Axial shortening of columns

Description: Reinforced concrete columns and walls shorten owing to elastic compression,
creep and shrinkage, although the effect is not significant for buildings less than about 10–15
storeys. As explained in Concrete Society Technical Report 67, Movement, restraint and
cracking in concrete structures, columns and walls in multi-storey buildings shorten by
different amounts and at different times.

Analysis of vertical shortening has to take account of the following:

• Axial strain. Each increment of load causes an initial elastic strain which increases over time
by a process known as creep.

• Shrinkage. Shrinkage starts immediately the early thermal contraction cycle has passed, and
then continues at a decreasing rate.

• Construction sequence. Each new floor is cast at a level which overrides all the shortening
which has taken place beneath it.

• Loading sequence. After a floor is constructed, the remaining load is added incrementally,
usually in the sequence: screed or raised floor; walls and partitions; ceilings with lighting and
other services; furniture and occupants.

• Time-dependent effects. The overriding problem is that creep and shrinkage are both very
much dependent on the age of the concrete, and with each storey cast at a different time the
total shortening at any one time is the sum of movements which all started at different times
and have progressed to different stages.

• Differential shortening. Generally it is differential shortening which is important, particularly

between columns, which are generally heavily loaded, and core walls, which are usually more
lightly loaded.

• Shortening in a single storey height is important for added elements which are not flexible,
such as cladding and partitions.

Technical Report 67 considers the shortening of a range of columns (different concrete

strengths and reinforcement percentages) and concludes that a maximum shortening of
1.4mm/m is possible, i.e. 4–5mm in a typical storey height. The Report suggests that it is
difficult to reduce the shortening significantly. A better strategy is to limit the differential
shortening by designing all columns to the same criteria, and by keeping long clear spans
between different structural types, i.e. between interior columns and cores and shear walls on
the one hand and perimeter columns on the other.

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Description: This design aid deals with the effects of elastic and inelastic column shortening in
tall buildings. Discusses strains in columns, overall column shortening, relative shortening
between adjacent vertical members--all caused by elastic stresses, shrinkage, creep; and
methods of compensation for differential shortening of vertical members in tall concrete and
composite buildings.

A computerized procedure for prediction of elastic and inelastic column length changes in tall
buildings has been developed, which is applicable to concrete and composite structures. The
procedure is presented and illustrated through practical examples. Idealizations of the elastic
behavior, shrinkage, and creep of concrete that were used in the computerized procedure are
discussed. The proposed procedure is verified against laboratory test results as well as against
field observations. Differential column length changes computed through the proposed
analytical procedure can and should be compensated for during construction. Compensation
techniques, which must vary with the type of structural system used, are suggested.
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Analysis by spreadsheet

The modern answer to these issues is the use of a spreadsheet in which the structure can be
modelled and calculations made. The difficulty lies not in setting it up to represent the actions
described above but in keeping it to a manageable size and producing the information needed
for design.

Elastic and creep strains

Although the E-value of concrete increases with age, the initial elastic strain from vertical load
depends primarily on the proportions of the section. The creep strain depends mainly on age
at loading, local humidity, composition of the concrete, and thickness of the section.

The effect of creep is to shed stress from the concrete into the reinforcement. This is termed
'relaxation' in textbooks, which go to considerable lengths to model it mathematically, usually
incomprehensibly and possibly incorrectly. Using a spreadsheet that separates the process
into at least four or five steps is a better way.

The principle of superposition results in the creep arising from individual applications of load
(and shrinkage) being considered separately, as if no other actions were taking place.
Resulting movements are then added together. It is acceptable to group the structure into
units of several storeys, each effectively constructed at the mid-time, and similarly to simplify
the loading into the three main steps of self-weight, finishes and occupation.

Shrinkage

While shrinkage progresses, restraint of reinforcement creates internal stresses: tension in

concrete, compression in steel. As described, the stress in the concrete is gradually relieved by
creep. In the spreadsheet, each step of shrinkage is applied at the mid-time to a structure
whose properties are derived for that same moment. Alternatively, the final movement can
be approximated by applying the total free shrinkage in one step at 150 days.

