Assignment 1-Internet Routing Design

Name:-Neha Shelot Rollno:-FYMEIT1901

1. Explain functions of OSI layer in detail

• Physical Layer:-The physical layer is responsible for moving individual bits from one
(node) to the next.
The physical layer provides services of :-
Physical characteristics of interfaces and media.
Representation of bits
Data rate. The transmission rate—the number of bits sent each second
Synchronization of bits: the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
Line configuration
• Data Link Layer:-The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission
facility, to a reliable link.
The Responsibilities are as:-
Framing: divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable data
units called frames.
Physical addressing: Add header
Flow control: - Decide transmission rate
Error control: - Add trailer
Access control: - Which device has access to link if it is common.
• Network Layer:- The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks (links).
The Responsibilities are as
Logical addressing:- The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper
layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
Routing:- the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the packets to
their final destination.
• Transport Layer:- The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of
the entire message.
The Responsibilities are as :-
Service-point addressing:- Assign port address to correct process (sender and receiver
process) Segmentation and reassembly:-create segments at sender side and assign sequence
number to them to reassemble at receiver end correctly.
Connection control- connection oriented or connection less
Flow control :- Transmission rate
Error control:- Through retransmission
• Session Layer:-The session layer is the network dialog controller. It
establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction between communicating
systems.
The responsibilities are as:-
Dialog control:-The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half duplex ,or full-duplex
mode.
Synchronization:- The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints (synchronization
points) into a stream of data.

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 • Presentation Layer:- The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged between two systems.
The responsibilities are as:-
Translation:- Translate information from sender format- Common format-
Receiver
Format.
Encryption :- information encrypted to transfer from sender and decrypted at receiver
side.
Compression:- perform data compression required
• Application Layer:- The application layer enables the user, whether human or
software, to access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access
and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information
services. The services provided by application layer are as :-
Network virtual terminal
File transfer, access, and management (FTAM).
E-mail services.
Directory services.

Summary of OSI layer

2. Explain architectural components of Network routing

• Routing
A Router is a process of selecting path along which the data can be transferred from source to
the destination. Routing is performed by a special device known as a router.A Router works at
the network layer in the OSI model and internet layer in TCP/IP modelA router is a
networking device that forwards the packet based on the information available in the packet
header and forwarding table.
The routing algorithms are used for routing the packets. The routing algorithm is nothing but
a software responsible for deciding the optimal path through which packet can be transmitted.
The routing protocols use the metric to determine the best path for the packet delivery.

• Routing Metrics and Costs

Routing metrics and costs are used for determining the best route to the destination. The
factors used by the protocols to determine the shortest path, these factors are known as a
metric. Metrics are the network variables used to determine the best route to the destination.
For some
protocols use the static metrics means that their value cannot be changed and for some other
routing protocols use the dynamic metrics means that their value can be assigned by the
system administrator.
The most common metric values are given below:
• Hop count: Hop count is defined as a metric that specifies the number of
passes through internetworking devices such as a router, a packet must travel in a
route to move from source to the destination. If the routing protocol considers the
hop as a primary metric value, then the path with the least hop count will be
considered as the best path to move from source to the destination.
• Delay: It is a time taken by the router to process, queue and transmit a datagram to an
interface. The protocols use this metric to determine the delay values for all the links
along the path end-to-end. The path having the lowest delay value will be considered
as the best path.
• Bandwidth: The capacity of the link is known as a bandwidth of the link. The
bandwidth is measured in terms of bits per second. The link that has a higher transfer
rate like gigabit is preferred over the link that has the lower capacity like 56 kb. The
protocol will determine the bandwidth capacity for all the links along the path, and the
overall higher bandwidth will be considered as the best route.
• Load: Load refers to the degree to which the network resource such as a router or
network link is busy. A Load can be calculated in a variety of ways such as
CPU utilization, packets processed per second. If the traffic increases, then the load
value
will also be increased. The load value changes with respect to the change in the traffic.
• Reliability: Reliability is a metric factor may be composed of a fixed value. It depends
on the network links, and its value is measured dynamically. Some networks go down
more often than others. After network failure, some network links repaired more easily
than other network links. Any reliability factor can be considered for the assignment of
reliability ratings, which are generally numeric values assigned by the system
administrator.
Types of Routing
Routing can be classified into three categories:
• Static Routing
Static Routing is also known as Nonadaptive Routing.
It is a technique in which the administrator manually adds the routes in a routing table.
A Router can send the packets for the destination along the route defined by the administrator.
In this technique, routing decisions are not made based on the condition or topology of the
networks
• Default Routing
Default Routing is a technique in which a router is configured to send all the packets to the
same hop device, and it doesn't matter whether it belongs to a particular network or not. A
Packet is transmitted to the device for which it is configured in default routing.
Default Routing is used when networks deal with the single exit point.
It is also useful when the bulk of transmission networks have to transmit the data to the same
hp device.
When a specific route is mentioned in the routing table, the router will choose the specific
route rather than the default route. The default route is chosen only when a specific route is
not mentioned in the routing table.
• Dynamic Routing
It is also known as Adaptive Routing.
It is a technique in which a router adds a new route in the routing table for each packet in
response to the changes in the condition or topology of the network.
Dynamic protocols are used to discover the new routes to reach the destination.
In Dynamic Routing, RIP and OSPF are the protocols used to discover the new routes.
If any route goes down, then the automatic adjustment will be made to reach the destination.
.
3. Explain Protocol Stack Architecture.
A protocol stack is a group of protocols that all work together to allow software or hardware
to
perform a function. The TCP/IP protocol stack is a good example. It uses four layers that map
to the OSI model as follows:

Layer 1: Network Interface - This layer combines the Physical and Data layers and routes
the data between devices on the same network. It also manages the exchange of data between
the network and other devices.

