Mechanical Engineering Series

Frederick F. Ling
Editor-in-Chief

The Mechanical Engineering Series features graduate texts and research monographs
to address the need for information in contemporary mechanical engineering,
including areas of concentration of applied mechanics, biomechanics, computa-
tional mechanics, dynamical systems and control, energetics, mechanics of
materials, processing, production systems, thermal science, and tribology.

Advisory Board/Series Editors

Applied Mechanics F.A. Leckie
University of California,
Santa Barbara
D. Gross
Technical University of Darmstadt
Biomechanics V.C. Mow
Columbia University
Computational Mechanics H.T. Yang
University of California,
Santa Barbara
Dynamic Systems and Control/ D. Bryant
Mechatronics University of Texas at Austin
Energetics J.R.Welty
University of Oregon, Eugene
Mechanics of Materials I. Finnie
University of California, Berkeley
Processing K.K. Wang
Cornell University
Production Systems G.-A. Klutke
Texas A&M University
Thermal Science A.E. Bergles
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Tribology W.O. Winer
Georgia Institute of Technology

For further volumes:

http://www.springer.com/series/1161
Rajesh Rajamani

Vehicle Dynamics
and Control
Second Edition
Dr. Rajesh Rajamani
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
[email protected]

ISSN 0941-5122 e-ISSN 2192-063X

ISBN 978-1-4614-1432-2 e-ISBN 978-1-4614-1433-9
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-1433-9
Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2011940692

# Rajesh Rajamani 2012

All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written
permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York,
NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in
connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if
they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they
are subject to proprietary rights.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer ScienceþBusiness Media (www.springer.com)

For Priya
Preface

As a research advisor to graduate students working on automotive projects, I

have frequently felt the need for a textbook that summarizes common
vehicle control systems and the dynamic models used in the development of
these control systems. While a few different textbooks on ground vehicle
dynamics are already available in the market, they do not satisfy all the
needs of a control systems engineer. A controls engineer needs models that
are both simple enough to use for control system design but at the same time
rich enough to capture all the essential features of the dynamics. This book
attempts to present such models and actual automotive control systems from
literature developed using these models.
The control system applications covered in the book include cruise
control, adaptive cruise control, anti-lock brake systems, automated lane
keeping, automated highway systems, yaw stability control, engine control,
passive, active and semi-active suspensions, tire-road friction coefficient
estimation, rollover prevention, and hybrid electric vehicles. A special effort
has been made to explain the several different tire models commonly used in
literature and to interpret them physically.
In the second edition, the topics of roll dynamics, rollover prevention and
hybrid electric vehicles have been added as Chapters 15 and 16 of the book.
Chapter 8 on electronic stability control has been significantly enhanced.
As the worldwide use of automobiles increases rapidly, it has become
ever more important to develop vehicles that optimize the use of highway
and fuel resources, provide safe and comfortable transportation and at the
same time have minimal impact on the environment. To meet these diverse
and often conflicting requirements, automobiles are increasingly relying on
electromechanical systems that employ sensors, actuators and feedback
control. It is hoped that this textbook will serve as a useful resource to
researchers who work on the development of such control systems, both in

vii
viii Preface

the automotive industry and at universities. The book can also serve as a
textbook for a graduate level course on Vehicle Dynamics and Control.
An up-to-date errata for typographic and other errors found in the book
after it has been published will be maintained at the following web-site:
http://www.menet.umn.edu/~rajamani/vdc.html
I will be grateful for reports of such errors from readers.

