ECOLOGY

Ecology is the study of interactions of living things with each other and the environment. The following terms
are associated with the study of ecology:

• Ecosystem- a definable area made of communities of living things that interact with each other and their
non-living environment e.g. a pond, Game Park.
• Community- a group of populations found in the same area and interact with each other.
• Population- a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time.
• Species- a group of living things that have similar features and can inter-breed to produce fertile
offspring.
• Habitat- a place where an organism lives. Examples of habitats are aquatic habitats (found in water),
terrestrial habitats (found on land)
• Niche- the specific role a given organism plays in an ecosystem e.g. some organisms such as algae and
green plants are producers; other such as animals are consumers; and other such as bacteria and fungi
are decomposers.
• Biomass – this is the total dry weight of a population of organism in an area. it represents the mass of
the tissue only without any water.
• carrying capacity – this is the maximum size of a population of organisms of any species that an
ecosystem can support over a long time.

Energy Flow

The principal source of energy for ecosystems is the sun. Energy from the sun is called solar energy. Solar
energy is captured by green plats during the process of photosynthesis and converted to chemical energy (food)
which living organisms are able to use. Because of their capacity to produce food for other living organisms in
an ecosystem, plants are called producers. Animals that feed on plants are called primary consumers or
herbivores. Those that feed on primary consumers are called secondary consumers and those that feed on
secondary consumers are called tertiary consumers.
The flow of energy from the sun is non cyclic (the energy can never be returned to the sun).
The following diagram illustrates an energy flow chain:

Food Chains and Food Webs

A food chain is a sequence of feeding relationships that begins with the producers and involves at least three
organisms. The feeding level of an organism in a food chain is called the trophic level. In every food chain the
producers occupy the first trophic level; the primary consumers occupy the second trophic level; the
secondary consumers occupy the third trophic level and so on. In a food chain the organisms are linked by a
series of arrows which always point towards the organism that is feeding on another. An example of a food
chain is given below:

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Food chains can rarely go beyond the fourth trophic level. This is because only 10% of the energy present in
one trophic level is passed on to the next. 90% of the energy is lost through respiration, egestion and excretion.
By the time a food chain reaches the fourth trophic level there is very little energy available for any higher
trophic level. There is more energy gained by feeding on vegetation than feeding on meat.

Food Webs
This is a group of interlinked food chains. The following diagram illustrates a food web:

The following table compares a food web to a food chain:

Food chain Food web

One sequence of feeding relationships Several inter-linked sequences of feeding relationships

Each organism occupies only one trophic level Each organism may occupy more than one trophic
level except the producer

Usually involves fewer organisms than a food web Usually involves more organisms than a food chain

Ecological Pyramids
These are diagrammatic ways of showing feeding relationships in an ecosystem. Each ecological pyramid is
made of a pile of rectangular blocks on top of each other. There are three types of ecological pyramids which
are:

• Pyramids of numbers,
• Pyramids of biomass
• Pyramids of energy
Pyramids of numbers

This shows the numbers of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain. The length of each rectangular
block is proportional to the number organisms at the trophic level it represents. For example the following
pyramid of numbers may represent an ecosystem where there are 5 producers, 10 primary consumers, 150
secondary consumers and 5 tertiary consumers

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Pyramids of numbers are not always upright but maybe inverted. This results when a small number of large
organisms is supplying food to a large number of small organisms e.g. Parasites feeding on a host.
Pyramids of Biomass

This shows the biomass of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain. Biomass is the total dry mass of an
organism. It is also defined as the total amount of organic matter in an organism. It is measured in kilograms
(Kg). The length of each rectangular block is proportional to the biomass of organisms at the trophic level it
represents.
Example

Construct a pyramid of biomass for an ecosystem where the producers have a biomass of 1000Kg, primary
consumers 750Kg, secondary consumers 850 Kg and Tertiary consumers 500 Kg.

Pyramids of biomass are usually upright but may sometimes be inverted. This is because the measurements
used for constructing the pyramids are based on the standing crop, rather than the total biomass per growing
season. A standing crop is amount of biomass present in an ecosystem. It represents the entire living matter.

Pyramids of Energy
This shows the energy of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain. The length of each rectangular block
is proportional to the energy of organisms at the trophic level it represents. The units used for measuring energy
are Joules (J) or Kilojoules (KJ). This is the best way of showing feeding relationships as the pyramids are
always upright.

Food cycles
A food cycle is a food chain or food web that includes decomposers. The decomposers break down complex
organic molecules to simple inorganic molecules that can be used by producers hence completing the cycle.
Nutrient Cycles
A nutrient cycle shows the different forms of a particular element or nutrient in different parts of the
environment and the processes involved in converting it from one form to another.

