FOR SCI 304

HISTORY OF FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

Writings are letters or symbols that are written or imprinted on a surface to represent the sounds
or words of a language.

Cave drawings are called petroglyphs or programs and they developed between 20, 000 and
10,000 BC.
The Phoenician alphabet, which was used and spread by Phoenicians throughout the world
between 1700 and 1500 BC, consisted of 22 letters and was written from right to left.
The Greek alphabet was derived from the Phoenician alphabet, which initially consisted of
disconnected capital letters for several centuries.
History of Forgery
 80 BC – Romans prohibited the falsification of documents that transferred the land of
heirs.
 Middle Ages – forgery became prevalent in Europe.
 1562 – England passed a statute prohibiting forgery of publicly recorded and officially
sealed documents, specifically those about titles for land.
 1726 – False endorsement on an unsealed private document became a crime punishable
by pillory, fines, imprisonment, and even death.
 1819 – England issued one-pound bills inscribed on ordinary white paper with a simple
pen and ink, resulting in massive forgeries and the arrest of 94, 000.00 people, 7, 700 of
which were sentenced to death.
 1823 – the United States enacted the principal federal forgery or the alteration of any
writing to obtain financial gain.
 1962 – The American Law Institute’s Model Penal Code simplified and defined the
elements of forgery and became the standard for defining the crime of forgery.
Expert Witnesses and Pioneers of Document Examination
 1812 – the earliest record of expert comparison testimony in America was in Sauve v.
Dawson, where a signature on a promissory note was proved genuine. However,
handwriting identification did not become popular until march later in the 19th century.
 1814 – in Homer v. Wallis, 11 Mass, 309, the court permitted the submission of writings
and the evidence of witnesses on the comparison of disputed writing.
 1914 – congress enacted the Statue of 1913, which accepted such comparisons to be used
as competent evidence in court to prove or disprove the genuineness of a person’s
handwriting.
 1867 – the first significant forgery case was tried in Massachusetts involving the traced
signatures of Sylvia Ann Howland of New Bedford. The most significant testimony
  1894 – handwriting identification became sufficiently well-known that two New York
experts published books on the subject: William E. Hagan published Disputed
Handwriting and Persifor Fraser published A Manual for the Study of Documents.
 1900 – Daniel Ames wrote Ames on Forgery, one of the first books on document
examination. Around this time, handwriting experts who were mostly calligraphers began
to testify in court as expert witnesses.
 1900 Roland B. Molineux was convicted for first-degree murder. Molineux mailed a
bottle labeled ‘Emerson’s Bromo-Seltzer but had powder containing cyanide of mercury.
It was ingested by an innocent victim who died by poisoning. The landmark case
involved at least 17 handwriting experts, including Albert Osborn, the father of document
examination.
 1092 – Albert T. Patrick was convicted for conspiring to murder his millionaire client,
William Marsh Rice. The Rice Will case required handwriting testimony to prove that
Patrick forged Rice’s name on several checks and a will after he had murdered Rice.
Albert Osborn testified in this case of the fact that the checks and will were traced
forgeries. He was allowed to use photographs on transparent paper to show that that the
four questioned signatures were identical.
 1904 – John H. Wigmore wrote The Law of Evidence, which revolutionalized the legal
profession regarding expert testimony.
 1910 – Albert Osborn published his seminal book Questioned Documents, the first
comprehensive book on the subject and considered as the “bible” of document
examination. The principles of handwriting identification that he described are still the
basis for the comparison of handwriting today.
 1930 – The first scientific police laboratory was established.
 1932 – The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) opened its laboratory with one
document examiner.
What is Forensic Science?
Forensic science is the application of scientific techniques and principles to provide evidence to
legal or related investigations and determinations.
Criminalistics applies science to the solution of crimes through the examination of physical
evidence in the field of the crime laboratory.
What is Forensic Document Examination?
Forensic Document Examination defines as the practice of the application of document
examination to the purposes of the law.
The PNP Questioned Document Examination Division
The Philippine National Police (PNP) Crime Laboratory Group includes the Questioned
Document Examination Division (QDED), which aims to provide scientific support in the forms
of documentary and testimonial evidence. Their function to examine questioned documents
specifically includes the following:
 1. Handwriting examination – including hand lettering (such as anonymous letters,
ransom notes, and suicide notes) and signatures (such as those appearing in deeds of
absolute sale, receipts, marriage contracts, and land titles).

2. Imprint examination – including those produced by manual devices (rubber stamps,

dater stamps, and some cancellation stamps), mechanical devices (typewriters and
cheque writers), and electronic printing devices, (typewriters, computer printers, time
clocks, and cash registers); also includes those produced by the manufacture of
counterfeits (currencies, negotiable instruments, travel documents, licenses, and
various personal credentials and identification documents).

3. Writing media examination – including instruments, inks, and papers.

4. Dating examination – including absolute determinations (e.g., dates of introduction of

products) and relative determination (e.g., erasures or alterations), changes,
insertions, and substitutions.

5. Examination of falsification and alterations – including removals (e.g., erasures or

alterations), changes, insertions, and substitutions.

6. Examination of invisible faded and obscured writings and impressions of writings.

7. Examination of preternatural paper characteristics – including tears, fasteners (e.g.,

paper clips and staples), cuts, and perforations.

8. Miscellaneous examination – including envelope tampering, adhesives, laminations,

typist’s characteristics, and linguistics.

9. Conduct lectures to PNP, AFP, and other government agencies.

10. Conduct field laboratory works – questioned document examiners are sent to
agencies/offices to conduct the examination and to photograph original documents
that cannot be submitted to the PNP Crime Laboratory.

DOCUMENTS AND FORGERY

A questioned document is one where the source or authenticity of the material is
disputed. Albert Osborn, the father of questioned document examination, explains that:

“A document is usually questioned because its origin, its contents, or the circumstances
and story regarding its production, arouse serious suspicion as to its genuineness, or it may be
adversely scrutinized simply because it displeases someone by its unexpected provisions and a
careful examination may show conclusively that the document belongs in the genuine document
class.” (Obsborn, 1929).
 Nature and Classification of Documents

Questioned documents have a variety of classes, including those that are handwritten,
typewritten, copied (xerography), or computer printed; those with erasures, obliterations,
additions, or indented writings; charred documents and ink exams; or those that involve
comparisons, dating, paper, and pencil lead.

For distribution purposes, documents are classified into the following categories:

1. General – documents receiving a full circulation.

This classification is used on basic documents and final meeting records, including agendas,
studies, and reports, communications from governments, resolutions, and other decisions of
concerns.