Layer 2: Internet - This layer corresponds to the Network layer. The Internet Protocol (IP)
uses the IP address, consisting of a Network Identifier and a Host Identifier, to determine
the address of the device it is communicating with.

Layer 3: Transport - Corresponding to the OSI Transport layer, this is the part of the
protocol stack where the Transport Control Protocol (TCP) can be found. TCP works
by asking another device on the network if it is willing to accept information from the local
device.

Layer 4: Application - Layer 4 combines the Session, Presentation and Application layers of
the OSI model. Protocols for specific functions such as e-mail (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol, SMTP) and file transfer (File Transfer Protocol, FTP) reside at this level.

As you can see, it is not necessary to develop a separate layer for each and every function
outlined in the OSI Reference Model. But developers are able to ensure that a certain level of
compatibility is maintained by following the general guidelines provided by the model.

4. Explain Router architecture: a functional view.

Router Architecture
 Router architecture is shown in the figure below :

The four router components can be identified :

1. Input Ports : An input port performs several key functions. It performs the physical layer
function of terminating an incoming physical link at a router; this is shown in the
leftmost box of the input port and the rightmost box of the output port in the figure
above. An input port also performs link-layer functions needed to interoperate with the
link layer at the other side of the incoming link; this is represented by the middle boxes in
the input and output ports. Perhaps most crucially, the lookup function is also performed
at the input port; this will occur in the rightmost box of the input port. It is here that the
forwarding table is consulted to determine the router output port to which an arriving
packet will be forwarded via the switching fabric. Control packets (for example, packets
carrying routing protocol information) are forwarded from an input port to the routing
processor. Note that the term port here – referring to the physical input and output
router interfaces – is distinctly different from the software ports associated with
network applications and sockets.
2. Switching Fabric : The switching fabric connects the router’s input ports to its output
ports. This switching fabric is completely contained within the router – a network inside
of a network router!
3. Output Ports : An output port stores packets received from the switching fabric
and transmits these packets on the outgoing link by performing the necessary link-layer
and physical-layer functions. When a link is bidirectional (that is, carries traffic in
both directions), an output port will typically be paired with the input port for that link on
the same line card (a printed circuit board containing one or more input ports,
which is connected to the switching fabric).
4. Rotating Processor : The routing processor executes the routing protocols,
maintains routing tables and attached link state information, and computes for forwarding
table for the router. It also performs the network management functions.
A router’s input ports, output ports, and switching fabric together implement the forwarding
functions and are almost always implemented in hardware, as shown in the figure above

5. An organization is granted a block of addresses with the beginning address

14.24.74.0/24. The organization needs to have 3 subblocks of addresses to use in
its three subnets as shown below:
1. One subblock of 120 addresses.
 2. One subblock of 60 addresses.
3. One subblock of 10 addresses.
Sol:- There are 232 − 24 = 256 addresses in this block.
The first address is 14.24.74.0/24; the last address is 14.24.74.255/24.
1. One subblock of 120 addresses.
The number of addresses in the first subblock is not a power of 2. We allocate 128
addresses. The first can be used as network address and the last as the special address. There
are still 126 addresses available. The subnet mask for this subnet can be found as n1 = 24 +
log2 (256/128) = 25. The first address in this block is 14.24.74.0/25;the last address is
14.24.74.127/25
2. One subblock of 60 addresses.
• The number of addresses in the second subblock is not a power of 2 either. We allocate
64 addresses.
• The first can be used as network address and the last as the special address.
• There are still 62 addresses available. The subnet mask for this subnet can be found as
n1 = 24 + log2 (256/64) = 26.
• The first address in this block is 14.24.74.128/26; the last address is 14.24.74.191/26.
3. One subblock of 10 addresses.
• The number of addresses in the third subblock is not a power of 2 either. We allocate
16 addresses.
• The first can be used as network address and the last as the special address. There are
still 14 addresses available. The subnet mask for this subnet can be found as n1 = 24 +
log2 (256/16) = 28.
• The first address in this block is 14.24.74.192/28; the last address is 14.24.74.207/28
• If we add all addresses in the previous subblocks, the result is 208 addresses, which
means 48 addresses are left in reserve.
• The first address in this range is 14.24.74.209. The last address is 14.24.74.255.

6. Differentiate IPv4 and IPv6.

IPV4 IPV6

IPv4 has 32-bit address

length IPv6 has 128-bit address length

It Supports Manual and

DHCP address It supports Auto and renumbering

configuration address configuration

IPV4 IPV6

In IPv4 end to end

connection integrity is In IPv6 end to end connection integrity

Unachievable is Achievable

It can generate
4.29×109 address Address space of IPv6 is quite large it

space can produce 3.4×1038 address space

Security feature is
dependent on IPSEC is inbuilt security feature in the

application IPv6 protocol

Address representation Address Representation of IPv6 is in

of IPv4 in decimal hexadecimal

Fragmentation
performed by Sender In IPv6 fragmentation performed only

and forwarding routers by sender

In IPv4 Packet In IPv6 packetflow identification are

flow identification is Available and uses flow label field in

not the header

available

In IPv4 checksumfield

is available In IPv6 checksumfield is not available

.

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