May 2005 and June 2011 Rajesh Rajamani

Minneapolis, Minnesota
Acknowledgments

I am deeply grateful to Professor Karl Hedrick for introducing me to the

field of Vehicle Dynamics and Control and for being my mentor when I
started working in this field. My initial research with him during my doctoral
studies has continued to influence my work. I am also grateful to Professor
Max Donath at the University of Minnesota for his immense contribution in
helping me establish a strong research program in this field.
I would also like to express my gratitude to my dear friend Professor
Darbha Swaroop. The chapters on longitudinal control in this book are
strongly influenced by his research results. I have had innumerable
discussions with him over the years and have benefited greatly from his
generosity and willingness to share his knowledge.
Several people have played a key role in making this book a reality. I am
grateful to Serdar Sezen for highly improving many of my earlier drawings
for this book and making them so much more clearer and professional. I
would also like to thank Gridsada Phanomchoeng, Vibhor Bageshwar, Jin-
Oh Hahn, Neng Piyabongkarn and Yu Wang for reviewing several chapters
of this book and offering their comments. I am grateful to Lee Alexander
who has worked with me on many research projects in the field of vehicle
dynamics and contributed to my learning.
I would like to thank my parents Vanaja and Ramamurty Rajamani for
their love and confidence in me. Finally, I would like to thank my wife
Priya. But for her persistent encouragement and insistence, I might never
have returned from a job in industry to a life in academics and this book
would probably have never been written.