2. Limited – documents for which wide circulation is unnecessary because of the temporary
nature of the documents, such as draft resolutions, amendments, draft reports, and other
action documents.

This “limited” classification is indicated by an “L” symbol. Some technical documents which
are issued for delegates are issued as limited documents. These may contain important
information of interest to researchers calling upon the services of the library. Documents in the
limited category are generally available for a relatively short period. Therefore, it is
advantageous to request limited documents not received through regular distribution or
additional copies of limited documents soon after the original document is issued, whenever this
is possible.

3. Restricted -applies exclusively to documents whose content requires that they be treated
as confidential or that they be withheld by a public circulation.

Standards of Comparison

Standards or exemplars are legally admissible, authentic samples of handwriting used

for comparison with questioned writing to determine the authenticity or spuriousness of the
questioned writing. They are also called known samples. Their genuineness must be clear and
undisputed.

The two types of standards are:

1. Collected Standards – documents previously written in the normal and day-to-day

course of business and known to be genuine; may include bank records, letters, forms,
etc.
2. Requested Standards – samples that the subject is requested to give to facilitate the
document examination.
What is Forgery?

A forgery is a purposeful attempt to make a fraudulent copy of something, whether it is a

signature, money, or a piece of art. If an object is fraudulent, this means that its origin is not what
it is presented to be. Fraudulent money, for example, is not genuine currency, and a forged,
check is not signed by the person whose name is on the check. (Belle, 2009).

Strictly speaking, forgery is a legal term that requires the element of intent to defraud.
Proving or disproving intent to defraud is the lawyer’s job. Forensic document examiners,
therefore, do not use the word forgery in their reports or court testimonies to avoid implying that
they know the writer’s intent. For example, the examiner’s report could state that the questioned
signature of a certain person on a certain contract is not the genuine signature of that person, but
rather the signature of some writer who attempted to imitate the genuine signature (Eckert,
1997).

Indication of Forgery

General indications of non-genuineness may include the following:

1. Blunt starts and stops

The forger places the pen point in contact with the paper and then starts writing. When he is
finished with the name or some point thereof, he stops the pen and lifts it from the surface. This
may cause an emphasized blunt start or ending where the pen was placed in contact with the
surface. At times this contact is held so long that if the pen contains a fluid ink ut will wet the
paper and migrate outward from the contact point.

There may be unnecessary and extraneous marks caused by pen starts and stops. The writer
may decide, after putting his pen in contact with the paper, that is in the wrong spot, to pick it up
and moves it to a position considered more correct. Normally a signature’s start and stops are
much more dynamic. The pen is moving horizontally before it contacts the paper and is lifted at
the end while still in flight. This leaves a tapered appearance at the beginnings and endings of
names or letters. There are, of course, exceptions to this.

2. Pen lifts and hesitation

This occurs when the pen stops at an unusual point in the writing – perhaps where a radical
change in direction is about to take place or a new letter formation is about to be started. This
may take on the appearance of a small gap in the written line where one is not expected, or an
overlapping of two ink lines where there should be only one continuous line.

3. Tremor

Because the creation of most forms of non-genuine signatures is little more than drawings,
the pen is moving so slowly that small, sometimes microscopic changes in direction take place in
what should be a fluid-looking line. The resultant line is not smooth but reflects the “shaking”
pen.

4. Speed and pressure

Again, because the pen is moving slowly rather than with the dynamic movement associated
with most genuine writings, the ink line remains constant in thickness, resulting from the same
constant pressure exerted on a slowly moving pen. There will be little, if any, tapering of internal
lines.

5. Patching

Infrequently, but at one time or another, most of us have made an error, while writing our
signature. Some individuals may leave the signature alone, caring little about the mistake of
imperfection, while others will simply “fix” the signature by correcting the offending portion.
This may be done to make the signature more readable, or because a defect in the pen or paper
has affected what we perceive to be our “normal’ signature or some other reason that may even
be subconscious. These “fixes” are usually patent, with no attempt made on the part of the writer
to mask or otherwise hide the correction.

These signature corrections are quite different than the patching that is frequently found in
the non-genuine signatures. On these occasions, the writer is not attempting to make the
signature more readable but to make its appearance passable. He is fixing an obvious defect that
he perceives as detectable and might uncover his fraudulent product and foil his scheme. These
usually take the form of a correction to a flaw in the writing line rather than in the form of a
letter. Extensions to entry or terminal strokes, or to lower descending portions of letters, along
with corrections to embellishments, are typical of non-genuine patching.

Kinds and Methods of Forging (Koppenhaver, 2007)

1. Simple Forgery

The simple forgery does not attempt to imitate a genuine signature. It could be the signature
of a specific person or a fictitious name. It is the easiest type of forgery to identify because it
does not resemble a known signature.

2. Simulated Forgery

In a simulated forgery, the forger attempts to copy a known signature. The known signature can
be copied freehand or it may be traced from a model so that the result is exactly alike in terms of
sizes of letters and some of the stroke structures. These methods differ widely in detail,
according to the circumstances of each case. Tracing can only be employed when a signature or
writing is present in the exact or approximate form of the desired reproduction. Simulated
forgery is the most difficult of all methods to create and the most difficult to detect.

Types of Traced Forgery

1. Indention Process – the outline of the writing underneath will then appear sufficiently
plain to enable it to be traced with pen and pencil, to produce a very accurate copy upon
the superimposed paper. If the outline is with a pencil, it is afterward marked over with
ink.

2. Transmitted Process – it may then be done by placing the writing to be forged upon
transparency over a strong light and then superimposing the paper upon which the
forgery is to be made.

3. Carbon Process – this is done with the aid of carbon paper interleave between a blank
paper, used with the apparent force of writing, then afterward marked over with ink.

Techniques Used in the Examination of Questioned Documents

The following are techniques employed by the PNP-QDED in the examining questioned
documents:

1. Microscopic Examination – stereoscopic examination in low and high power objectives

is used to detect retouching, patching, and unnatural pen lifts in the signature analysis.
With proper angle and intensity of illumination, it aids in the decipherment of erasures
and minute manipulations not perfectly pictured to the sequence of entries done by a
different instrument.

2. Transmitted Light Examination – documents are subjected to this type of examination

to determine the presence of erasures, matching of serration, and some other types of
alteration.

3. Oblique Light Examination – documents are subjected to this type of examination for
the decipherment of faded handwriting, determination of outlines in traced forgery, and
embossed impression.

4. Photographic Examination – this type of examination is essential in every document

examination. Actual observations are recorded in the photograph.

