titanium mesh and Activated 82 72 3,714 mW/m2
b) ceramsite carbon.
Cathode-Titanium mesh

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HRT can be expressed as: performance and efficiency of CW-MFC for wastewater
treatment and electricity generation. However, most of the
HRT ¼ V=(θX): studies conducted specially to assess the macrophyte effect
on treatment efficiency were focused on nitrate, phosphorus
where, V ¼ reactor volume, θ ¼ the amount of feed inside and COD removal with less focus on heavy metal removal
the reactor X ¼ number of cycles per day. Where Volume through the selection of appropriate macrophytes. In
is in [m³] and the Influent flowrate is in [m³/h] and HRT is addition, wetland plants are recognized to play a crucial
usually expressed in hours [hr] (Abdelgadir et al. ). role in the performance and activities of electrogenic bac-
In the CW-MFC systems, HRT is the most influential teria. However, each species used in CW-MFC has its
factor that affects contact between substrates and microor- chemical composition, ROL, ecological demands and phys-
ganisms, which in effect favors higher treatment efficiency iological characteristics and these properties directly or
(Velvizhi ). When the hydraulic retention time is indirectly affect the removal efficiency as well as bioelectri-
extended, the removal rate of the pollutants and the city generation. Considering the vast array of wetland plant
output power of the system can be improved, that is, the species and the minimal exploration in the suitable selection
power generation performance of the system is enhanced. of macrophytes there is, therefore, the need for further study
Yang (), studied the HRT performance of the system at and exploration for wetland plants.
6, 12, 18, 24, 48 h, respectively. It is concluded that with Also, CW-MFC studies carried out on substrate material
the extension of HRT, the time for the CW-MFC system to and HRT effects are limited, including electrode materials.
reach a stable output voltage gradually increases, and the There is still room for further development of the
internal resistance gradually increases. When it becomes CW-MFC electrodes as the material sciences are highly
larger, the power density gradually decreases, and the advanced. Highly porous and conductive materials could
Coulomb efficiency gradually increases. This is attributed be explored. This technology has a great potential to be
to the fact that, with the extension of HRT, the matrix inter- used in municipal wastewater treatment. Generally, removal
cepts the organic matter in the sewage, the direct utilization efficiency in CW-MFC is appreciable in terms of some
of the dissolved organic matter in the sewage by the electro- organic and inorganic contaminants, however, the aspect
genic bacteria, and the biodegradation of the organic matter of energy generation needs great research attention to
trapped on the substrate by the microorganism, so that the boost the energy generation capacity of the technology.
coulombic efficiency increases (Shi et al. b). Also in a Future studies could also focus more on fingind suitable sub-
study conducted by Fang et al. (), electricity production trate and electrode materials to boost the scaled- up and
from Azo dye wastewater using a microbial fuel cell coupled industrial application of the integrated system.
constructed wetland operating under different operating
conditions. In his study, he assessed the effect of HRT on
electricity production and the degradation characteristics
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First received 22 December 2019; accepted in revised form 18 March 2020. Available online 26 March 2020

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