May 2005 and June 2011 Rajesh Rajamani

Minneapolis, Minnesota

ix
Contents

Preface vii

Acknowledgments ix

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Driver Assistance Systems 2

1.2 Active Stability Control Systems 2

1.3 Ride Quality 4

1.4 Technologies for Addressing Traffic Congestion 5

1.4.1 Automated highway systems 6

”
1.4.2 Traffic-friendly” adaptive cruise control 6

1.4.3 Narrow tilt-controlled commuter vehicles 7

1.5 Emissions and Fuel Economy 9

1.5.1 Hybrid electric vehicles 10

1.5.2 Fuel cell vehicles 11

References 11

xi
2. LATERAL VEHICLE DYNAMICS 15

2.1 Lateral Systems Under Commercial Development 15

2.1.1 Lane departure warning 16

2.1.2 Lane keeping systems 17

2.1.3 Yaw stability control systems 18

2.2 Kinematic Model of Lateral Vehicle Motion 20

2.3 Bicycle Model of Lateral Vehicle Dynamics 27

2.4 Motion of Particle Relative to a Rotating Frame 31

2.5 Dynamic Model in Terms of Error with Respect to Road 34

2.6 Dynamic Model in Terms of Yaw Rate and Slip Angle 37

2.7 From Body Fixed to Global Coordinates 39

2.8 Road Model 41

2.9 Chapter Summary 43

Nomenclature 44

References 45

3. STEERING CONTROL FOR AUTOMATED LANE KEEPING 47

3.1 State Feedback 47

3.2 Steady State Error from Dynamic Equations 50

3.3 Understanding Steady State Cornering 54

3.3.1 Steering angle for steady state cornering 54

3.3.2 Can the yaw-angle error be zero? 58

3.3.3 Is non-zero yaw angle error a concern? 59

Contents xiii

3.4 Consideration of Varying Longitudinal Velocity 60

3.5 Output Feedback 62

3.6 Unity Feedback Loop System 63

3.7 Loop Analysis with a Proportional Controller 65

3.8 Loop Analysis with a Lead Compensator 71

3.9 Simulation of Performance with Lead Compensator 75

3.10 Analysis of Closed-Loop Performance 76

3.10.1 Performance variation with vehicle speed 76

3.10.2 Performance variation with sensor location 78

3.11 Compensator Design with Look-Ahead Sensor Measurement 80

3.12 Chapter Summary 81

Nomenclature 82

References 84

4. LONGITUDINAL VEHICLE DYNAMICS 87

4.1 Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamics 87

4.1.1 Aerodynamic drag force 89

4.1.2 Longitudinal tire force 91

4.1.3 Why does longitudinal tire force depend on slip? 93

4.1.4 Rolling resistance 95

4.1.5 Calculation of normal tire forces 97

4.1.6 Calculation of effective tire radius 99

4.2 Driveline Dynamics 101

xiv Contents

4.2.1 Torque converter 102

4.2.2 Transmission dynamics 104

4.2.3 Engine dynamics 106

4.2.4 Wheel dynamics 107

4.3 Chapter Summary 109

Nomenclature 109

References 111

5. INTRODUCTION TO LONGITUDINAL CONTROL 113

5.1 Introduction 113

5.1.1 Adaptive cruise control 114

5.1.2 Collision avoidance 115

5.1.3 Automated highway systems 115

5.2 Benefits of Longitudinal Automation 116

5.3 Cruise Control 118

5.4 Upper Level Controller for Cruise Control 119

5.5 Lower Level Controller for Cruise Control 122

5.5.1 Engine torque calculation for desired acceleration 123

5.5.2 Engine control 125

5.6 Anti-Lock Brake Systems 126

5.6.1 Motivation 126

5.6.2 ABS functions 129

5.6.3 Deceleration threshold based algorithms 130

Contents xv

5.6.4 Other logic based ABS control systems 134

5.6.5 Recent research publications on ABS 135

5.7 Chapter Summary 136

Nomenclature 136

References 137

6. ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL 141

6.1 Introduction 141

6.2 Vehicle Following Specifications 143

6.3 Control Architecture 144

6.4 String Stability 146

6.5 Autonomous Control with Constant Spacing 147

6.6 Autonomous Control with the Constant Time-Gap Policy 150