5. Ultraviolet Examination – this type is done in the darkroom after the lamp has been
warmed up to allow maximum output from the ultraviolet light. Exposure to ultraviolet
light should be at the minimum duration to prevent the writing ink and the typewriter
ribbon from fading. The exposure of a document to ultraviolet light is useful when it
consists of several pages and substitution is being suspected. The color and intensity of
 the fluorescence reaction are very apparent in the case of a substituted page. Mechanical
and chemical erasures will certainly change the reflectivity and fluorescence of the area
affected.

6. Electrostatic Detection – the electrostatic detection apparatus (ESDA) detects indented

writings and records transparencies of any indentions.

7. Video Spectral Comparator (VSC) – this is used in the examination of the masked or
obliterated text, watermarks, visible fluorescence, paper fluorescence, and oblique
illumination of indented writing and embossing. It detects variation in the infrared
characteristics of inks and reveals alterations by eliminating interfering background
luminescence.

8. Preparation of Court Exhibits – after the document examiner has completed his
examination and the laboratory report has been submitted, he prepares the photographic
exhibits for court demonstration and illustration.

Instruments and Equipment in Forensic Document Examination

Forensic document examiners need certain instruments and scientific equipment in

examining documents and determining facts that may not be visible to the naked eye. Below are
some of the instruments and equipment used by forensic document examiners at the PNP Crime
Laboratory:

1. Optical Aids

A microscope is an optical instrument that consists of a combination of lenses that allows the
user to view a magnified image of a small object (Brenner, 2004).

The magnifying glass or hand lens is the simplest microscope. Light from the object is bent,
or refracted, as it passes through the curved lens and into the eye, where it forms a magnified
virtual image. The lens is usually mounted magnification limit is about five to ten times the true
size of the object (Tilstone, Savage, & Clark, 2006).

A stereo or stereoscopic microscope is an instrument for blending into one image two
pictures of an object from slightly different points of view to produce upon the eye the
impression of relief and solidity and a three-dimensional viewing (Brenner, 2004).

The stereoscopic microscope is the most important and commonly used equipment in
forensic document examination. Stereoscopic microscopes offer between 10 and 50 power that
includes both incident and transmitted illumination. Power refers to the amount of magnification
the microscope provides (2 power = 200% enlargement). This type of microscope provides a
magnified three-dimensional image that assists the viewer in the study of pressure patterns,
crossed lines, erasures, indentations, writing over folds, and similar problems (Koppenhaver,
2007).

Other optical aids include other good quality, non-distorting magnifiers in various strengths
like strong reading glasses and optivisors that can be worn so that the examiner can view
documents while leaving both hands free.

2. Measuring Devices

Rulers, gauges, grids, and other accurate measuring devices are important for document
examiners to obtain precise measurements.
The typewriting test plate is used to detect any abnormal horizontal or vertical alignment
of typewritten characters. Ten characters per inch (cpi) is called pica and twelve cpi are known
as elite. Placed over the typewritten page, these gauges need to be accurate to ensure a more
comprehensive analysis of a variety of situations. The printed image is on the bottom of the clear
plastic plate, which eliminates shadows and allows for direct photography.

The protractor measures angles and is also called a handwriting slope instrument. Other
test plates include the letter slant or handwriting comparison test plate and the type angle
measurement.

3. Duplicating Devices

Forensic document examiners need camera equipment for clear close-up photographs of the
original and enabling a jury to see the characteristics of writing and the reason for conclusions
more clearly than by looking at the original documents.

4. Proper Lighting

In addition to daylight, various types and intensities of lighting fixtures are crucial for critical
examinations in a documented laboratory. Different types of light can reveal subtle details
essential for revealing flaws and stains on documents. Some examinations also require special
lighting effects.

Transmitted light is light that is passed through a transparent or translucent medium

(Brenner, 2004). It is used in the examination of documents to determine the presence of
erasures, matching of serration, and some other type of alteration.

Brief History of Paper

The word paper comes from the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which
was woven from papyrus plants. Below is a brief history of the development of a paper that
traces man’s search for suitable writing materials to communicate (Koppenhaver, 2007).

 The writing surfaces of prehistoric man included rocks, clay, and similar substances
found in nature.
  Papyrus was then made by Egyptians by mashing reeds together into a flat sheet of pulp
and drying them. Their pen was a sharpened reed and their ink was a mix of soot and
water.

 In the second century BC, vellum was created as a writing surface made from the skins of
goats and lambs.

 During the first century, the Chinese began making paper from the inner bark of bamboo
and hemp. The Arbs learned this when they conquered the Chinese in 751.

 In 1960 William Rittenhouse of Roxborough, Philadelphia founded the first paper plant
in America.

Types of Paper

Papermaking has become a scientific process using highly sophisticated equipment. Most
paper today is made from wood pulp and may contain some cotton, and many other different
types are manufactured for a variety of uses, as enumerated below (Koppenhaver, 2007).

1. Newsprint – the least expensive paper manufactured; composed mostly of groundwood,

causing it to discolor easily; high opacity is a result of the impurities of the wood.

2. Offset – uncoated paper that usually contains fillers and additives; bleached and sized to
resist water; more expensive than newsprint; used for the publication of books, catalog
sheets, loose-leaf inserts, and tablet paper

3. Bond paper – originally used to print stocks and bonds; popular in the modern business
office; the higher the rag content, the more expensive the paper.

4. A lightweight, uncoated paper – an example is an onionskin which comes in smooth or

cockle finishes, and snap-out forms, which are frequently made with manifold papers
made from wood fibers; another example is “bible” paper.

5. Specialty paper – includes carbonless paper, which is coated on both sides to transfer
data from one page to another; contains special finishes that must come in contact with
each other to transfer the writing or typing to the subsequent page.

6. Gummed papers – used primarily for labels; curl-proof.

 7. Text paper – the most expensive, uncoated paper because of its superior grade; comes in
antique, vellum, or smooth finishes; used for promotion pieces, announcements,
invitations, greeting cards.

8. Coated paper – goes through several layers of coating, some of which are dull-coated to
cut down the glare; used primarily in textbook publications.

9. Bristol – used to make index cards and tag paper, which is used for file folders; strength
is the most important feature.

10. Kraft paper – coarse, unbleached, heavy paper; noted for strength; used for paper bags,
package wrapping, and corrugated boxes.

11. Tyvek -new kind of paper strengthened with plastic filaments; repels most ink; principally
used in the manufacture of large mailing envelops

12. Safety paper – designed to reveal alterations; used principally for checks

Properties of Paper

Another factor for consideration in examining documents is the property of the paper,
which helps determine how the paper is used.

