SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE CURVES

Energy Interactions (continued…)

As we have studied, energy incident on the Earth’s surface is absorbed, transmitted or reflected
depending on the wavelength, and characteristics of the surface features (soil, vegetation or water
body).
These three processes are not mutually exclusive. Energy incident on a surface may be partially
reflected, absorbed or transmitted. Which process takes place on a surface depends on the following
factors:
• Wavelength of the radiation
• the characteristics of the incident radiation
• Angle at which the radiation intersects the surface
• Composition and physical properties of the surface
After interaction with the surface features, energy that is reflected or re-emitted from the features is
recorded at the sensors and are analysed to identify the target features, interpret their characteristics.

The incident electromagnetic energy may interact with the earth surface features in three possible
ways: Reflection, Absorption and Transmission.
• Reflection occurs when radiation is redirected after hitting the target. According to the law of
reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
• Transmission occurs when radiation is allowed to pass through the target. Depending upon the
characteristics of the medium, during the transmission velocity and wavelength of the radiation
changes, whereas the frequency remains same. The transmitted energy may further get scattered and
/ or absorbed in the medium.
• Absorption occurs when radiation is absorbed by the target. The portion of the EM energy which is
absorbed by the Earth’s surface is available for emission and as thermal radiation at longer
wavelengths. (Therefore, sometimes Absorbance in energy balance equation can be represented as
emissivity.)

So, the energy balance equation becomes,

ER (λ) = EI (λ) - EA (λ) - ET (λ)

𝐸𝑅(𝜆) 𝐸𝐴(𝜆) 𝐸𝑇(𝜆)

Reflectance = 1 − (Absorbance + Transmittance)

If absorbance =1, reflectance=0 implies that total energy incident is completely absorbed by the object.
Black body such as lamp smoke is an example of this type of object.

If absorbance =0, reflectance=1 implies that total energy incident is reflected and recorded by the
sensing system. The classic example of this type is Snow (i.e. White object).
Spectral Reflectance

The reflectance characteristics of earth surface features expressed as the ratio of energy reflected by
the surface to the energy incident on the surface, measured as a function of wavelength is called
spectral reflectance, Rλ. It is also known as albedo of the surface. It may vary from 0-100%.

𝐸𝑅(𝜆)
Spectral reflectance =
𝐸𝐼 (𝜆)

Spectral Reflectance/radiance of various Earth surface features is as follows

Reflectance/radiance of fresh snow is generally very high. Dry snow reflects almost 80% of the energy
incident on it. Clouds also reflect a majority of the incident energy. Dark soil and concrete generally
show very low albedo. Reflectance of vegetation is also generally low, but varies with the canopy
density. Albedo of forest areas with good canopy cover is as low as 5-10%. Reflectance of water
ranges from 5 to 70%. Reflectance is low at lower incidence angle and increases for higher incidence
angles.

The energy that is reflected by features on the earth's surface over a variety of different wavelengths
will give their spectral responses in the remote sensing systems. Each type of feature/object has a
unique spectral response/ reflectance characteristics, also known as spectral signature, which can be
used to identify the respective surface features & to study their properties.
Spectral Reflectance Curve

The graphical representation of the spectral response of an object over different wavelengths of the
electromagnetic spectrum is termed as spectral reflectance curve. The reflectance characteristics of the
surface features are represented using these curves.

These curves give an insight into the spectral characteristics of different objects, hence used in the
selection of a particular wavelength band for remote sensing data acquisition.

The graph is drawn between various wavelengths (μm) of EM spectrum on x-axis & the amount of
reflectance (%) recorded by the R.S. system on the y-axis.

Spectral reflectance curve exhibits the "peak-and-valley" configuration. High amount of reflectance of
a wavelength from a particular feature may result in peaks in the graph & low reflectance results in a
dip or valley in the curve. In other words, the peaks indicate strong reflection of incident energy and
the valleys indicate predominant absorption of the energy in the corresponding wavelength bands.