6.6.1 String stability of the CTG spacing policy 151

6.6.2 Typical delay values 153

6.7 Transitional Trajectories 156

6.7.1 The need for a transitional controller 156

6.7.2 Transitional controller design through R  R diagrams 158

6.8 Lower Level Controller 164

6.9 Chapter Summary 165

Nomenclature 166

References 167

Appendix 6.A 168

xvi Contents

7. LONGITUDINAL CONTROL FOR VEHICLE PLATOONS 171

7.1 Automated Highway Systems 171

7.2 Vehicle Control on Automated Highway Systems 172

7.3 Longitudinal Control Architecture 173

7.4 Vehicle Following Specifications 175

7.5 Background on Norms of Signals and Systems 176

7.5.1 Norms of signals 176

7.5.2 System norms 177

7.5.3 Use of induced norms to study signal amplification 178

7.6 Design Approach for Ensuring String Stability 181

7.7 Constant Spacing with Autonomous Control 182

7.8 Constant Spacing with Wireless Communication 185

7.9 Experimental Results 188

7.10 Lower Level Controller 190

7.11 Adaptive Controller for Unknown Vehicle Parameters 191

7.11.1 Redefined notation 191

7.11.2 Adaptive controller 192

7.12 Chapter Summary 195

Nomenclature 196

References 197

Appendix 7.A 199

Contents xvii

8. ELECTRONIC STABILITY CONTROL 201

8.1 Introduction 201

8.1.1 The functioning of a stability control system 201

8.1.2 Systems developed by automotive manufacturers 203

8.1.3 Types of stability control systems 203

8.2 Differential Braking Systems 204

8.2.1 Vehicle model 204

8.2.2 Control architecture 208

8.2.3 Desired yaw rate 209

8.2.4 Desired side-slip angle 210

8.2.5 Upper bounded values of target yaw rate and slip angle 211

8.2.6 Upper controller design 213

8.2.7 Lower Controller design 217

8.3 Steer-By-Wire Systems 218

8.3.1 Introduction 218

8.3.2 Choice of output for decoupling 219

8.3.3 Controller design 222

8.4 Independent All Wheel Drive Torque Distribution 224

8.4.1 Traditional four wheel drive systems 224

8.4.2 Torque transfer between left and right wheels 225

using a differential

8.4.3 Active control of torque transfer to all wheels 226

xviii Contents

8.5 Need for Slip Angle Control 228

8.6 Chapter Summary 235

Nomeclature 235

References 239

9. MEAN VALUE MODELING OF SI AND DIESEL ENGINES 241

9.1 SI Engine Model Using Parametric Equations 242

9.1.1 Engine rotational dynamics 243

9.1.2 Indicated combustion torque 243

9.1.3 Friction and pumping losses 244

9.1.4 Manifold pressure equation 245

9.1.5 Outflow rate m ao from intake manifold 246

9.1.6 Inflow rate m ai into intake manifold 246

9.2 SI Engine Model Using Look-Up Maps 248

9.2.1 Introduction to engine maps 248

9.2.2 Second order engine model using engine maps 252

9.2.3 First order engine model using engine maps 253

9.3 Introduction to Turbocharged Diesel Engines 255

9.4 Mean Value Modeling of Turbocharged Diesel Engines 256

9.4.1 Intake manifold dynamics 257

9.4.2 Exhaust manifold dynamics 257

9.4.3 Turbocharger dynamics 257

9.4.4 Engine crankshaft dynamics 258

Contents xix

9.4.5 Control system objectives 259

9.5 Lower Level Controller with SI Engines 260

9.6 Chapter Summary 262

Nomenclature 262

References 264

10. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF PASSIVE AUTOMOTIVE

SUSPENSIONS 267

10.1 Introduction to Automotive Suspensions 267

10.1.1 Full, half and quarter car suspension models 267

10.1.2 Suspension functions 270

10.1.3 Dependent and independent suspensions 271

10.2 Modal Decoupling 273

10.3 Performance Variables for a Quarter Car Suspension 274

10.4 Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes for the Quarter Car 276