1. Weight – papers are weighted by the ream. Letterhead stationery is usually 25 pounds per
ream.

2. Strength – the paper is categorized by its strength. Strength is measured as tensile

strength (or the amount of force parallel to the plane of the specimen required to produce
failure) and as tear strength (or the internal tearing resistance). Tensile strength is used to
determine the durability of paper. Bursting tests and puncture tests are used to measure
paper strength.

3. Corrugation- corrugated paper is used when tensile strength becomes an important factor.
Cardboard boxes are made of paper that has corrugation on one side or is sandwiched
between two sheets of heavy kraft paper.

4. Durability – durability is used to ascertain the wearability of books, book covers, and
edges. The newspaper has short durability, while high-quality papers are designed to last
a very long time.
 5. Thickness – the thickness of paper can be measured with calipers to determine if a
substitution has been made in a set of papers.

6. Finish – paper finishes include coated or uncoated, dull or shiny, smooth or rough, and
glare-proof. They are added for brightness and opacity.

Ink
Ink is the most commonly used writing material, typically used as ballpoint, liquid,
printing, and typewriting inks. It is made by incorporating several dye substances into a carrier
instrument. Ink compositions vary, but their colored components contain the following basic
substances (Tilstone, savage, & Clark, 2006):

1. India ink – a suspension of carbon black in a binder solution; the oldest form of ink; the
most permanent ink of all ink colors.

2. Logwood ink – the main color ingredients are hematoxyline and potassium chromate

3. Iron gallotannate ink – composed of tannic acid, gallic acid, ferrous sulfate, and an
aniline-based dye; penetrates and reacts with paper fibers and the basis for many
commercial writing inks

4. Nigrosine ink – a nearly black dye ink made from reacting aniline and nitrobenzene; now
used infrequently due to its water solubility and weathering effects.

5. Dye inks – composed of a basic, acidic, or neutral organic dye, derived mainly from coal
tar or petroleum, which are the main sources of color in most inks; can be readily
removed from an ink mark and the colors separated by thin-layer chromatography.

HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

Handwriting is an acquired skill and clearly, one that is a complex perceptual-motor task
sometimes referred to as a neuromuscular task. Skilled writing movements are so commonplace
that one is inclined to overlook their complexity. Without exaggeration, however, writing is one
of the most advanced achievements of the human body.

The hand is an extremely complex and delicate mechanism containing some 27 bones
controlled by more than 40 muscles.
The Process Underlying Handwriting Identification

1. Analysis or Discriminating Element Determination – the unknown item and the known
items must, by analysis, examination, or study, be reduced to a matter of their
 discriminating elements. These are the habits of behavior or performance (i.e., features or
characteristics and, in another discipline, the properties) that serve to differentiate
between products or people, which may be discrimination observable, measurable, or
otherwise perceptible aspects of the item.

2. Comparison – the discriminating elements of the unknown, observed, or determined

through analysis, examination, or study be compared with those known, observed, or
recorded of the standard items.

3. Evaluation – similarities or dissimilarities in discriminating elements will each have a

certain value for discriminating purposes, determined by their cause, independence, or
likelihood of occurrence. The weight or significance of similarity or difference of each
element must then be considered.

Five Intricacies or Complexities of Handwriting

1. The aggregate line length – generally speaking, the longer the line, the more complex the
design. There are, of course, some stylized signatures that contain lengths of strokes of no
purpose.
2. The number of pronounced directional changes in the line- when directional changes are
angled in the vicinity of 180 degrees they constitute retraces, When less than 90 degrees,
they may be departures in the straight-line movement of the commencement of curves.
3. The number of overwriting – overwriting can be misleading as to the stroke direction, and
thus, confusing as to allograph construction. They may be one of two kinds, and for
clarity, a distinction should be made between a retracing and superimposition.
4. The continuity of the pen movement – the interruptions to continuity of the pen is pen lifts
that are usually an advantage to the simulator as they provide a legitimate place to pause
and consider the next move. However, a pen fit that reflects motion continuity, will have
a tapered ending and beginning to the pen stroke as the instrument rises from and returns
to the paper surface, without a distinct break in its travel (some call it a hiatus).
5. The position of well-segregated, complex pen motions – fluent and complex pen motions
– fluent and complex pen motions can be executed with the case, but only when natural
and/or practiced. Flawless replication of them is even more dependent on nature and or
practice. Complex pen patterns of the same design that are superimposed upon one
another often conceal the evidence of spuriousness that would otherwise be available to
consider.

Factors that Affect Handwriting

Many factors combine to affect handwriting. These may include the writer’s mental
illness, emotional states, or moods; the type of document being written; the level of education
attained by the writer, and many others. An illiterate writer makes clumsy, halting strokes. As
writing skills increase, the writing flows smoothly and becomes well executed. If a child
continues in school until reaching graphic maturity, his or her writing will be more highly
developed than the student who drops out of school, before mastering penmanship. Likewise, an
adult who writes frequently, such as a white-collar worker, will exhibit more skill than a blue-
collar worker who does little or no writing in his or her job (Koppenhaver, 2007).

1. Mechanical Factors – such as the writing instrument, the quality of the paper, the writing
surface, the position of the writer when writing (standing, sitting, or trying to write under
adverse conditions), poor lighting, and other unsatisfactory conditions.

2. Time – the child’s handwriting changes dramatically upon reaching adolescence; adults
continue to gradually change their handwriting throughout their life

3. Health – such as illness and injuries, medication, substance abuse, physical handicaps,
severe stress, and long-term debilitating illness.

4. Blindness – poor eyesight can interfere with one’s handwriting ability.

5. Mental Health – writing mentally ill people may deteriorate into illegibility; mental
depression affects the handwriting but does not diminish or destroy the habitual
characteristics.

6. Drugs and Medication – undesirable side effects can distort handwriting

7. Alcohol and Drug Abuse – alcohol reduces inhabitation causing larger, more rapid, and
slurred handwriting; alcoholism causes uncontrolled muscular movement, jerking, and
tremor, drug abuse can alter handwriting.

8. Accidental Strokes – aberrations that occur as the result of a transitory incident, such as
someone bumping the writer’s arm or a crumb on the table under the writing paper.

9. Guided Hand – occurs when the writer gets support from another person when attempting
to write; rare and usually involves the infirm.

10. A tremor in Handwriting – involuntary, rhythmic, and recurrent movement of the pen
from side to side; instant changes from the desired direction of the pen lines; attributed to
nervous impulses affecting the muscles indicating loss of control of the pen.

FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF HANDWRITING AND SIGNATURES

Forensic document examiners use a systematic approach to the examination of
handwriting. Having a standard method of operation assures that a complete and methodological
analysis is conducted and meets the requirement for expert testimony. Below are procedures to
be followed in handwriting examination (Koppenhaver, 2007).

1. Preliminary Procedures

 Determine whether the material is of good quality and contains sufficient characteristics
of handwriting that can be compared.

 Determine if exemplars are suitable for comparison with the questioned material. The
exemplars must be representative of the writer and written under similar conditions as the
questioned material within a reasonable time frame.

 Make certain that all of the exemplars are genuine and can be authenticated for the
benefit of the court.

 Have enough comparable material to conclude questioned documents.

2. Initial Examination

 Search for obvious signs of forgery in the questioned material.

 If there are no obvious signs of forgery, determine if there is any evidence of self-
disguise. Disguised writing is any conscious deliberate attempt to alter the normal
characteristics of one’s handwriting to prevent recognition.

3. Detailed Examination

 Compare the question to the known handwriting. Consider the various factors that affect
handwriting and take into consideration all of the characteristics of writing.

 Determine if differences are the result of natural variations of different writers.

4. Making and Identification

 List the similarities and differences between questioned and known documents.

 Determine if there are enough similar identifying characteristics without any significant
fundamental divergences to make an identification.

5. Elimination
  To eliminate a writer, one must know all of the different ways a writer can write. This
requires much larger samples of known handwriting before elimination can be made.

Movements, Line Quality, and Alignment

1. The finger movement is that method of writing in which the letters are made almost
entirely by the action of the thumb and the first and second fingers, the actual motion
extending to the second and slightly to the third joints. This is the movement employed
by children and illiterates and generally by those with whom writing is an unfamiliar
process.

2. Hand movement writing is that produced in most parts by the action of the hand as a
whole with the wrist as a center of the action, but with slight action of the fingers.

3. Forearm or muscular movement comes from the shoulder but is the movement of the
hand and arm with the arm supported by the desk on the muscular portion of the forearm
with the elbow as the center of lateral motion.

4. The whole arm movement n writing is the action of the entire arm without rest. The
whole-arm movement is employed in very large writing, in ornamental penmanship, in
blackboard writing.

5. Line Quality is dependent upon the writing instrument, the writing surface, the relation
of the movements, line quality and alignment of the writing instrument to the writing
surface, the muscular skill or hand control of the writer, and the manner of writing or
movement employed. Deviations from uniform strokes are ordinarily called tremors,
which are apparent without magnification, maybe due to lack of skill on the part of the
writer, self-consciousness of the writing process, or hesitation which is the result of
copying or imitating. Lack of smoothness or tremor may be due to uncontrollable
nervousness on the part of the writer, or, in illiterate writing, to clumsiness or hesitation
due to lack of a clear mental impression of the form which is being made. Tremor of age,
illiteracy, and weakness are not always distinguishable from each other, but can usually
be distinguished from tremor or fraud.

6. Alignment by a few writers in making all the capital letters in writing as in printing is the
relation of the several characters of a word, or a signature or line of writing, to an actual
or imaginary baseline. Differences and deviations in alignment conditions are due mainly
to differences in movement, position, and the design of letters. In many writings,
alignment is a characteristic of much significance and shows many unconscious,
individual habits, and should always be considered in examining writing.

Handwriting and Hand Printing Examination

Forensic examination of handwriting is questioned documents will generally consider the
following basic characteristics:

1. Line quality – the skill of writing, flowing letters, and words; defined as the overall
character of the written strokes from the initial to the terminal.

2. Spacing of words and letters – the average amount of space placed between the words
and the formation of the letters.

3. The ratio of relative height, width, and size of the letters – consistencies in the formations
of letters as to the height, width, and size.

4. Pen lifts and separations – how one stops writing to form new letters or words.

5. Connecting strokes – connecting capital letters to lowercase letters, connecting strokes

within letters and words, etc.

6. Beginning and ending strokes – when one begins a letter formation or numbers and where
the strokes end as to location.

7. Unusual letter formation – the formation of usual letters such as backward N’s capital
letters, etc.

8. Shading – also known as pen pressure; how much pressure and ink width is placed on
upward and downward strokes.

9. Slant – whether writing slants to the right, left, straight up or down, or a combination of
these; the degree of slant that exists (protractor measurement may be made).

10. Baseline habits – whether the writer writes along a straight line, or writers with a
downward slope, upward slope, bent in the middle, etc.

11. Flourishes/embellishments – fancy writing habits, curls, or loops; also, characteristics

manners of letter formations, such as a double loop, triple loops, straight lines, etc.

12. Placement of Diacritics – crossing of t’s dotting of i’s and other punctuation marks.

FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED SIGNATURES

What is a Signature?
 By definition, a genuine signature is the personal mark of an individual. It normally
serves his or her acceptance of some set of circumstances, or to be the symbol associated with
such an agreement.

Kinds of Signature

1. Conventional – the readable signature and the form of letter strokes are complete

2. Highly Individualized – the signature which is more often not readable and has a series of
ornamental strokes.

Indications of Forgery

Generally speaking, criminal codes of western civilizations define forgery as the making
of a false document with the intent that should be used or acted upon as genuine, and, for the
law, “making a false document” includes altering a genuine document in any material part.

Forgery is probably not the oldest of crimes known to our civilization but there is no
doubt it has occurred ever since man first recorded his thoughts on papyrus. Until the 1500s, and
because of the illiteracy rates of the lower classes, forgery was more common among royalty and
the upper classes. The era saw a flourish among the clergy since they constituted a significant
portion of the people who could read and write.

To the forger of this century, nothing is sacred, and given the necessary skill, time, and
resources any document may be reproduced at a deceptive level.

Absolute security is almost impossible to provide within the document itself. In forgeries,
the workmanship, the modus operandi, or method of operation may vary from the clumsy and
obvious endeavors of the inept to the almost undetectable productions of the adept, and the
materials involved may be equally variables.

General indications of non- genuineness may include the following:

1. Blunt starts and stops – the forger places the pen point in contact with the paper and then
starts writing. When he is finished with the name or some portion thereof, he stops the
pen and lifts it from the surface. This may cause an emphasized blunt start or end. At
times this contact is held so long that if the pen contains a fluid ink it will wet the paper
and migrate outward from the contact point.
 2. Pen lifts and hesitation – this is occasioned when the pen stops at an unusual point in the
writing, perhaps where a radical change in a direction about to take place or a new letter
formation is about to be started. This may take the appearance o a small gap in the written
where one is not expected, or an overlapping of two ink lines where there should be only
one continuous line.