Figure: Spectral Reflectance Curve for vegetation, soil &water

NOTE: The peaks & dips in these curves are very specific, at definite wavelengths, so should be
carefully & correctly drawn at exact wavelength (μm). For example, within visible region(0.4-0.7 μm),
the curve for vegetation will have dips exactly at 0.45 μm & 0.67 μm.
1. Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation

Spectral reflectance curve for healthy green vegetation exhibits the "peak-and-valley" configuration as
illustrated in Fig.1. It can be studied in three categories viz. wavelength region (0.4-0.7μm),
(0.7-1.3μm) & beyond 1.3μm.

In general, healthy vegetations are very good absorbers of electromagnetic energy in the visible
region (0.4-0.7μm). The absorption greatly reduces and reflection increases in the red/infrared
boundary near 0.7 μm. The reflectance is nearly constant from 0.7-1.3 μm and then decreases for the
longer wavelengths.

Fig.1. Typical Spectral Reflectance Curve for vegetation

Spectral response of vegetation depends on the structure of the plant leaves. Fig. 2 shows the cell
structure of a green leaf and the interaction with the electromagnetic radiation (Gibson 2000).
Fig.2. Cell structure of a green leaf and interactions with the electromagnetic radiation (Gibson, 2000)

The valleys in the visible region (0.4 to 0.7 μm) of the spectrum are due to the pigments in plant
leaves. The palisade cells containing sacs of green pigment (chlorophyll) strongly absorb energy in the
wavelength bands centered at 0.45 and 0.67 μm within visible region (corresponds to blue and red), as
shown in Fig.3. On the other hand, reflection peaks for the green colour in the visible region, which
makes our eyes perceive healthy vegetation as green in colour. However, only 10-15% of the incident
energy is reflected in the green band.
In the near infrared (NIR) region (0.7 to 1.3 μm) of the spectrum, at 0.7 μm, the reflectance of
healthy vegetation increases dramatically. In the range from 0.7 to 1.3 μm, a plant leaf reflects about
50 percent of the energy incident upon it. The infrared radiation penetrates the palisade cells and
reaches the irregularly packed mesophyll cells which make up the body of the leaf. Mesophyll cells
reflect almost 60% of the NIR radiation reaching this layer. Most of the remaining energy is
transmitted, since absorption in this spectral region is minimal. Healthy vegetation therefore shows
brighter response in the NIR region compared to the green region. As the leaf structure is highly
variable between plant species, reflectance measurements in this (NIR) range often permit
discrimination between species, even if they look same in visible range as seen in Fig. 3.
Fig.3. Spectral reflectance of healthy vegetation in the visible and NIR wavelength bands

In the region beyond 1.3 μm, leaf reflectance is approximately inversely related to the total water
present in a leaf as water absorbs the energy. This total water is a function of both the moisture content
and the thickness of the leaf.
Dips in reflectance occur at 1.4, 1.9, and 2.7 μm (Fig.1.) as water in the leaf strongly absorbs the
energy at these wavelengths. So, wavelengths in these spectral regions are referred to as water
absorption bands. Reflectance peaks occur at 1.6 and 2.2 μm (Fig.1.), between the absorption bands.
Some important features & facts:

a) Vegetation canopies generally display a layered structure. Therefore, the energy transmitted by one
layer is available for reflection or absorption by the layers below it (Fig. 4). Due to this multi-layer
reflection, total infrared reflection from thicker canopies will be more compared to thin canopy cover.
From the reflected NIR, the density of the vegetation canopy can thus be interpreted.

b) If a plant is subjected to some form of stress that interrupts its normal growth and productivity, it
may decrease or cease chlorophyll production. The result is less absorption in the blue and red bands
in the palisade. Hence, red and blue bands also get reflected along with the green band, giving yellow
or brown colour to the stressed vegetation. Also in stressed vegetation, the NIR bands are no longer
reflected by the mesophyll cells, instead they are absorbed by the stressed or dead cells causing dark
tones in the image.

