Kinetic Particle Theory
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Kinetic Particle Theory
The picture above shows tear gas being used by the police for crowd control. It works by irritating the mucous
membranes in your eyes, nose, mouth, throat and lungs, causing tremendous pain and discharge of fluids, e.g., tears and
mucus. Hence, tear gas was also once known as a lachrymatory agent (from lachrymal meaning 'tear').
For riot control, tear gas is discharged from cartridges such as the ones below. To be effective, only a very small amount
of gas is required to be packed inside the cartridges.
In training context, cartridges are sometimes not used. This is because there is no way to control the discharge once the
cartridge is fired and begins discharging. To allow a controlled release of tear gas for training, tear gas tablets are used.
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They are placed on a small pan and heated gently with a flame (from a Bunsen burner). The tablet melts into a liquid
which is vapourised upon further heating to release the tear gas. All this is done in a controlled fashion, and in an
enclosed environment. Notice what happens to you once the gas hits you! You break out into an uncontrollable coughing
and tearing fit!
What changes in state take place when the tear gas tablet is heated?
What happens at the atomic level?
How does the solid tear gas tablet get to the trainee?
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Learning Outcomes
1. Describe the main properties of solids, liquids and gases.
2. Describe and explain the movement of particles in liquids and gases.
3. Explain the interconversion of states of matter in terms of the kinetic particle theory and the energy changes involved.
4. Explain everyday examples of diffusion in terms of particles.
5. State the qualitative effect of particle mass on the rate of diffusion and explain the effect of temperature on the rate of
diffusion.
Accompanying Material
1. Tutorial
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1. What is Matter and What are its Different States?
Matter is anything that __________________________________________
There are three states of matter: solid, liquid, gas, and they have different properties.
Figure 1.1 Greenland's Birthday Canyon
Solids Liquids Gases
Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume
Fixed shape No fixed shape No fixed shape
Cannot be compressed Cannot be compressed Easily compressed
Do not flow Flow easily Flow in all directions
2. What is the Kinetic Particle Theory?
The kinetic particle theory states that:
- Particles are __________ and are ________________________________.
- There are ___________ between particles of matter, and this space is different between
solids, liquids and gases.
- Particles are in __________________________, and they move at different speeds in solids,
liquids and gases.
3. Is there any Evidence for the Kinetic Particle Theory?
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Diffusion is the spreading and mixing of particles in liquids and gases from
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Diffusion provides indirect evidence that matter comprises particles (which are too small to be
seen with the naked eyes).
Science-in-Action
Can we 'see' atoms? Scientists have used the Scanning Tunnelling Microscope (STM) to take a
'picture' of the surface of a silicon crystal. The STM has a microprobe which
generates a tiny current as the probe passes over the electron cloud of
individual atoms. What is the electron cloud? You will learn more of this in the
next chapter on atoms.
Figure 3.1 Silicon atoms
3.1 Diffusion in Gases
Figure 3.1.1 Diffusion of bromine
Interpretation of Figure 3.1.1
- A few drops of liquid bromine are placed in a gas jar.
- The bromine evaporates to fill the gas jar with reddish-brown vapour.
- An empty gas jar filled with air only is placed above the gas jar full of bromine vapour.
- The reddish-brown vapour diffuses throughout the two gas jars after a period of time, even
though bromine vapour is denser than air.
- The bromine vapour moves upwards while the air particles move downwards and eventually
they are completely mixed.
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Singapore's Context
There have been several incidences of gas
explosions in HDB flats. One such flat in
Bukit Merah was 'totalled' when a gas
explosion ripped through the unit. A gas
leak was suspected, and the gas which
diffused throughout the unit was accidentally
ignited, probably by an electric spark.
Figure 3.1.2 Aftermath of a gas explosion
3.2 Diffusion in Liquids
Figure 3.2.1 Diffusion of potassium manganate(VII) in water
Interpretation of Figure 3.2.1
- A small crystal of potassium manganate(VII) is placed in water and dissolves to form a
purple solution.
- The purple colour diffuses throughout the water.
4. Factors Affecting the Rate of Diffusion
Two factors affect the rate of diffusion:
- Temperature
Particles move faster at higher temperatures as they absorb the heat energy.
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The faster the particles move, the faster the rate of diffusion, i.e., the higher the
temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion.