3. Tremor – because the creation of most forms of non-genuine signatures is little more than
drawings, the pen is moving slowly that small, almost microscopic, changes in direction
take place in what should be a fluid-looking line. The resultant line is not smooth but
reflects the “shaking” pen.

4. Speed and pressure – again, because the pen is moving slowly rather than with the
dynamic movement associated with most genuine writings, the ink line remains constant
thickness, resulting from the same constant pressure exerted on a slowly moving pen.
There will be little, if any, tampering of internal lines.

5. Patching – infrequently, but at one time or another, most of us have made an error while
writing our signature. Some individuals may leave the signature alone, caring little about
the mistake or imperfection, while others will simply “fix” the signature by correcting the
offending portion. This may be done to make the signature more readable, or because a
defect in a pen or paper has affected what we perceived to be our “normal” signature, or
for some reason that may even be subconscious. These “fixes” are usually patent, with no
attempt made on the part of the signer to mask or otherwise hide the correction.

METHODOLOGY OF FORGERY

1. Non-Genuine Signature – Handwritten

Non-genuine handwritten signatures may be generally categorized into one of nine

possibilities. While a determination of forgery may be possible, it is not always possible to
assign the signature to one of these categories. It may, however, be prudent for the document
examiner to do so when possible as the demonstration of non-genuineness may be much more
effective.

Before separate discussions of simulated forgery and traced forgery are made, the following
background pointers are given about these kinds of forgeries which are the process of writing in
place of the well-founded, usual writing movement employed in genuine writing or signature.

The forger labors under a strained mental and muscular condition that makes it very difficult,
if not altogether impossible, to do this work skillfully. This condition is brought about the:
1. The realization that a forgery is a criminal act.
2. Fear of discovery which results in punishment, and or
3. Painful anxiety to do work well
 To be able to forge successfully, one must:

1. Be able to see significant characteristics of the writing of another;

2. To have the muscular skill necessary to reproduce the imitated writing:
3. Be able to eliminate, at the same time, all the characteristics of his writing.

Forgery is likely to show failure in these performance phases. The nicety of adjustment of
impulse is distributed when muscles become tense as a result of extra effort to produce a good
forgery. The best result can be achieved only when muscles are somewhat relaxed so that all of
them work in harmony.

2. Spurious Signature (Simple Forgery)

A forged signature without the attempt to copy a genuine model, this kind of forgery is easily
detected as fraudulent given that is widely different from the genuine one even in general
appearance alone. In committing fraud, the forger who is confronted with the absence of the
genuine signature (as a model) will not endeavor anymore to produce a facsimile of the genuine
but merely sign the name of his gain before the obvious fraud is discovered. This is commonly
employed in the case of fictitious persons. This system is employed by the check thief who
steals, endorsers, and passes checks; or who produces printed check forms, completes and
endorses them with fictitious signatures to pass them on as genuine signatures.

The determination of the fraudulent nature of this kind of forgery becomes very elementary
once standards of genuine signatures are obtained. With sufficient standards, the identity of the
forger, through the handwriting, may be determined.

3. Simulation (Simulated Forgery)

The simulated signature or “freehand forgery,” is the usual bill of fare for the questioned
document examiner. This forgery is constructed by using a genuine signature as a model. The
forger generates an artistic reproduction of this model. Depending on his skill and amount of
practice, the simulation may be quite good and bear remarkable pictorial similarity to the
genuine signature.

More simulations created with a model at hand will contain many of the general
indicators of forgery, such as tremor, hesitation, pen lifts, blunt starts and stops, patching, and
static pressure. They will have a slow “drawn” appearance. The practiced simulation is most
often higher quality creation in that the model signature has been memorized and some of the
movements used to produce it have become semi-automatic. This simulation can be written in a
more natural fluid manner. There can be tapered starts and stops, changes in pen pressure, and
written in a more natural fluid manner. Speeds lend fluidity to writing. The more rapidly the pen
moves while creating the genuine writing or signature, the more difficult the genuine writing is
to imitate. A slowly written signature is not only easier for the forger to duplicate with some
fashionable degree of pictorial similarity, but the product will also have fewer indications of non-
genuineness than the forgery of a rapid and fluidity executed signature. The writer of the
simulation must, if necessary, pay more attention to the form of a letter than the speed of his pen.

4. Tracing (Traced Forgery)

Traced forgeries are generally created by one of the four methods: transmitted light,
carbon intermediate, pressure indented image, and tracing paper techniques. While tracing does
not normally present much of a challenge to the document examiner trying to determine the
genuineness, the ability to identify the perpetrator is precluded. Tracing another’s signature, or
for that matter is another’s handwriting, is the paramount form of disguise. Total agreement
between the model and the questioned signature dictates that the questioned signature was a
product of tracing. No two signatures or handwriting, even from the same person are ever totally
duplicated. Just as certainly, a total agreement between two, three, or more questioned signatures
must take care that the model signature (genuine signature) is not one of the signatures in
question.

5. Transmitted Light Tracing

The transmitted light tracing is the simplest of the tracing to produce and the one most
often encountered. The paper that is to receive the spurious signature is placed over a document
bearing the genuine signature. These documents are then aligned to put the genuine signature
directly under the selected location for the forgery. Those two papers are then held up to a
window or other light source, and the transmitted signature is traced on the receiving document.

6. Carbon-Medium Tracing

At times, a carbon-medium tracing is a method of choice, especially if the document to

receive the tracing is too heavy a weight, such as cardboard, to allow for a good light transmitted
image. Normally, the area to receive the signature is covered with a piece of carbon paper which
in turn has the model signature place upon it and aligned with the area that is to receive the
image. The model signature is then traced over with a pen or other pointed implement. This
procedure will impart a carbon image of the signature on the received document. This image is
then overwritten with a pen. Often this pen will be a broad-tipped instrument such as a felt-tip or
fountain pen. The wider ink line serves to hide the carbon image better than the ballpoint pen.

7. Pressure Indented Tracing

Similar to a carbon paper tracing, the indented line tracing is produced essentially in the
same manner, but does not employ any intermediate reproduction of medium. Heavier pressure
is used when tracing over the model signature. This pressure leaves an indented “signature” on
the receiving document. This is then covered over with a broad-tipped pen, although ballpoint is
found on occasion. Almost invariably, the writer misses a portion of the indented line. This error
may be easily observed using glancing (oblique) light. Other general indications of non-
genuineness are similar to those found in the simulated forgeries. In both the carbon-medium and
indented line-tracing, the forger is faced with a paradoxical situation. If he overwrites the model
image with enough speed to make the forgery image fluid and natural appearing, he will
undoubtedly miss the model line in several areas that will then be readily discernable, if, on the
other hand, he pays particular attention to covering the model image, the resultant line quality
deteriorates into the slow-moving, hesitation-filled by-product of forgery.