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Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen occurs in the following parts and forms in the environment:

• Atmosphere (in the form of nitrogen gas)

• Soil (in the form of ammonia/ammonium ions, nitrite and nitrate)
• Plants (in the form of proteins and nucleic acids)
• Animals (in the form of proteins, amino acids, urea and nucleic acids)
Note: Nucleic acids are molecules responsible for storage of genetic information i.e. deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
The processes involved in converting nitrogen from one form to another are summarised in the following
diagram of the nitrogen cycle.

Bacteria are involved in the following processes of the nitrogen cycle:

• Nitrogen fixation: The process by which nitrogen gas from the atmosphere is converted to absorbable
nitrogen compounds by the action of nitrogen fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium, Azotobacter,
Clostridium and Anabaena. Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacterium found in the root nodules of
leguminous plants such as beans, peas, groundnuts and clover. Clostridium and Azotobacter are free-
living in the soil while Anabaena is aquatic. All nitrogen-fixing bacteria contain an enzyme called
nitrogenase which catalyses the reaction between nitrogen gas and hydrogen to form ammonia.
• Nitrification: The process by which ammonia is oxidised to form nitrite (NO -2) by the bacterium
Nitrosomonas and nitrite is oxidised to form nitrate (NO-3) by the bacterium Nitrobacter. Oxygen is
required in order for nitrification to take place. The bacteria that carry out nitrification are called
nitrifying bacteria.
• Decomposition: The process by which complex organic molecules are broken down into simple
inorganic molecules by the action of microorganisms known as decomposers. Decomposers include not
only bacteria but also fungi. The decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic compounds is also
called ammonification because it leads to the formation of ammonia or ammonium ions.
• Denitrification: The process by which nitrate is converted to nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria
such as Pseudomonas denitrificans and Thiobacillus denitrificans. The process occurs in water-logged
soils, lacking oxygen. It makes the soil less fertile and adds nitrogen gas to the atmosphere.
Other processes that have an effect on the nitrogen cycle discussed below:

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 • Lightning: This carries out nitrogen fixation by causing nitrogen to react with oxygen to form nitrogen
oxides. The nitrogen oxides dissolve in rain water to form nitric acid which has nitrate that the plants are
able to absorb.
• Harber Process: This is an artificial process where nitrogen gas and hydrogen are made to react with
each other at high temperature and pressure to form ammonia. It reduces the amount of nitrogen gas in
the atmosphere.
• Application of nitrogen-containing fertilisers increases the amount nitrogen-containing compounds in
the soil.

Carbon Cycle
Carbon occurs in the following parts and forms in the environment:

• Atmosphere (in the form of carbon dioxide gas)

• Plants (in the form of organic molecules)
• Animals (in the form of organic molecules)
• Soil (in the form of fossil fuels and carbonates)
The processes involved in converting carbon from one form to another are summarised in the following diagram
of the carbon cycle.

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Water Cycle
Water exists in three states, namely solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas (water vapour). The processes that take
place during the water cycle are summarised in the following diagram:

Effects of Human Activity on the Environment

Human activities such as agriculture, construction, waste disposal, industrialization and burning of fossil fuels
have prod uced negative effects on the environment. These negative effects include pollution, deforestation
and desertification. One way humans try to address some of these effects is through conservation.

Agriculture and the Soil

Agriculture
Agriculture may be defined as the use of land for growing crops. The type of agriculture where only one type of
crop is grown is called monoculture. Some advantages of agriculture are:
• It ensures that there is enough food and cash crops for increasing populations of human beings.
• It makes it possible for newly developed varieties of crops and breeds of livestock to be nurtured with
little competition from wild types.
Some disadvantages of agriculture are:
• It contributes to deforestation as forests are cleared to make room for growth of crops or rearing of
livestock.
• The clearance of forests for agriculture leads to reduction in biodiversity
• Some chemicals used in agriculture e.g. herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers cause pollution of the
environment
• Mechanised agriculture relies on combustion of fossil fuels which cause more pollution.
Soil
Soil is the weathered top layer of the earth’s crust. The components of soil are divided into two groups, namely
inorganic components and organic components. The inorganic components of soil are:
• Mineral particles: These are particles formed from surface rocks by the process of weathering and have
diameters ranging from 0.002 mm to 2 mm. They are classified into four types, namely clay, silt, sand and
gravel, depending on their size. The following table shows the diameters of the different types of mineral
particles found in soil:

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 Type of Mineral Particle Diameter (mm)

Clay < 0.002

Silt 0.002-0.02

Sand 0.02-2.0

Gravel >2.0

LIVING ORGANISMS.
Living organisms in the soil include rodents, worms insects and micro – organisms. They play an important
role in soil formation maintaining fertility, structure drainage and aeration of soil. For instance Arthropods
break down organic matter as they feed. Additionally, as the organism burrow in to the soil, they mix up
soil particles thus accelerating soil formation.
Micro – organisms e.g. bacteria and fungi bring about putrefaction and decomposition thus helping organic
matter into the soil. Bacteria like Rhizobium spp and Azotobacter spp carry out nitrogen fixation adding
nitrates into the soil. Nematodes however, are parasitic on the plants. Some nematodes e.g Meloidogyne
attack potatoes, greatly lowering the yields.

