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Effects of climatic factors on cotton production in semi-arid regions - A review

Article  in  Research on Crops · December 2010

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Res. on Crops 11 (3) : 785-791 (2010)
With eight figures
Printed in India
Effects of climatic factors on cotton production in semi-arid regions
– A review
ONER CETIN* AND SEMA BASBAG1
Department of Irrigation Engineering
Agricultural Faculty, Dicle University, Diyarbakir, Turkey
*(e-mail : [email protected])

ABSTRACT

Cotton is the world’s most important fiber crop and the second most
important oil seed crop. Fruiting of cotton plant is determined and influenced by
cultivars, climatic conditions, management practices and pests. Climatic factors such
as temperature, wind, rainfall and relative humidity significantly affect the boll production
of cotton. High temperature, especially more than 30°C, reduces the boll retention and
thus final yield. Strong winds may also reduce the yield due to boll shedding. Likewise
continuous rain during flowering and boll opening will impair the pollination and may
thus reduce fiber quality. However, increasing amount of rainfall in early growing period
of cotton can result in higher yield. In addition, the water requirement of cotton depends
on climate and length of the total growing period. In this paper, effects of climatic
factors on cotton yield in semi-arid regions are evaluated and discussed based on carried
out some currently studies.

Key words : Cotton, irrigation, rainfall, shedding, temperature, wind

Cotton is the world’s most important yields which require more precise water,
fiber crop and the second most important nutrition and plant growth management. In
oil seed crop. Cotton is grown on every addition, fruiting of cotton plant is determined
continent except Antarctica and in over 60 and influenced by cultivars, climatic
countries in the world. In many countries, conditions, management practices and pests.
cotton is one of the primary economic bases The effects of climatic factors such as
which provide employment and income for evaporation, sunshine duration, humidity,
millions of people involved in its production, surface soil temperature and maximum air
processing and marketing (Chaudhry and temperature are the important factors that
Guitchounts, 2003). Worldwide, cotton lint significantly affect flower and boll production
production was 22.4 million tonnes in 2009/ of cotton. Applying appropriate specific cultural
2010 marketing year. The cotton production practices that minimize the deleterious effect
area was over 30.3 million hectares, primarily of these factors will lead to an improvement in
in 17 countries (Anonymous, 2010). cotton yield (Sawan et al., 2002). Sawan (2009)
Agriculture is an economic activity that reported that there was a negative correlation
is highly dependent upon weather and climate. between flower and boll production and either
All the agricultural regions of the world are evaporation or sunshine duration, while that
subjected to significant temporal and spatial correlation with minimum humidity was
climate variability. The impact of this variability positive.
on yield and production of food crops is important On the other hand, climate change is
in each case. Understanding the links between most important issue in the world. Thus,
climatic parameters and agriculture is a pre- negative effects on cotton growth and
requisite for tailoring the cropping systems and development from climate change may result
management practices in order to achieve from increased number and severity of days
conditions optimum for sustained productivity with very high temperatures during the cotton
in specific soil climate sectors. season. These events will reduce yields by
Sustainability of cotton production decreasing daily photosynthesis, and
system relies on heavily on achieving high sometimes raising respiration at night,
1
Department of Field Crops, Agricultural Faculty, Dicle University, Diyarbakir, Turkey.
786 Cetin and Basbag