8. Tracing Paper Techniques

This is an alternative to the carbon paper method for applying a carbon outline of the
genuine signature on the false document. Tracing paper is laid over the signature to be traced and
an outline is created on it by running a soft pencil or pen over the lines of the signature that can
be seen through the tracing paper. Following this, the back of the tracing paper is given graphite
rubbing with the side of the sharp pencil and the tracing is laid over the spurious document.
Overwriting the outline of the signature on the obverse with a suitable instrument will then
transfer graphite on the reverse to the document beneath in the outline of the signature that is
then overwritten in ink to create the final product. While the method is more tedious than the
others, it leaves no evidence behind on the genuine signature by which it can be associated with
the tracing other than the correspondence in the outline that there may be between the two.

9. Auto-Forgery

Normally, auto-forgery would be defined as forgery of the one’s signature created by

oneself. This, however, is a contraction of terms for a forgery that must be, by definition, an
execution performed by another person. The observation must be made, then that there is no such
perfect auto-forgery. The signature that does not satisfy the requirements for genuine must
necessarily be non-genuine.

10. Transferred or Transposed Forgery

On occasion, an innovative form of the spurious signature may be encountered that can
best be equated with a tracing, but in actuality differs from the conventional concepts of tracing
because of its method of production.

Most traditional ballpoint pen inks employ the ethylene glycol medium as the base
ingredient to carry the dyes, extenders, plasticizers, and other ink components. A signature made
by employing a pen using this ink may be “transferred” to another document by using ordinary
waxed paper or freezer paper. By placing this form of medium over a genuine signature and
rubbing the top of the paper vigorously, the wax that is in conjunction with the signature will
melt and subsequently absorb some of the ethylene glycol-based ink lines. The paper now
containing a mirror image of the genuine signature is placed rubbed briskly, melting the wax and
ink composite. This process will result in a forgery that does not conform to, nor contain, the
normal observable conditions that are associated with simulated or traced signatures. This is
because, in essence, this signature was created by the signature holder’s hand rather than forgers.
Indications of this process will be in the form of wax left behind that covers and surrounds the
signature line. The signature itself will have a discernibly faded appearance and the edge of the
ink line when viewed under low magnification will have a mottled look rather than a sharp
appearance.

Transportation by transparent tape can be accomplished with pencil writings but

encounters problems with some ball pen inks. The release of the graphite or ink in the new
location is usually encouraged by burnishing the back of the tape with a burnishing tool or ball
pen, similar to the procedure for depositing dry transfer characters. Even when released of the
graphite or ink can be achieved, the adhesive to the transparent tape is often reluctant to leave the
paper surface and fiber disturbance or adhesive can remain as telltale evidence of the encounter.
To prevent this, the document is photocopied to conceal the presence of the tape and the original
is then conveniently lost or destroyed. The solvent may also be used to separate the tape from the
paper, but not without the risk of reaction with the ink.

11. Photocopy Forgery (Cut and Paste Photocopy)

When the document examiner undertakes the examination of a photocopy, this

examination must necessarily include significant thoughts as to the possibility that a genuine
signature can be affixed to the fraudulent document and the composite, or paste-up photocopied.
This may result in what would appear to be a photocopy of an original document bearing a
genuine signature. The same may be true of any portion of the photocopy; it is not limited to just
the signature. Photocopies can be prepared from a composite of parts of two or more documents
which, when copied, can appear to be a reproduction of a single document. The resultant made
from composites, may or may not display those characteristics indicative of its production from
two or more document sources.

Indications of spuriousness may take the form of misaligned typing, different fonts, and
different font sizes, misaligned pre-printed matter, incorrect vertical, horizontal, and margin
spacing, “shadowing” in the joint areas, disproportionate area, sizes, different pre-printed
material, and ink densities, and missing portions of writing or printing (covered by the paste-up,
too closely trimmed, or masked by an opaque fluid). Additionally, it may be that the “trash
marks” surrounding the signature are in greater or lesser quantity than those on the remainder of
the document. This is especially true if either the model signature or document to be used in the
paste-up itself a photocopy. The best indication of what may be a fraudulent photocopy is when
the original document has “disappeared” or has been “misplaced.”

12. Desktop Forgery

It is the unwanted forgery of modern technology. With the invention of modern computer
software and scanner, document examiners have speculated on and studied the potentials of
machines and materials to facilitate the transfer of genuine signatures from one document to
another. Through the use of computer technology and commercially available flatbed scanner
and imaging software, the forger may use computerize scissors to cut and paste individual
signatures and produce fraudulent documents.
 The material and equipment needed in this procedure are not expensive, unique, or
difficult to operate. A personal computer with Pentium Intelor equivalent processor and imaging
software such as Adobe Photoshop. Also a flatbed scanner and a standard printer. Also, a tool
incorporated in the adobe photoshop software is the ability to de-emphasize to completely
remove overlapping ink lines, printed characters, rubber stamps, and obliteration. Once the
desired images or signatures are captured, images from adobe photoshop can be imported into
the microscope word, moved in the document for proper placement, and proportionally enlarged
or reduced to the desired size.

13. Electronic Signature

The electronic digitized signature was produced through a digitized tablet with the use of
a digital pen which is using signing electronic documents for transactions.

When is a true signature not a true signature? Scanned or electronically reproduced

signatures may not be considered valid unless and until one had the assurance of the author. The
author may assure a questioner that the signature is indeed valid by either an in-person verbal
statement or by written affidavit.

FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF ALTERATION

Alteration

Any changes which give the document a different effect from that which is originally
possessed are termed as alteration. As a legal term, alteration means an act purposely done on an
instrument by a party thereto or one beneficially interested therein which affects a change in the
sense or language of the instrument. It is distinguished from the spoliation of an instrument
which is a change made accidentally or unintentionally, or by one having no beneficial interest in
the instrument. Spoliation does not invalidate the instrument or change of rights and liabilities of
the parties.

If changes are made after the execution of a document and without the consent of the
other party, then such change is called fraudulent alteration. Identifying document alterations
requires focus, attention to detail, and in some cases, forensic technology or expert assistance.