• Soil Water (moisture)

Water is a very important constituent of soil. Its function includes the following:
OO It is a major component of cell protoplasm, water provided support to the plant, especially in
herbaceous plants making the plant cells turgid
OO Soil water acts as a medium in which plants nutrients are dissolved before transportation up the
plant.
OO Water is essential for photosynthesis
OO Transpiration has a cooling effect on the plants.
OO Water is necessary for microbial activity in the soil
OO Water creates suitable conditions for seed germination.
• Soil air. Air is a mixture of gases namely carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen and inert gases. Air is found in
the spaces between soil particles. Soil air constantly moves from the pores into the atmosphere and from
the atmosphere into the pores. The amount of air in the soil is inversely proportional to the amount of water
available in the soil too. This means that soil with too much water contains little air ploughing increase the
amount of air in the soil.
Importance of air in the soil
OO Soil air is necessary for respiration of plants and animals in the soil
OO Nitrogen in the soil used during nitrogen fixation converting it to nitrates
OO Good aeration increases microbial activity in the soil
OO Good air circulation in the soil is necessary as excess carbon dioxide may cause rotting of plants
roots
• Dissolved mineral salts and PH

Organic matter is the organic components of the soil which includes the residue of dead plants, animals
and organisms. These remains contain carbon. They undergo decomposition to release various nutrients. it
helps to bind the soil particles together thus improving water – holding capacity and reducing soil erosion.
The dark colour of organic matter is due to the presence of humus. It consists of nutrients necessary for
plant growth such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

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TYPES OF SOIL AND THEIR PROPERTIES
Soil can be classified in terms of its physical properties. On the physical properties of soil is soil texture
SOIL TEXTURE
Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of various sizes of mineral particles in soil. The components of
soil mineral matter are sand, silt and clay. A fine texture is brought about by clay, while a coarse texture is
characteristic of sand. Therefore soil texture is sometimes referred to the feel of the soil.
CATEGORIES OF SOIL
Soil is out into three categories based on the appearance and proportion of mineral particles. namely;
sandy, clay and loamy soil.
(a) Sandy soil. Sandy soil is made of the largest particles among the different types of soil. Spaces are
filled with air hence; absorption of water is very high. these soils are light, well aerated and dry and
contain 50 – 80% sand, 20 – 50% clay and silt and 0.1 – 3% organic matter.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SANDY SOIL
very well – drained, coarse – textured (gritty), moderately fertile, low water – holding capacity, slightly
acidic, less stable structure hence prone to soil erosion, highly aerated, low density and light and low
capillarity.
(b) Clay soils. The particles that make up clay are the finest and bind very well.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLAY SOIL
sticky when wet, high water – retention, hard when dry cracks when dry, very poorly aerated, swells
when dry, smooth when felt between finger, has fine soil particles, have high capillarity and can be
improved by drainage.
(c) Loamy soil. Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, clay and silt. It also contains humus and is therefore
considered the best for growth of plants. The percolation rate is between that of sand and clay soil.
They contain 30 – 50% sand, 50 – 70% silt and clay and 0.1 – 4% organic matter.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LOAM SOIL
Well – drained, moderately textured, very fertile, good water – holding capacity slightly acidic and easy
to dig.

SOIL FERTILITY
Soil fertility is the ability of soil to produce and sustain high crop yields indefinitely. it can also defined
as the potential ability of soil to provide nutrients plants in adequate amounts, in suitable proportions
and on absorbable forms.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL FERTILITY

OO Soil depth. deep soils have a larger amount of nutrients for plant use and also allow deeper
penetration of plant roots for strong anchorage
OO Good aeration. It provides a conducive environment for soil micro – organisms to work soil
aeration is directly proportional to the level of soil drainage.
OO Good water retention ability. Water is important for photosynthesis. Lack of water leads
wilting in crops
OO Free from weeds. Weeds cause undue competition for nutrients and soil moisture.
OO High level of nutrients: these should be available in suitable forms absorbable by plants and in
desirable amounts
OO Correct soil pH: this should be favourable for the crop to be grown since crops have different
pH requirements.
OO Free from soil – borne pests and diseases: pests and diseases reduce plant growth and lower
crop yields

FACTORS THAT MAKE SOIL FERTILE

These includes: organic matter, mineral elements, micro – organic and soil pit

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(a) Organic matter: these are a product of decomposed plant and animal remains. All organic compounds
contains carbon as the major constituent. These exclude carbonates which are inorganic substances.
sometimes the terms organic and humus are used interchangeably. However, humus mainly refers to
the organic component of the soil which is formed by decomposing leaves and other plant materials by
soil micro – organisms.

IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIC MATTER IN THE SOIL.

OO The dark colour of humus helps in the absorption of heat thus raising the soil temperature
OO It reduces toxicity in the soil which may have accumulated over time through continuous use of
agro – chemicals like fungicides fertiliser and pesticides.
OO Organic matter regulates soil pH.
OO It improves the soil structure by binding the soil particles together
OO It provides food nutrients to the soil micro – organisms which are responsible for
decomposition.
OO It increases the water – holding capacity of soil due to its colloidal nature, thus improving water
infiltration.
OO It improves soil fertility by releasing nutrients into the soil
OO Increases cat ion exchange capacity where absorbed ions get exchanged with hydrogen ions on
roots.
(b) Mineral elements: the difference between rich, fertile soil and poor, infertile soil is the mineral
composition of the soil. Plants require essential and non – essential minerals for healthy growth. carbon
oxygen and hydrogen are essential requirements. Plants also need copper, iron, manganese calcium
magnesium phosphorus and at least other seven essential minerals.
(c) Micro – organism: soil organisms improve soil fertility by performing a number of functions that are
beneficial for plants. these include:
I. Releasing nutrients from organic matter. When micro – organisms decompose organic matter,
they use the carbon and nutrients in the organic matter for their own growth and release excess
nutrients into the soil where they can be taken up by plants.
II. Fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Symbiotic relationship between some bacteria and legumes make
nitrogen available to plants.
III. Increasing phosphorus availability. The fungi provide phosphorus to plants and in return they
receive the carbon they need to grow.
IV. Degrading pesticides. Some micro – organisms in soil produce enzymes that can break down
agricultural pesticides or other toxic substances added to soil.
V. Controlling pathogens. Some micro – organisms and soil animals infect plant and decrease plant
yield. However many organisms in the soil control the spread of pathogens e.g occurrence of
some pathogenic fungi in soil is decreased by certain protozoa that consume the pathogenic
fungi.
VI. Improving soil structure. Some bacterial and fungi produce substances during organic matter
decomposition that chemically and physically bind soil particles into micro – aggregates.
(d) Soil pH: soil pH refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil solution or potential of hydrogen ion in the
soil. This is a chemical property of soil. Soil pH is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions
(H+) or hydroxyl ions (OH-) in the soil solution. If the pH is less than 7, then the soil is acidic; if it is 7,
then the soil is neutral and if it is above 7, the soil is alkaline.
The pH in the soil can be lowered by the use of acidic fertilisers and increased by liming or use of
basic fertilisers
soil pH and crop growth or production.
Most crops are affected by either very acidic or very basic soil pH. Each crop therefore has its own pH
range within which grows well some examples
No crop pH

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1 Tea 4.0 – 6.0
2 Maize 6.0 – 7.0
3 Coffee 5.3 – 6.0
4 Sugar can 4.2 – 8.5
5 Pyrethrum 5.5 – 6.0
6 bananas 5.0 – 8.0
OO Soil pH affects the choice of fertilisers and the availability of particular nutrients to crops e.g.
when the pH is below 5, phosphorus is less available and at high pH levels its availability
increases to toxic levels. This interferes with the normal growth of plants.
OO At low pH, the concentration of available iron and aluminium in the soil solution may increase
to toxic levels, which is harmful to the plants.
OO very acidic or low pH inhibit the activity of soil micro – organisms e.g. nitrifying and nitrogen
fixing bacteria, affecting the growth of leguminous crops, e.g. beans peas etc.

HOW SOIL LOSES FERTILITY

Soil may lose its fertility through the following ways:
(i) Deforestation: deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests in order to make the
land available for other uses. Without trees, forests lands can quickly become barren.
(ii) Soil erosion: it carries away topsoil that contains most of the plant nutrients, rendering
the soil infertile. it is caused by water or wind.
(iii) Poor farming methods. These include: soil capping – this is the formation of an
impervious layer of soil on the surface. Hard pans – the development of hard pans below
the surface of the soil prevents water infiltration and plant root penetration.
Mon cropping – this is the growing of the same type of crop on a piece of land season
after season. Continuous cropping – this occurs due to the removal of nutrients from the
soil by plants without replenishing them. Accumulation of salts – this is due to high rate
of evaporation and inadequate rainfall. Infestation of weeds – weeds cause unnecessary
competition for the nutrients required for growth and plant development.
(iv) Leaching – this is the downward movement of soil nutrients from the topsoil down to
deeper sub – soil layers. It carries away nutrients beyond the root zone of most crops.
(v) Change of soil pH – it affects availability of nutrients. E.g. at low pH phosphorus is not
available while potassium is best. at high pH, potassium and iron are not available. Most
plants are available within a certain pH rang (5.0 – 6.5). Useful soil micro – organism
thrive well within pH 5.5 – 8.0. Low pH encourages outbreak of soil – born fungal
diseases which affect crops.
(vi) Burning of land – this leads to destruction of organic matter and change of soil pH due
to the presence of ash.