- Mass of particle
The greater the (molecular) mass of a particle, the slower the rate of diffusion.
white ring of ammonium
plug of cotton wool soaked in chloride, NH4Cl plug of cotton wool soaked in
concentrated ammonia, NH3 concentrated hydrochloric acid,
HCl
about 2 parts about 1 part
Figure 4.1 The rate of diffusion of ammonia and hydrochloric acid vapour
determines the position of the white solid formed
Interpretation of Figure 4.1
o One plug of cotton wool is soaked in concentrated ammonia and placed at one end
of the glass tube.
o One plug of cotton wool is soaked in concentrated hydrochloric acid and placed at
one end of the glass tube.
o The glass tube is stoppered and observed.
o A white ring is formed nearer the plug of cotton soaked in acid. Why?
The ammonia and hydrochloric acid vapourises, and the particles diffuse along
the glass tube.
When they meet, they react to form ammonium chloride, the white solid.
Ammonia particles have a smaller relative molecular mass (NH3 = ________)
compared to hydrogen chloride particles (HCl = ___________).
As a result, ammonia particles diffuse _______________ than the hydrogen
chloride particles.
Hence, the white ring of ammonium chloride forms nearer the plug of cotton wool
soaked in concentrated hydrochloric acid.
The relative molecular mass of hydrogen chloride is ________________ that
of ammonia. Hence, the ammonia particles travel twice as much distance
compared to the hydrogen chloride particles (Observe that if we divide the
glass tube into 3 segments, the white ring forms at 1/3 the length of the glass tube
from the acid).
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Checkpoint 1
The following experiment is set up using oxygen inside the porous jar and a gas X.
In order to produce the greatest rise in the water level at Y, which of the following should be gas X?
A. Argon, Ar
B. Methane, CH4
C. Carbon dioxide, CO2
D. Carbon monoxide, CO
Give your reasons for the answer.
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5. How Do Scientists Construct Models of Matter Based on Kinetic Particle Theory -
Particulate Models of Matter?
Particles in a Solid Particles in a Liquids Particles in a Gases
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
Very little empty space Very little empty space Large spaces between
between them. between them, although them.
Cannot be compressed. further apart than in Can be compressed
Vibrate but cannot move solids. easily.
freely about their fixed Cannot be compressed. Vibrate and are free to
positions. Vibrate and can move move throughout the
freely throughout the container.
liquid.
The particulate models above show the arrangement of particles in solids, liquids and gases.
The arrangement also allows us to explain some properties of solids, liquids and gases, e.g.,
compressibility, rate of diffusion of substances in them.
Checkpoint 2
1. Sketch diagrams to show the changes in the arrangement of particles in a block of ice when
heated until it forms vapour.
2. Using your diagrams above, explain (a) why ice cannot be compressed, and (b) why ice has a
density of 0.92 g/cm3 whereas water vapour has a density of 0.75 mg/cm3.
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6. Relating the Properties of Particles to the Macroscopic Properties of Matter
The properties of matter must not be confused with the properties of particles.
For example,
Matter Particles
May be coloured, e.g., gold, iodine Are not coloured
May be hot or cold Do not get hot or cold
Expands when heated because the distance Do not expand
between the particles increase (as they vibrate
more vigorously and move further apart)
7. Using the Kinetic Particle Theory to Explain Changes in State
sublimation
freezing condensation
melting boiling/
evaporation
solid liquid gas
Figure 7.1 How the particulate model of matter represents changes in state
7.1 Melting
Change in state from solid to liquid.
Temperature at which the solid melts to become a liquid is known as the melting point.
Process is as follows:
(1) Particles in the solid absorb energy.
(2) This energy causes the particles to vibrate faster about their fixed positions.
(3) The vibrations of the particles overcome the forces of attraction between them.
(4) The particles are no longer in fixed positions.
(5) They can now move about freely, although still packed closely together.
(6) The solid has now melted to form a liquid.
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Graphical interpretation of melting as follows:
segment BC segment CD
segment AB
Figure 7.1.1 Temperature changes during melting
(1) Segment AB
- Temperature of the solid increases upon heating until ___________________________.
- The solid begins to melt at point B.
(2) Segment BC
- Heat energy absorbed by the particles is used to ____________________________
holding the particles together instead of being used to raise the temperature.
- Hence, the temperature _______________________________________ during melting.
- At this temperature, a solid-liquid mixture exists.
(1) Segment CD
- At point C, all the solid has ________________.
- The temperature of the liquid increases now as more heat is absorbed.