Document alterations can occur in several forms, including erasures, water damage,
charring, ink differentiation, and handwriting discrepancies. Documents are altered for various
reasons, ranging from simple corrections to intentional fraud. Alterations involving handwriting,
erasures, and water damage are easy to spot, but often require forensic equipment and expertise
to fully analyze the cause or origin.

Kinds of Alteration

1. interlineations

2. superimposition
3. cancellation

4. erasure

Obliteration

Obliteration is the process of writing over text with the intention of hiding or destroying
the original information. To obliterate means to blot out so as not to be readily or readable.
Obliteration may be either intentional or unintentional. Writing may be intentionally obliterated
to render them indecipherable by covering or obscuring with marking, overwriting, blots of ink
or rubbing with pencil or carbon paper, etc.

Whether at the time the document was created or at a later date, obliteration made with
the same ink used in the original is virtually impossible to recover. If a different ink was used to
obliterate the text, illumination with alternative light sources may show differences in reflection
or infrared luminescence, which can be photographed. Similar techniques, combined with
handwriting analysis, are applied to detect additive alterations (Fisher, Tilstone, & Woytowicz,
2009).

Erasure

Documents may be altered in an attempt to hide the original meaning or contents of a document.
This is most commonly done by erasing individual words, phrases, letters, or numbers (Tilstone,
Savage, & Clark, 2006)
Erasures can be divided into two basic groups:

1. Physical/mechanical erasures

Physical removal of writing, impression, or parts thereof may be accomplished by the

abrasion of the surface of the paper with the help of rubber erasure or sharp instruments such as
razors, blades, scalper, knife, etc.

This method damages and disrupts the fibers in the upper layers of paper. Such damage
can usually be detected easily using a microscope and oblique lighting. However, it does not
necessarily show the erased writing or letters, especially if much of the fiber has been removed
by the erasing process.

2. Chemical erasures

Chemical erasures are those in which some chemicals are used to erase part of the
document. The chemical applications are usually strong oxidizing agents that conceal the ink by
changing the properties of the colored substance. These may include acids or alkali as oxalic
acid, potassium permanganate, etc.
 Microscopic examination of chemical erasures may show discoloration or staining on the
paper where the treatment was carried out. Ultraviolet lighting and infrared luminescence can
also be used to reveal erased writing by highlighting invisible residues of the original ink left
embedded in the paper.

The chemical tests should never be applied to the document itself. The better way is to
punch out small dots of paper from the affected area with the help of a hypodermic needle and
test them on microscope slides.

Indented Writing

Indented writing is impressions of the original made in the next sheet of paper on a pad.
These indentations or impressions may not be visible with the unaided eye but can be viewed
using an electrostatic detection apparatus (EDSA). The EDSA works by creating an invisible
electrostatic image of indented writing, which is then visualized by the application of charge-
sensitive toners. The sensitive imaging process reacts to sites of microscopic damage to fibers at
the surface of a document, which have been created by abrasive interaction with overlying
surfaces during the act of handwriting (Fisher, Tilstone, & Woytowicz, 2009).

FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF COUNTERFEIT CURRENCY

What is Counterfeiting?

Counterfeiting is the fraudulent reproduction of currency, whether coins or notes.

Counterfeits mostly target paper currency or notes because of their higher denomination
currency. In the past, counterfeit currency notes are skillfully prepared through accurately
engraved printing plates. Nowadays, currency contains security features that prevent successful
reproduction even with the technology of color copiers and digital scanners (Tilstone, Savage, &
Clark, 2006).

Typewriter Defects:

The term defect describes any abnormality or maladjustment in a typewriter that is reflected in its
work and leads to its individualization or identification.

1. Horizontal Mal-alignment – occurs as typewriter individualities when a character defectively

strikes to the right or left of its normal allotted striking position.

2. Off its Feet – the condition of a typeface printing heavier in one side or corner than over the
remainder to its outline

3. Permanent Defect – any identifying characteristics of a typewriter that cannot be corrected by

simply cleaning the typeface or replacing the ribbon is classed as a permanent defect. This term
is not accurate since all defects in typewriters undergo modification and change in time.
4. Platen – cylinder which serves as the bucking of the paper which absorbs the blow from the
typeface.

5. Proportional Spacing Typewriter – a modern form of typewriting that resembles printing in

that all of the letters, numerals, and symbols do not occupy the same horizontal space as the
conventional typewriter

6. Rebound – a defect in which a character prints a double impress on with the lighter one
slightly off act to the right or left.

7. Ribbon – made of fine cotton fibers; numbered according to the quality or grade, which may
vary from 260 to 272 threads to the square inch and from about .0005 to .0006 inch in thickness

8. Ribbon Impression – typewriting which is made directly through a cloth ribbon

9. San-serif – a type of font that has no cross-strokes (serif); san means “without”

10. Serif – a serif font has shot cross-strokes that project from the top and bottom of the main
stroke of a letter

11. Transitory Defects – an identifying typewriter characteristic that can be eliminated by

cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon is described as a transitory defect. A clogged
typeface against the ribbon and paper makes the typewritten impression

12. Typeface Defects – the real clincher of most typewriting identifications, which include
broken serifs, scarification, flattened and damaged portions of typefaces

13. Twisted Letter – each letter and character is designed to print at a certain fixed angle to the
baseline. Due to wear and damage to the typebars and the type block, some letters become
twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their correct slant

14. Vertical Mal-alignment – a character printing above or below its proper position

15. Warp – those threads that run horizontally toward the length of the ribbon

16. Woof – threads that run vertically or cross over the warp form the “woof” or filling of the
ribbon.

Presentation of Other Evidence

Other evidence may involve the complexities such as the use of infrared luminescence,
scanning electron microscopy, or electrostatic detection. Evidence not concerning handwriting
may include the following (Ellen, 2006):

1. Typewriting
 In the same way that conclusions about handwriting are explained in court, the forensic
document examiner must also explain how a particular machine has been identified as the one
used to type a questioned document. This can be done by explaining that faults in the typeface
are characteristic and distinguishes it from other machines. Misaligned and damaged characters
can be demonstrated in photographic charts. The same words should be used for comparison and
mounted close to each other.

2. Differences in Inks

The difference between the two inks used in a questioned document can be shown through a
photographic illustration of infrared reflection or luminescence used in the document. A
photograph taken of documents using such techniques can show, for example, an obliterated
entry in a will. Putting that side by side with a photograph of the same document under normal
light will demonstrate that two inks have been used,

3. Indented Impressions

When the evidence presented uses indented impressions, the expert witness must first explain
what they are and how they came to be there. Oblique lighting photographs and transparencies
produced by the electrostatic detection apparatus that show the impressions can be presented in
court.