Control of shortening

Can anything be done to control shortening? In designing a reinforced concrete column or

wall, the two main choices are the strength of the concrete and the amount of reinforcement
(2). A simple example will show how these choices affect the amount of shortening. This is an
internal column supporting a panel 7.5m^sup 2^ in the lower storeys of a multistorey building,
modelled on the in-situ flat slab building at BRE Cardington,(2), but supporting 20 storeys
above. The columns are designed closely to the design ultimate load. The loads are shown in
Table 1; although its effect is small, the different self-weight of the columns above is included
(based on 3.25m storey height and allowing for increased density of high-strength concrete,
effect of reinforcement and change in cross-sectional area). The 50% reduction in imposed
load permitted by BS 6399: Part 11,(3) is applied and the long-term imposed load is assumed
to be 1.0kN/m^sup 2^.

Axial shortening of concrete columns and walls

By Alexander, Stuart

Publication: Concrete

Date: Thursday, March 1 2001

Introduction

There appears to be a resurgence of enthusiasm for medium-rise buildings of 8-20 storeys and
beyond. For many, reinforced concrete is the chosen medium and prediction and control of
axial shortening are becoming increasingly important. Both steel and concrete frames need to
be studied, but the effects of creep and shrinkage make the movements in concrete more
difficult to predict.

Analysis of vertical shortening in a typical concrete-framed multi-storey building has to take

account of the following:
Axial strain. Each increment of load causes an initial elastic strain that increases with time by
creep. Shrinkage. This starts as soon as the early thermal contraction cycle has passed. It is
assumed this is too rapid to affect any supported structure and continues at a decreasing rate.

Construction sequence. Each new floor is cast at a level that overrides all the shortening that
has taken place beneath it. Fintel(l) calls this `pre-installation shortening', and subsequent
movement `post-installation shortening'.

Loading sequence. After a floor is constructed, the remaining load is added incrementally,
usually in the sequence: screed or raised floor; walls and partitions; ceilings with fighting and
other services; furniture and occupants.

Time-dependent effects. The overriding problem is that both creep and shrinkage depend on
the age of the concrete. As each storey is cast at a different time, the total shortening is the
sum of movements that began at different times and have progressed to different stages.

Differential shortening. Generally it is the differential shortening between neighbouring

columns and walls that is important, with columns generally heavily loaded and core walls
more lightly loaded. Cores are often constructed ahead of the frame, and their shortening will
be out of phase with that of the surrounding columns.

IMAGE PHOTOGRAPH 7

Figure 1:

Shortening in a single-storey height. This is important for added elements that are not flexible.
In particular, cladding must be detailed to allow for the movement, the worst case being clay
brickwork, which expands. Allowances should also be made for differential temperature
movements.

Analysis by spreadsheet
The modern answer to these issues is the use of a spreadsheet in which the structure can be
modelled and calculations made. The difficulty lies not in setting it up to represent the actions
described above but in keeping it to a manageable size and producing the information needed
for design.

Elastic and creep strains

Although the E-value of concrete increases with age, the initial elastic strain from vertical load
depends primarily on the proportions of the section. The creep strain depends mainly on age
at loading, local humidity, composition of the concrete, and thickness of the section.

The effect of creep is to shed stress from the concrete into the reinforcement. This is termed
'relaxation' in textbooks, which go to considerable lengths to model it mathematically, usually
incomprehensibly and possibly incorrectly. Using a spreadsheet that separates the process
into at least four or five steps is a better way.

The principle of superposition results in the creep arising from individual applications of load
(and shrinkage) being considered separately, as if no other actions were taking place.
Resulting movements are then added together. It is acceptable to group the structure into
units of several storeys, each effectively constructed at the mid-time, and similarly to simplify
the loading into the three main steps of self-weight, finishes and occupation.

Shrinkage

While shrinkage progresses, restraint of reinforcement creates internal stresses: tension in

concrete, compression in steel. As described, the stress in the concrete is gradually relieved by
creep. In the spreadsheet, each step of shrinkage is applied at the mid-time to a structure
whose properties are derived for that same moment. Alternatively, the final movement can
be approximated by applying the total free shrinkage in one step at 150 days.

Control of shortening
Can anything be done to control shortening? In designing a reinforced concrete column or
wall, the two main choices are the strength of the concrete and the amount of reinforcement
(2). A simple example will show how these choices affect the amount of shortening. This is an
internal column supporting a panel 7.5m^sup 2^ in the lower storeys of a multistorey building,
modelled on the in-situ flat slab building at BRE Cardington,(2), but supporting 20 storeys
above. The columns are designed closely to the design ultimate load. The loads are shown in
Table 1; although its effect is small, the different self-weight of the columns above is included
(based on 3.25m storey height and allowing for increased density of high-strength concrete,
effect of reinforcement and change in cross-sectional area). The 50% reduction in imposed
load permitted by BS 6399: Part 11,(3) is applied and the long-term imposed load is assumed
to be 1.0kN/m^sup 2^.