consuming stored assimilates which lead to common to the cotton belt of arid and semi-
increases in square and boll shedding and arid regions.
reducing seed numbers per boll (Bange and Air temperature is the most important
Constable, 2009). Thus, reduced water climatic factor that affects cotton yield. The
availability and increased atmospheric primary impact of heat stress on cotton is
evaporative demand as a result of lower rainfall reduction in fruit retention which can reduce
and relative humidity can negatively affect overall lint yields, delay crop maturity and
cotton yield. Crop responses to the reduce lint quality (Brown, 2008). However, the
environment, however, vary from region to effects of heat stress on cotton could be
region based on soil type, plant type and different according to cotton variety and
regional weather. Burke (2001) reported that environments (Shah et al., 2001).
seedling heat tolerance was essential in most Cotton requires a minimum daily air
dryland cotton production areas because temperature of 15oC for germination, 21-27oC
producers plant cotton when moisture for vegetative growth and 27-32oC during the
becomes available. Similarly, in North India, fruiting period. Current commercial cultivars
the soil temperature and wind velocity at generally need above 15oC to produce a crop,
sowing time are very high, resulting in rapid become inactive at temperatures below 15°C,
loss of soil moisture. Under these conditions, and are killed by freezing temperatures
emerging cotton seedlings have poorly (Waddle, 1984). On the other hand, Ali et al.
developed root system, with a primary tap root (2004) reported that average minimum
and the beginnings of lateral root development. temperature decreased after the month of
The purpose of this article is to September which did not favour proper boll
evaluate and discuss the effects of climatic maturation of seed cotton but promoted the pest
factors on cotton production in semi-arid population in late sowing treatments.
regions. A study was carried out based on
different irrigation methods in south-eastern
Influence of Main climatic variables on Cotton Anatolia Region of Turkey, a semi-arid region,
Yield for four years (Cetin et al., 1996). Considering
irrigation methods and the experimental
Temperature : Temperature is among years, seed cotton yield per ha and boll number
the most important environmental factors per plant were plotted versus the averaged
affecting plant reproductive processes such as maximum temperature in the experimental
pollen germination, pollen tube growth and years (Figs. 1 and 2). The maximum seed
fruit-set. Fruit shedding is increased by high cotton yield was obtained for all the irrigation
temperatures in the summer months that is methods in 1993. This observation could be

Furrow Sprinkler drip Furrow Sprinkler Drip

B o ll n u m b e r p e r p la n
S e e d -c o tto n y ie ld (k g /h a

6000 30
5000 20
4000
10
3000
2000 0
1000 33,2 (1992) 34,1 (1993) 34,7 (1991) 36,1 (1994)
0 o
Averaged maximum temperature in the growing period ( C)
33,2 (1992) 34,1 (1993) 34,7 (1991) 36,1 (1994)
Averaged maximum temperature in the months in the growing
o
period ( C)

Fig. 1. Seed cotton yield as averaged maximum Fig. 2. Boll number per plant vs. averaged maximum
temperature according to the different temperature according to the different
irrigation methods in the experimental irrigation methods (Cetin et al., 1996).
years (Cetin et al., 1996).
 A review on cotton production in semi-arid regions 787