MAINTENANCE OF SOIL FERTILITY

Some methods that can be used to ensure soil fertility include:
(a) Crop rotation – this refers to the growing of different crop types on the same piece
of land in different seasons. the aim is to maximise utilisation of the nutrients in the
soil to control parasitic weeds and to prevent pest and disease build – up. e.g.
legumes.
(b) Control of soil pH – application of agricultural lime in highly acidic soils help to
raise the pH level.
(c) Control of soil erosion – this is done through afforestation terracing contour
ploughing and planting of cover crops to prevent the erosion to topsoil.
(d) Control of weeds – weeds competes with crops for growth factors (requirements)
such as nutrients, light, space and water.
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(e) Use of fertilisers – this helps to replenish the nutrients taken in by crops.
(f) Conservation farming – is any system or practice which aims to conserve soil and
water by using surface cover (mulch) to minimise runoff and erosion and improve
the conditions for plant establishment and growth. it involves planting crops and
pastures directly into land which is protected by a mulch using minimum or no
tillage techniques.
(g) Minimum tillage – this helps to maintain the soil structure. this helps eroding and
holding capacity of water is sustained
(h) Mulching – when mulching materials decompose, they add nutrients to the soil. they
also protect the soil from agents of erosion and regulate soil temperature. organic
matter is also added by decomposed mulching materials. soil moisture is preserved
as well.

DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHWORMS IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS

Earthworms are major decomposer of dead organic matter and derive their nutrition
from the bacteria and fungi that grow upon these materials. They fragment organic
matter and make major contributions to recycling of nutrients. Most environments is
favourable for earthworms. They will not tolerate soggy soil, are very sensitive to
light and must be moist skin to survive. They occur in many tropical soils. They
range from an inch to two metres in length and are found seasonally at all depths in
the soil. Their presence is usually an indicator of a healthy system.

ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHWORMS

They tend to be more abundant in loam and clay – loam and even in silty soil, than
in sandy soil and heavy clay. Earthworms populations tend to increase with soil
organic matter levels and decrease with soil disturbances such as tillage and
potentially harmful chemicals. In general, earthworm’s distribution depends on:
✓ Soil type – light and medium loam soil have greater populations than heavier
clays. In forests, earthworm’s abundance is linked to clay soil content. The
less the clay soil content, the more the earthworms. They do not inhabit in
water logged soils. Moderately and severely eroded sandy clay and loam soil
support significantly more earthworms than slightly eroded soils with higher
sand content. Silty content of the soil correlates with availability of
earthworms as well; this is due to the low organic matter content and water –
holding capacity of the sand soils. Soil texture can influence earthworm’s
population because of its effects on other soil properties such as soil moisture
relationship, nutrient status and soil pH.
✓ Moisture content of soil – earthworm bodies comprise 75 – 90% water.
Their activities depend upon adequate availability of soil moisture.
earthworms will inhabit soils with high moisture content.
✓ Temperature – earthworm body, metabolism growth respiration and
reproduction are all influenced greatly by temperature. High surface
temperature and dry soils are much more limiting to earthworms than low
temperature and waterlogged soils.
✓ Soil pH – most earthworms species occur in soils with a pH range of 7.0 –
7.4. Some species are found in pHs lower than 4.0 while others above 6.6.
✓ Plant population – earthworms improve soil through their feeding. Soil and
plants debris are bound together into crumbs as they pass out of earthworms.
This help to improve soil structure. The larger soil crumbs produced by
earthworm’s feeding increase the space available for air and water between

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 soil particles. The plant debris passed through earthworms is broken down
into the original nutrients used to build the now- dead plant. Many nutrients
such as nitrates, phosphates and potash are immediately released into the soil
while other nutrients are released gradually. The earthworm’s activity is like
a miniature composter that mixes and conditions plant wastes into fertilisers
for new plants. In addition to improving soil structure and fertility, research
has shown that soil rich in earthworms host fewer parasitic nematodes.
Pollution

This is the contamination of the environment with substances that are harmful to living organisms. Any
substance that causes pollution of the environment is called a pollutant. There are three types of pollution,
namely land, air (atmospheric) and water pollution.
(i) Land pollution
The following table discusses some pollutants of the land, their sources and effects:

Name of Source(s) Effects

Pollutant

Non- -Disposable -They make the soil less fertile

biodegradable packaging for a
materials: number of man-
materials that made products
cannot be
decomposed by
microorganisms
e.g. plastic

Garbage/Refuse/ -Domestic and -Act as breeding sites for pathogens and their vectors
industrial waste
Rubbish -May contain poisonous substances
-Giving he air an unpleasant smell

Heavy metals: -Industrial -They cannot be excreted by bodies organisms and are poisonous
metals with a emissions when they reach certain levels.
relative atomic
mass higher - Bioaccumulation (a substance becoming more concentrated in
than 100 e.g. higher trophic levels of a food chain) may result, leading to death of
lead and higher predators.
mercury

(ii) Air Pollution

The following table discusses some pollutants of the atmosphere, their sources and effects:

Name of Source(s) Effects

Pollutant

Sulphur dioxide -Burning of fossil Dissolves in rain water forming sulphurous acid and sulphuric acid.

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 fuels Such rain is called acid rain. The effects of acid rain are:
-It breaks down the waxy cuticle on plant leaves, leading to excessive
transpiration and leaching of nutrients. This may lead to death of trees
and destruction of forests.
-It destroys the root hairs of plants, leading to reduced uptake of
nutrients and water.
-It kills or inhibits the activity of soil organisms, thereby slowing
down decomposition of organic matter

-It mobilises ions that are normally bound to soil particles, leading to
leaching of such ions. When some of the leached ions flow into rivers,
they may accumulate to toxic levels.
-It corrodes and damages buildings

Carbon dioxide -Burning of fossil -It contributes to the greenhouse effect i.e. it slows down the escape
fuels and organic of heat (long-wave radiation) from the atmosphere into space. This
matter. has led to an effect known as global warming i.e. a rise in global
temperatures. Global warming is believed to cause drastic climatic
-Deforestation changes, resulting in droughts and floods.
promotes increase
in CO2 NB: There are other greenhouse gases besides carbon dioxide.
concentrations Examples are methane, water vapour, chlorofluorocarbons
because it reduces (CFC’s)and nitrous oxide (N2O)
the number of
plants carrying out
photosynthesis
NB: The gas is
also added to the
atmosphere
naturally by
respiration and
volcanoes

Carbon -Incomplete -When inhaled, it gets into the blood and combines irreversibly with
monoxide combustion of haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin. This reduces the
fossil fuels and capacity of the blood to transport oxygen. This may cause
organic matter. breathlessness, headache and suffocation to death in humans.
-Babies born from mothers that have been frequently exposed to the
gas have a low birth weight.

Nitrogen oxides -Exhaust fumes -Formation of acid rain (refer to effects of acid rain under sulphur
dioxide)
-Industrial fumes
-Formation of photochemical smog, which reduces visibility and may
In both cases the lead to road and air traffic accidents.
nitrogen is initially
from the
atmosphere, but
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 reacts with oxygen
under intense heat
to form oxides.

NB: oxides of
nitrogen are
formed naturally
when there is
lightning

(iii)Water Pollution
The following table discusses some pollutants of water, their sources and effects:

Name of Source(s) Effects

Pollutant

Raw (untreated) -Leaking of sewer -Some microorganisms present in sewage are pathogenic and may
sewage: This is pipes. cause diseases such as cholera, dysentery and typhoid
a mixture of
human faeces, -Direct discharge -Decomposition of the organic components of sewage leads to high
urine kitchen of untreated levels of phosphates and nitrates. The presence of high levels of
waste and sewage into water phosphates and nitrates in water is called eutrophication. It leads to
detergents bodies i.e. rivers algal blooms (the rapid multiplication of algae in water) and
and lakes. multiplication of water weeds. The algae use up a lot of oxygen for
respiration and during their decomposition after death. This lowers the
amount of oxygen in water and may result in death of fish. In
addition, nitrates are poisonous to both fish and humans.

-Suspended particles present in the sewage reduce penetration of light,

slowing down photosynthesis in aquatic plants.
-Detergents in sewage lead to formation of foams which block oxygen
and light from getting into the water.

Agricultural -Farms located -Fertilisers in water cause eutrophication (see explanation above)
run-off near water bodies
containing -Herbicides and pesticides are poisonous to aquatic organisms and to
fertilisers, humans who may drink the water.
herbicides and
pesticides.

Oil spills: These -Accidental -Oil floats on top of water, thereby blocking oxygen supply to aquatic
normally affect spillages from organisms.
marine water tankers
bodies i.e. seas -It kills aquatic organisms
and oceans
-It sticks to the feathers of some aquatic birds, making it difficult for
them to swim.

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Deforestation
This is defined as the permanent removal of trees and their undergrowth from a forest.