7.2 Freezing
Change in state from liquid to solid.
Temperature at which the liquid freezes to become a solid is known as the freezing point.
Process is as follows:
(1) Particles in the liquid lose energy.
(2) The particles begin to move more slowly as the temperature decreases.
(3) The particles are overcome by the forces of attraction and can no longer move freely.
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(4) The particles settle into fixed positions.
(5) The liquid has now frozen to form a solid.
Graphical interpretation of freezing as follows:
segment WX segment XY
segment YZ
Figure 7.2.1 Temperature changes during freezing
(1) Segment WX
- Temperature of liquid decreases upon cooling until ______________________________
- The liquid begins to freeze at point X.
(2) Segment XY
- Heat energy is released from the liquid when the movement of the _________________
_____________________________________________________
- The temperature does not decrease further and remains constant during freezing.
- At this temperature, a ___________________exists.
(3) Segment YZ
- At point Y, all the liquid has changed into a solid (frozen).
- The temperature of the solid decreases as cooling continues.
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Beauty of Nature
Water when frozen slowly can produce water crystals with beautiful patterns:
7.3 Boiling
Change in state from liquid to gas.
Temperature at which a liquid boils to form a vapour is known as the boiling point.
Process is as follows:
(1) Particles in the liquid absorb energy.
(2) The particles move faster as temperature increases
(3) The particles gain enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction holding them together.
(4) The particles move further apart and more freely.
(5) When the particles gain enough energy to overcome both the forces of attraction and
atmospheric pressure, the liquid changes into a gas.
Graphical interpretation of boiling as follows:
point A segment AB
segment 0A
Figure 7.3.1 Temperature changes during boiling
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(1) Segment 0A
- Temperature of liquid increases until it ______________________________________.
- The liquid begins to _______ at point A.
(2) Segment AB
- Heat energy is absorbed by the particles of the liquid and used to __________________
_____________________________________________________
- Hence, the temperature does not change but remain constant during boiling.
- The particles form a gas and move about freely.
Checkpoint 3
1. The graph below shows the temperature changes during the cooling of oxygen at atmospheric
pressure.
a) Which of the segments in the graph indicates the following state(s) of oxygen:
- solid only:
- solid and liquid:
- liquid only:
- liquid and gas:
- gas only:
b) Which of the segments in the graph will the greatest decrease in volume of oxygen be
observed?
A. AB BC
B. BC CD
C. CD DE
D. DE EF
c) Give your reason(s) for your answer in (b).
2. A substance has a boiling point of 80 oC and a melting point of 30 oC. Draw a cooling curve to
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show the changes in temperature when a sample of this substance is cooled from 100 oC to
0 oC.
7.4 Condensation
Change in state from ________________________.
Temperature at which a gas condenses to form a liquid is the same as the boiling point.
7.5 Evaporation
Change in state from _______________________________.
Evaporation occurs ________________________________, and the particles escape from the
surface of the liquid to form a gas.
7.6 Sublimation
Change in state from ________________________ to form a liquid, e.g., sublimation of iodine.
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Figure 7.6.1 Sublimation of iodine
Checkpoint 4
1. State the difference between boiling and evaporation.
2. The change in state from a solid to a gas is known as sublimation. Suggest the term used to
describe the reverse, i.e., a change in state from a gas to a solid.
3. The melting and boiling points of six substances are given below.
Substance Melting point/ oC Boiling point/ oC
A -112 -108
B -39 357
C 25 280
D 98 890
E 114 184
F 832 1330
a) Which substance(s) is a gas at room temperature?
b) Which substance(s) is a liquid at room temperature?
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c) Which substance(s) will change its physical state when heated from 0 oC to 50 oC?
d) Which substance(s) exist in the liquid state over the widest range of temperature?
e) Which substance will have its particles furthest apart at 0 oC?
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What changes in state take place when the tear gas tablet is heated?
The tear gas tablet melts to form a liquid, then vapourises to form a gas.
What happens at the atomic level?
melting boiling
solid liquid gas
The particles in the solid gain energy and vibrate faster. When they gain enough energy to
overcome the forces of attraction that hold them together, they can now move freely and forms a
liquid. The particles in the liquid continue to gain energy and move about faster. When they gain
enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction that hold them together, they escape from the
liquid into the surroundings, and can move about more freely, forming a gas.
How does the solid tear gas tablet get to the trainee?
The particles diffuse through the air to get to the trainee.
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