related to the higher amount of rainfall which day time could be more efficient or powerful.
was 155.4 mm in the growing period in 1993. The certain effects of the temperature
Rainfall in the other experimental years varied could be observed on the yield. Brown (2008)
between 20.3 to 55.6 mm. showed that there were impacts on the fruit
However, the averaged maximum retention of cotton due to higher
temperature for the growing season varied temperatures. The fruit retention decreased
from 33.2 through 36.1oC. In addition, monthly when the temperature increased. Sarvella
averaged temperature in the growing season (1966) observed pollen sterility at high day and
was the highest in 1994 (Fig. 3). In addition, night temperatures (above 28 and 20 o C,
relative humidity was the lowest during the respectively) in the field, concluding that this
period of the flowering and boll formation in might be a factor in poor boll set. Mauney et al.
1993 and 1994 (Fig. 4). It is, thus, possible to (1978) and Guinn and Mauney (1984) showed
link temperature and relative humidity to the that at high temperatures, nutritional and
yield and/or boll number. On the other hand, water shortages were responsible for fruit loss.
the yields were not lower except under Baker et al. (1983) also showed that
sprinkler irrigation although the averaged temperature also played a role in fruit
maximum temperature was the highest in development. He determined that when the
1994 compared to the other experimental day and night temperatures were 30 and 20oC
years. The reason of this observation could be (respectively), maximum boll growth rates were
due to the sowing date. Thus, earlier sowing obtained. He concludes that although data
date in 1994 was provided to get the higher strongly support there being a temperature
yield even if the maximum temperatures were optimum, that it cannot be used as a basis for
higher in the growing season. calculating sink strengths. He also notes that
Considering the irrigation methods, a there is very little information available that
considerable decrease in yield was observed establishes the effects of temperature on sink
when the maximum temperature was strength in whole bolls, and practically no
increased under sprinkler irrigation. However, information that breaks this down into boll
the yields observed for furrow and drip irrigation components. Krieg et al. (1973) noted that the
did not follow the same pattern as under greatest rate of dry matter accumulation was
sprinkler irrigation (Cetin and Bilgel, 2002). strongly affected by night-time low
The reasons for this lower yield, besides the temperatures, with 20oC being the optimum,
high shedding ratio, include the high with a great decrease at 15oC, coupled with
temperatures, high evaporation and low very slow rates of oil and nitrogen
relative humidity. In addition, both leaves and accumulation (nitrogen starting to decrease
flowers of the plants are damaged by sprinkler at 25 o C). As maximum daily temperature
irrigation, particularly in the daytime. reached 40 oC, he determined that, due to
Because the physical impacts of sprinkle water increased respiration, after the maximum
and the physiological effects of the higher weight was reached there was an appreciable
temperature on leaves and flowers during the decrease in dry matter.

35 60
Averaged monthly relative humidity (%)
Montly averaged temperature (oC)

55
30
50
1991 1991
25 45
1992 1992
40
1993 1993
20 35
1994 1994
30
15
25

10 20
June August October June August Oct ober
Mont hs in the growing season M onths in the growing period

Fig. 3. Averaged monthly temperature in growing Fig. 4. Averaged monthly relative humidity in
season (Cetin et al., 1996). growing season (Cetin et al., 1996).
788 Cetin and Basbag

The effect of day length on flowering is seedlings during impact. Wind can, thus, affect
influenced by temperature. Germination is early seedling stage and flowers.
optimum at temperatures of 18 to 30°C, with According to the data in the study
minimum of 14°C and maximum of 40°C. For carried out by Cetin et al. (1996), the maximum
early vegetative growth, temperature must seed cotton yield was obtained for all the
exceed 20°C with 30°C as desirable. For proper irrigation methods in the experimental year
bud formation and flowering, daytime of 1993 where the lowest the wind speed was
temperature should be higher than 20°C and recorded (Fig. 5). The yields obtained under
night temperature higher than 12°C, but different irrigation methods were not
should not exceed 40 and 27°C, respectively. significantly different except for sprinkler
Temperatures between 27 and 32°C are irrigation with an increase in wind speed.
optimum for boll development and maturation There is a significant impact of wind on the
but above 38°C yields are reduced (Mauney, yield under sprinkler irrigation. These results
1984; Jenkins et al., 1990). In addition, Bibi et could be due to integrated impact of the wind
al. (2008) stated that the optimum temperature on the flowers and spatial water distribution
for photosynthetic carbon fixation of cotton was that is varied by wind during the sprinkling.
approximately 33oC and that photosynthesis The wind effects of the other irrigation methods
in cotton decreased significantly at are not having such major impacts as
temperatures of 36oC and above. Similarly, sprinklers have.
increasing air temperature caused a decrease The boll number was relatively higher
in quantum yield at 36oC and above indicating in 1994 (Fig. 6) when the highest wind speed
high temperature stress. On the other hand, was recorded. This could reflect a relatively
Reddy et al. (1995) experiments of cotton lower boll weight.
cultivation off site displayed an influence of Puri et al. (1992) stated that an area
temperature on the cotton plant development. having a windbreak (18 years old) was selected
More specifically, they found a positive and cotton was raised in the agricultural fields.
relationship between the plant’s height, the The tree belt is able to reduce the wind speed
stem elongation rate, the number of bolls and by 15 to 45% depending upon season and wind
squares and the level of temperature. speed. Observations on morphological
Wind : Wind also can stress the cotton characters and crop yield revealed that the belt
plant enough to reduce yield, although some height had a significant effect on plant growth.
wind may be beneficial in very hot humid In general, growth and cotton productivity
conditions. Wind modifies the temperature and increased upto distance of four times the tree
humidity gradients around the cotton plant height to the leeward of belt. Depending upon
which in turn changes the evaporative the orientation of tree belt, an increase in
demand. On the other hand, most wind cotton yield was found to be 4 to 10%. Plant
damages to cotton plants occur during the first growth (in terms of leaf area, leaf number and
3 to 6 weeks after emergence when the wind plant height) and yield (seed cotton production)
picks up soil particles and damages the young were observed to be high in sheltered area as