The first solution (denoted 4005, the reference being made up of the concrete strength and
ten times the reinforcement percentage) is a column in grade C40 concrete size 1000 x 800mm
with 6-T20 + 8-T16, i.e. under 0.5%. The second solution (4060) increases the reinforcement to
18-T40 (assuming couplers will be used), i.e. around 6%, thus reducing the column size to 700
x 550mm.

The third solution (8505) changes to C85 concrete (as used at Cardington), with the section
still at 700 x 550mm and with 0.5% reinforcement. The fourth solution (8560) adopts both C85
concrete and 6% reinforcement (12-T40), thus reducing the column to 500mm square.

To continue the comparison, two further elements are included: a structural steel column
supporting the same load; and a length of wall supporting only a 7.5m span of slab.

To examine another approach, the final column in Table 1 shows a structural column (4060+)
deliberately over-designed by 25%.

The elastic, creep and shrinkage strains are calculated separately. They are shown divided into
those arising up to 500 days after start of superstructure construction and arising afterwards;
in practice, considerably more time intervals would be employed. All strains are quoted as
micro-strain, i.e. figures should be multiplied by 10^sup -6^.
The assumptions on construction sequence were that a new floor was constructed every ten
days, the finishes were applied when five storeys above had been cast, and the occupation
load was applied to all floors of the building simultaneously on day 250. Following the advice
above and to reflect the significance of age at loading, the self-weight was applied in
increments of first one, then two, then three, then four and finally two batches of five floors;
the finishes were applied in two increments of ten floors each.

The calculations here follow the CEB 1970 method, as published in appendix C of BS 5400: Part
3!41, with some modifications to bring it more into line with BS 8110. In particular, the
humidity has been taken as 85% (external) for the first 500 days, and 45% (internal)
thereafter, to model occupation starting around 18 months after work began on the
superstructure. Note that this method gives significant reductions in creep and shrinkage for
highstrength concrete, whereas Concrete Society Technical Report 491' is more conservative.

The following tentative conclusions can be drawn from the study:

Maximum shortening of 1.4mm/m is possible, i.e. 4-Smm in a typical storey height

The greater the concrete area, the less the shortening; this is because the stiffness/strength
ratio (i.e. E/0.4 f^sub cu^.) of normal-strength concrete is higher than that of highstrength,
and both are higher than that of S355 steel

Reducing the section size by increasing the reinforcement from 0.5 to 6% increases the
shortening by 11-20%

Reducing the section size by increasing the concrete strength from 40 to 85N/mm^sup 2^
increases the shortening by 2-11%

The shortening of the two columns of the same size, but with different concrete strengths and
reinforcement contents, differs by less than 10%
The steel column shortens 15% less than the largest concrete column (4005) and 31% less than
the smallest (8560) - which is comparable in overall size

The wall section shortens 15% less than the comparable column (4005)

Deliberately over-designing the section by 25% reduces the shortening by only 17%

The concrete stress in highly reinforced sections reduces by as much as 50% (35% creep plus
15% shrinkage) in the long term In practice, better control is achieved when the initial elastic
shortening is a higher proportion of the total, the study shows that this can be achieved by
increasing the reinforcement content. All the shortening in a steel column is, of course,
immediate

The amount of shortening after 500 days is the opposite way round from the total amount, i.e.
higher strength concrete and more reinforcement both reduce the late shortening.

The conclusion is that it is difficult to reduce the shortening significantly. A better strategy is to
limit the differential shortening by designing all columns to the same criteria, keeping long
clear spans between different structural types, i.e. between interior columns and cores and
shear walls on the one hand and perimeter columns on the other.

IMAGE TABLE 21

Table 1:

REFERENCE

References

REFERENCE
1. FINTEL, M, GHOSH, SK. and IYENGAR, H. Column shortening in tall structures - prediction
and compensation. Portland Cement Association, 1987. 34pp.

2. ALLEN, J. D. Re-engineering the design and construction process. The Structural Engineer.
Vol. 76, No. 9. 5 May 1998. pp.175-179.

3. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 6399: Part 1: 1996. Code of practice for dead and
imposed loads. 16pp.

4. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5400: Part 3: 1982. Code of practice for design of
steel bridges. 120pp.

5. THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Design guidance for high strength concrete. The Society, Slough,
1998. Ref: TR 49. 16 8pp.

AUTHOR_AFFILIATION

Stuart Alexander, WSP Group