Some causes of deforestation are:

• Clearance of land for agriculture

• Use of trees in the paper-making industry
• Harvesting timber for construction
• Clearance of land for construction of human settlements, roads, rail lines, and dams
• Destruction of forest trees by acid rain.
• Late forest fires
The effects of deforestation on the environment are:

• Reduction in biodiversity
• It interferes with the carbon cycle because there is reduced photosynthesis, leading to accumulation of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This in turn contributes to the greenhouse effect.
• It interferes with the nitrogen cycle because some of the trees removed are legumes that harbour
nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
• It promotes soil erosion by wind and rain water. The soil eroded by water is often deposited in rivers,
leading to flooding.
• It promotes leaching of nutrients
• It promotes desertification

Desertification

This is the degradation of arid and semi-arid land to form a desert. Causes of desertification include:

• Deforestation
• Overgrazing
• Trampling of the ground by animals
• Overpopulation
Effects of Desertification

• Land becomes less productive because it cannot support growth of plants. People staying on desert land
are in danger of starvation and famine
• Desert lands are prone to extremes of temperature (very high temperatures during day time and very low
temperatures during night time)
• Very low rainfall
• Low biodiversity
CONSERVATION

Conservation is the protection of species, their habitats and ecosystems from extinction. Extinction is the end
of a species or group of taxa. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last
individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point).

Examples of conservation efforts made by human beings include:

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• Creation of game reserves to conserve wild animals
• Creation of forest reserves to conserve forests
• Creation of botanical gardens and zoos
• Fishing and hunting bans during the breeding seasons of animals
• Creation of gene banks, seed banks and sperm banks for endangered species
• Formulation of legislation (laws) that govern the utilization of natural resources
• Recycling of products made from natural resources

THE IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVING PLANT AND ANIMAL SPECIES

The following are the reasons of conserving plants and animals

1. For future generations to use and see

2. It is the source of income to the nation. Adds gross domestic product (GDP) to the nation
3. For ecotourism
4. For medicinal plants/animals

HOW TO REDUCE, REUSE AND RECYCLE (Three Rs)

The last resort in waste management is waste disposal. Disposal is any operation that involves the
dumping and incineration of waste without any material or energy recovery. To control waste
management, three Rs are used.

1. Reduce. Reduction involves using less material in design and manufacture. To reduce wastes
usually in the lowest environment and economic costs because it requires no collecting or
processing of materials. Trying to keep products for longer, and using less hazardous materials,
such as plastic.
2. Reuse. It involves an operation where products or materials are not wasted but used again for the
same purpose for which they were intended. It often requires collection but relatively little or no
processing. It involves checking, cleaning, repairing, and/ or replacing entire items or spare parts.
Examples the reuse of glass bottles.
3. Recycle. It is an activity that includes the collection of used, reused, or unused items that would
otherwise be considered waste. It involves sorting and processing the recycled products into raw
materials and the remanufacturing the recycled raw materials into new products. Example, to
recycle plastic and making conduit pipes used in the construction of houses

THE IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABLE USE OF RESOURCES

The sustainable use of resource refers to the long – term ability of an ecosystem to sustain life
without irreversibly damaging the ecosystem. They include the following;

1. Avoid deforestation. Deforestation leads to desertification and destruction of the country’s

rich biodiversity.
2. Avoid over – fishing. It is important to maintain fish stocks at a level where breeding
continues or some species may disappear altogether in some areas.

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 Question. Explain how over – fishing can be done?

3. Avoid over – hunting. Avoid over – hunting gives animals time to breed. Hunting season
begins at the end of June and last till the end of October
4. Encourage game keeping. To promote or encourage ecotourism, game farms and national
parks offer game drives and walking safaris for seeing big game. Ecotourism is the travelling
to natural areas that does not harm the environment and benefits local people. Game keeping
offers visitors the opportunity to observe animals in their natural habitat. Usually local guides
are in charge.

Note, Zambia has abundant birdlife. Visitors also observe the endemic birds during safaris.
Endemic is a plant or animal restricted to a certain area.

Populations
A population is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time.

Population size is the number of organisms in a population.

Population density is the number organisms of the same species per unit area.
Population growth rate is the increase in the size of a population per unit time. Population growth of organisms
follows an S-shaped pattern (sigmoid curve). This curve is made of three phases:

• Lag phase (this is when there is very little increase in population size because the organisms are not yet
fully adapted to the environment)
• Exponential/logarithmic phase (this is when the organisms are fully adapted to the environment and
are reproducing at a fast rate)
• Stationary phase (this is when the birth rate equals the death rate). At this point the carrying capacity of
the environment has been reached. The carrying capacity is the maximum number of organisms an
environment can support.

Note: A decline phase may be experienced after the stationary phase if there is an increase in factors like
competition, disease, pollutants/toxins. Such factors limit increase in population size and are called
.environmental resistance.