Furrow Sprinkler drip Log. (Sprinkler) Furrow Sprinkler Drip

6000 30
Seed-cotton yield (kg/ha

Boll number per plan

5000 25
4000 20

3000 15

2000 10

1000 5

0 0
0,67 (1993) 1,08 (1992) 1,33 (1991) 1,52 (1994)
0,67 (1993) 1,08 (1992) 1,33 (1991) 1,52 (1994)
Averaged wind speed in the months in the growing period
Averaged wind speed in the months in the growing period
(m/sec.)
(m/sec.)

Fig. 5. Seed cotton yield as averaged wind speed Fig. 6. Boll number per plant vs. averaged wind speed
according to the different irrigation according to the different irrigation methods
methods in the experimental years (Cetin in the experimental years (Cetin et al., 1996).
et al., 1996).
 A review on cotton production in semi-arid regions 789

compared to open fields. The results indicate (1996) is given in Fig. 7. The extreme rainfall
that windbreak establishment should be occurred in 1993. In addition, the rainfall
adopted and integrated to a whole farming occurred both more than enough and properly
system, in semi-arid regions. distributed although there has no almost any
Rainfall : Cotton production is still rainfall in June according to the long term
limited by water. Irrigation, when available, records taking account the growing season of
is used to supplement natural rainfall to cotton in 1993. Thus, rainfall in May and June
sustain profitable crop production. Increased was significantly correlated with cotton yields
water capture would improve water use for all the irrigation methods (Figs. 1 and 5).
efficiency and reduce irrigation requirements, Cotton yields resulted in highly significant
thus reducing input costs. Thus, identification dependency on amount of rainfall occurred in
of critical periods for water shortage on cotton May and June. As seen in Fig. 8, the cotton
yield could help producers make decisions on yields obtained according to the different
planting date, irrigation, field operations, etc. experimental years for furrow irrigation under
Continuous rain during flowering and boll the same amount of irrigation water are
opening will impair pollination and reduce significantly different. The highest yield
fiber quality. Heavy rainfall during flowering occurred in 1993. It could be stated that higher
causes flower buds and young bolls to fall. amount of rainfall resulted in higher cotton
The amount of rainfall in the growing yield. Cotton is, because, at the beginning of
period in the study carried out by Cetin et al. the squaring stage in June. Dry weather

1991 1992 1993 1994

160
140
Rainfall in the growing period
(mm)

120 1991: 31.4 mm

Rainfall (m m)

100 1992: 55.6 mm

Rainfall

80 1993: 155.4 mm
1994: 20.3 mm
60
40
20
0
April May June July August September
Growing period (months)

Fig. 7. The amount of rainfall and distribution according to the months in growing period (Cetin et al.,
1996).

6000
1993
Cotton (lint+seed) yield

5000
1994
4000
(kg/ha)

3000 1991

2000 1992
1000
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Irrigation water (mm)

Fig. 8. Cotton yield vs. the amount of irrigation water applied for furrow irrigation (Cetin et al., 1996).
790 Cetin and Basbag

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