10.5 Approximate Transfer Functions Using Decoupling 278

10.6 Analysis of Vibrations in the Sprung Mass Mode 283

10.7 Analysis of Vibrations in the Unsprung Mass Mode 285

10.8 Verification Using the Complete Quarter Car Model 286

10.8.1 Verification of the influence of suspension stiffness 286

10.8.2 Verification of the influence of suspension damping 288

10.8.3 Verification of the influence of tire stiffness 290

10.9 Half-Car and Full-Car Suspension Models 292

xx Contents

10.10 Chapter Summary 298

Nomenclature 298

References 300

11. ACTIVE AUTOMOTIVE SUSPENSIONS 301

11.1 Introduction 301

11.2 Active Control: Trade-Offs and Limitations 304

11.2.1 Transfer functions of interest 304

11.2.2 Use of the LQR Formulation and its relation to

H 2-Optimal Control 304

11.2.3 LQR formulation for active suspension design 306

11.2.4 Performance studies of the LQR controller 307

11.3 Active System Asymptotes 313

11.4 Invariant Points and Their Influence on the Suspension

Problem 315

11.5 Analysis of Trade-Offs Using Invariant Points 317

11.5.1 Ride quality/ road holding trade-offs 317

11.5.2 Ride quality/ rattle space trade-offs 319

11.6 Conclusions on Achievable Active System Performance 320

11.7 Performance of a Simple Velocity Feedback Controller 321

11.8 Hydraulic Actuators for Active Suspensions 323

11.9 Chapter Summary 325

Nomenclature 326

References 327
Contents xxi

12. SEMI-ACTIVE SUSPENSIONS 329

12.1 Introduction 329

12.2 Semi-Active Suspension Model 331

12.3 Theoretical Results: Optimal Semi-Active Suspensions 333

12.3.1 Problem formulation 333

12.3.2 Problem definition 335

12.3.3 Optimal solution with no constraints on damping 336

12.3.4 Optimal solution in the presence of constraints 339

12.4 Interpretation of the Optimal Semi-Active Control Law 340

12.5 Simulation Results 342

12.6 Calculation of Transfer Function Plots with Semi-Active

Systems 345

12.7 Performance of Semi-Active Systems 347

12.7.1 Moderately weighted ride quality 347

12.7.2 Sky hook damping 349

12.8 Chapter Summary 352

Nomenclature 352

References 353

13. LATERAL AND LONGITUDINAL TIRE FORCES 355

13.1 Tire Forces 355

13.2 Tire Structure 357

13.3 Longitudinal Tire Force at Small Slip Ratios 359

xxii Contents

13.4 Lateral Tire Force at Small Slip Angles 362

13.5 Introduction to the Magic Formula Tire Model 365

13.6 Development of Lateral Tire Model for Uniform Normal

Force Distribution 367

13.6.1 Lateral forces at small slip angles 368

13.6.2 Lateral forces at large slip angles 371

13.7 Development of Lateral Tire Model for Parabolic Normal

Pressure Distribution 375

13.8 Combined Lateral and Longitudinal Tire Force Generation 381

13.9 The Magic Formula Tire Model 385

13.10 Dugoff’s Tire Model 389

13.10.1 Introduction 389

13.10.2 Model equations 390

13.10.3 Friction circle interpretation of Dugoff’s model 390

13.11 Dynamic Tire Model 392

13.12 Chapter Summary 393

Nomenclature 393

References 395

14. TIRE-ROAD FRICTION MEASUREMENT ON HIGHWAY

VEHICLES 397

14.1 Introduction 397

14.1.1 Definition of tire-road friction coefficient 397

14.1.2 Benefits of tire-road friction estimation 398

Contents xxiii

14.1.3 Review of results on tire-road friction coefficient

estimation 399

14.1.4 Review of results on slip-slope based approach

to friction estimation 399

14.2 Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamics and Tire Model for Friction

Estimation 401

14.2.1 Vehicle longitudinal dynamics 401

14.2.2 Determination of the normal force 402

14.2.3 Tire model 403

14.2.4 Friction coefficient estimation for both traction

and braking 404

14.3 Summary of Longitudinal Friction identification Approach 408

14.4 Identification Algorithm Design 409

14.4.1 Recursive least-squares (RLS) identification 409

14.4.2 RLS with gain switching 410

14.4.3 Conditions for parameter updates 412

14.5 Estimation of Accelerometer Bias 412

14.6 Experimental Results 415

14.6.1 System hardware and software 415

14.6.2 Tests on dry concrete road surface 416

14.6.3 Tests on concrete surface with loose snow covering 418

14.6.4 Tests on surface consisting of two different friction

levels 419

14.6.5 Hard braking test 421

xxiv Contents

14.7 Chapter Summary 422

Nomenclature 423

References 424

15. ROLL DYNAMICS AND ROLLOVER PREVENTION 427

15.1 Rollover Resistance Rating for Vehicles 427

15.2 One Degree of Freedom Roll Dynamics Model 433

15.3 Four Degrees of Freedom Roll Dynamics Model 440

15.4 Rollover Index 444

15.5 Rollover Prevention 448

15.6 Chapter Summary 453

Nomenclature 453

References 455

16. DYNAMICS AND CONTROL OF HYBRID GAS ELECTRIC

VEHICLES 457

16.1 Types of Hybrid Powertrains 458

16.2 Powertrain Dynamic Model 461

16.2.1 Dynamic Model for Simulation of a Parallel

Gas-Electric Hybrid Vehicle 461

16.2.2 Dynamic Model for Simulation of a Power-Split

Hybrid Vehicle 464

16.3 Background on Control Design Techniques for Energy

Management 469

16.3.1 Dynamic Programming Overview 469

16.3.2 Model Predictive Control Overview 473

Contents xxv

16.3.3 Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy 478

16.4 Driving Cycles 480

16.5 Performance Index, Constraints and System Model Details

for Control Design 482

16.6 Illustration of Control System Design for a Parallel Hybrid

Vehicle 486

16.7 Chapter Summary 488

Nomenclature 488

References 490

Index 493