c) As the reflectance in the IR bands of the EMR spectrum varies with the leaf structure and the
canopy density, measurements in the IR region can be used to discriminate the tree or vegetation
species. For example, spectral reflectance of deciduous and coniferous trees may be similar in the
green band. However, the coniferous trees show higher reflection in the NIR band, and can be easily
differentiated (Fig.5). Similarly, for a densely grown agricultural area, the NIR signature will be more.
2. Spectral Reflectance of Soil

Some of the factors effecting soil reflectance are moisture content, soil texture (proportion of sand,
silt, and clay), surface roughness, presence of iron oxide and organic matter content. These factors are
complex, variable, and interrelated.

The presence of moisture in soil decreases its reflectance. This effect is greatest in the water
absorption bands at 1.4, 1.9, and 2.1 μm. On the other hand, similar absorption characteristics are
displayed by the clay soils. Clay soils have hydroxyl ion absorption bands at 1.4 and 2.2 μm.

Soil moisture content is strongly related to the soil texture. For example, coarse, sandy soils are
usually well drained, resulting in low moisture content and relatively high reflectance. On the other
hand, poorly drained fine textured soils generally have lower reflectance. In the absence of water,
however, the soil itself exhibits the reverse tendency i.e., coarse textured soils appear darker than fine
textured soils.

Two other factors that reduce soil reflectance are surface roughness and the content of organic matter.
Presence of iron oxide in a soil also significantly decreases reflectance, at least in the visible region of
wavelengths.
3. Spectral Reflectance for Water

Water provides a semi-transparent medium for the electromagnetic radiation. Thus the electromagnetic
radiations get reflected, transmitted or absorbed in water. The spectral responses vary with the
wavelength of the radiation and the physical and chemical characteristics of the water.

Spectral reflectance of water varies with its physical condition. In the solid phase (ice or snow) water
give good reflection at all visible wavelengths. On the other hand, reflection in the visible region is
poor in case of water in liquid stage. This difference in reflectance is due to the difference in the
atomic bond in the liquid and solid states.

In the visible region between 0.4μm and 0.7μm, around 0.6μm water in the liquid form shows high
reflectance. Wavelengths beyond 0.7μm are completely absorbed (i.e. no curve formed beyond
0.7μm). Thus clear water appears in darker tone in the NIR image. Locating and delineating water
bodies with remote sensing data is done more easily in reflected infrared wavelengths because of this
absorption property.

For example, the next Fig. shows a part of the Krishna River Basin in different bands of the Landsat
ETM+ imagery. The water body appears in dark colour in all bands and displays sharp contrast in the
IR bands.
Some important features & facts:

a) The energy/matter interactions at visible wavelengths are very complex and depend on a number of
interrelated factors (as shown in next fig.). For example, the reflectance from a water body can stem
from an interaction with the water's surface (specular reflection), with material suspended in the water,
or with the bottom surface of the water body. Even in deep water, where bottom effects are negligible,
the reflectance properties of a water body are not only a function of the water, but also of the material
in the water.

b) Clear water absorbs relatively less energy having wavelengths shorter than 0.6 μm. as the turbidity
of water changes (because of the presence of organic or inorganic materials), transmittance and
therefore reflectance change dramatically. For example, water bodies containing large quantities of
suspended sediments normally have much higher visible reflectance than clear water.

c) Likewise, the reflectance of water changes with the chlorophyll concentration involved. Increase in
chlorophyll concentration tends to decrease reflectance in blue wavelengths and increase reflectance in
green wavelengths. These changes have been used in remote sensing to monitor the presence and to
estimate the concentration of algae.

d) Reflectance data in the visible region can also be used to differentiate shallow and deep waters,
clear and turbid waters, as well as rough and smooth water bodies. Reflectance in the NIR range is
generally used for delineating the water bodies and also to study the algal boom and phytoplankton
concentration in water.