Factors Affecting Population Growth Rate

The growth rate of a population is affected by the following factors:

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 • Birth rate: the number of births per unit number of adults in a population.
• Immigration: the movement of more organisms into a population.
• Death rate: the number of deaths per unit number of adults in a population.
• Emigration: the movement of organisms out of a population.
These four factors are affected by two sets of factors called biotic factors and abiotic factors.
The biotic factors or component are the living parts of an ecosystem. They include food availability,
predators, parasites, disease and competition. Other examples are plants, trees, grass, moss or molds that you
might find in an ecosystem.
The abiotic factors or component are non – living part of an ecosystem. They include climate change,
availability of water, oxygen, light, salinity, pH, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind, temperature and
pollutants. Other examples are edaphic factors. These are associated with the soil such as its texture, PH,
temperature and organic content.
QUESTION. Suggest how each of these biotic and abiotic factors affect the four factors mentioned above.
A high birth rate and high rate of immigration leads to a positive population growth rate (increase in the
size of a population per unit time). A high death rate and high rate of emigration leads to a negative
population growth rate (decrease in the size of a population per unit time).
Biodiversity
This refers to the variety of living organisms in an ecosystem.
There are five kingdoms of living organisms. These are:

• Kingdom Prokaryota (The Bacteria)

• Kingdom Protoctista (The Protists)
• Kingdom Fungi (The Fungi)
• Kingdom Plantae (The Plants)
• Kingdom Animalia (The Animals)

1. Kingdom Prokaryota
Members of this kingdom have the following characteristics:
• They are unicellular (single-celled)
• They have no true nucleus; only naked circular DNA called nucleoid or bacterial chromosome
• They have no double-membraned organelles, but small (70s) ribosomes are present
• They reproduce asexually by binary fission. Some members exhibit conjugation (the transfer of genetic
material from one bacterial cell to another through structures known as pili)
• They carry out heterotrophic nutrition
• The kingdom includes all bacteria
• Some members are pathogenic i.e. cause diseases e.g. Vibrio cholera, Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Treponema, Gonnococus neiserria.

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 • Some types of bacteria are useful e.g. decomposers, nitrogen fixing bacteria, nitrifying bacteria and
denitrifying bacteria. Others are used in the dairy industry during the making of cheese and yoghurt.

2. Kingdom Protoctista
Members of this kingdom have the following characteristics:

o Most are unicellular (single-celled), but some are multicellular.

o Cells have a true nucleus with a membrane around it (eukaryotic cells)
o Some are heterotrophic (i.e. the protozoa) while others are autotrophic (i.e. the algae)
o Most reproduce by binary fission
o Examples are paramecium, amoeba, and kelp

3. Kingdom Fungi
Members of this kingdom have the following characteristics:

• They are multicellular, but a few of them such as yeasts are unicellular.
• They have well-developed nuclei with nuclear membranes around
• They have cell walls made of chitin.
• Most members carry out saprophytic nutrition, but some are parasitic.
• Most reproduce by spores.
Examples are yeast, mushrooms, bread moulds, and lichens

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4. Kingdom Plantae
Members of this kingdom have the following characteristics:

• They are multi-cellular

They have a well-developed nucleus with a membrane around
• Their cells contain chlorophyll in the chloroplasts, hence they are photosynthetic.
• They have cellulose cell walls
• Most reproduce from seeds; some reproduce from vegetative parts such as stems, roots and modified
leaves.
• Examples are mosses, ferns, gymnosperms (conifers) and angiosperms (flowering plants)

5. Kingdom Animalia
Members of this kingdom have the following characteristics:

o They are multicellular

o They have a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
o They carry out holozoic nutrition
o They have a nervous system
o Their bodies have symmetry (either bilateral or radial symmetry)
o Their bodies have anterior and posterior ends; dorsal and ventral surfaces; and lateral surfaces
o Examples are bears, fish, frogs, butterflies, and starfish

IMPORTANCE OR SIGNIFICANCE OF BIODIVERSITY OF ORGANISM IN AN AREA ARE AS FOLLOWS;

1. Ecological importance.
2. Social importance
3. Economic importance and
4. Monetary assets.
ECONOMIC REASONS FOR MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY ARE AS FOLLOWS;

1. For ecotourism
2. Medicinal plants/animals
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3. Source of food e.g mushroom etc
4. Timber products e.g for roofing
5. Maintenance of niche/interdependence of organisms.
6. Commercial hunting – this involves the killing and sale of animals surplus to the carrying capacity of
a region.
7. Sport hunting – this is where animals are not hunted for food or profit, but for the enjoyment of the
hunter, is subject to increasing criticism.

THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ORGANISM.

The following are the impact of human activities on organism.
1. Hunting
2. Fishing
3. Charcoal production
4. Agriculture activities

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