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 Linear Integrated Circuits
(EC8453)

Department : ECE

Batch/Year : 2019-2023

Created by : Dr.V.Sumitra ASP/ECE

Dr.Jasmine Hepzhibha AP/ECE

Ms.S.Rosaline AP/ECE

Mr.SathyaVignesh AP/ECE
 Table of Contents
S.No Contents Page
Number
1 Course Objectives 7

2 Pre Requisites 9

3 Syllabus 11

4 Course outcomes 14

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 16

6 Unit 2 – Applications of Operational Amplifiers 19

6.1 Lecture Plan 20

6.2 Activity based learning 21

6.3 Lecture Notes 23

 Sign Changer 25

 Scale Changer 25

 Phase Shift Circuits 26

 V-to-I Converters 32

 I-to-V Converters 35

 Adder 36

 Subtractor 40

 Instrumentation Amplifier 44

 Differentiator 49

 Integrator 55

 Logarithmic Amplifier 60

 Antilogarithmic Amplifier 66
 Table of Contents

S.No Contents Page

Number
 Comparators 69
 Schmitt Trigger 77
 Precision Rectifier 83
 Peak Detector 87
 Clipper 88
 Clamper 91

 Low Pass Butterworth Filters 95

 High Pass Butterworth Filters 102

 Band Pass Butterworth Filters 104

 Problems 110

 Links to video and e-book references 122

 Test Yourself 126

6.4 Assignments 131

6.5 Part A Questions & Answers 133

6.6 Part B Questions 139

6.7 Supportive online Certification courses 142

6.8 Real time Applications in day to day life and to 143

Industry
6.9 Contents beyond the Syllabus 145

7 Assessment Schedule 150

8 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 152

9 Mini Project suggestions 154

Course Objectives
Subject Name: Linear Integrated Circuits
Subject Code: EC8453
EC8453 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
COURSE OBJECTIVES

The student should be made to:

To introduce the basic building blocks of linear integrated circuits

To learn the linear and non-linear applications of operational amplifiers
To introduce the theory and applications of analog multipliers and PLL
To learn the theory of ADC and DAC
To introduce the concepts of waveform generation and introduce some
special function ICs
Pre Requisites

Subject Name: Linear Integrated Circuits

Subject Code: EC8453

Subject Name : Engineering Mathematics I
Subject Code : MA8151
Semester :1
Reason : For mathematical analysis

Subject Name: Physics for Electronics Engineering

Subject Code : PH8252
Semester :2
Reason : Students should be familiar with the essential principles of
semiconductor devices

Subject Name : Circuit Analysis

Subject Code : EC8251
Semester :2
Reason : Students should be familiar with the analysis of different
circuits and applying basic theorem such as Thevenin’s
theorem, Principle of Superposition etc

Subject Name: Electronic Devices

Subject Code : EC8252
Semester :2
Reason : Knowledge about basic Electronics Components

Subject Name: Electronic Circuits - I

Subject Code : EC8351
Semester :3
Reason : Students should be familiar with various biasing techniques
and the analysis of Electronic Circuits
 Syllabus

Subject Name: Linear Integrated Circuits

Subject Code: EC8453

EC8453 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS LTPC
3003

UNIT I BASICS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 9

Current mirror and current sources, Current sources as active loads,

Voltage sources, Voltage References, BJT Differential amplifier with
active loads, Basic information about op-amps – Ideal Operational
Amplifier - General operational amplifier stages -and internal circuit
diagrams of IC 741, DC and AC performance characteristics, slew rate,
Open and closed loop configurations – JFET Operational Amplifiers –
LF155 and TL082.

UNIT II APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 9

Sign Changer, Scale Changer, Phase Shift Circuits, Voltage Follower, V-

to-I and I-to-V converters, adder, subtractor, Instrumentation amplifier,
Integrator, Differentiator, Logarithmic amplifier, Antilogarithmic
amplifier, Comparators, Schmitt trigger, Precision rectifier, peak
detector, clipper and clamper, Low-pass, high-pass and band-pass
Butterworth filters.

UNIT III ANALOG MULTIPLIER AND PLL 9

Analog Multiplier using Emitter Coupled Transistor Pair - Gilbert

Multiplier cell – Variable transconductance technique, analog multiplier
ICs and their applications, Operation of the basic PLL, Closed loop
analysis, Voltage controlled oscillator, Monolithic PLL IC 565,
application of PLL for AM detection, FM detection, FSK modulation and
demodulation and Frequency synthesizing and clock synchronisation.
EC8453 LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS LTPC
3003

UNIT IV ANALOG TO DIGITAL AND DIGITAL TO ANALOG

CONVERTERS 9

Analog and Digital Data Conversions, D/A converter – specifications -

weighted resistor type, R-2R Ladder type, Voltage Mode and Current-
Mode R - 2R Ladder types - switches for D/A converters, high speed
sample-and-hold circuits, A/D Converters – specifications - Flash type -
Successive Approximation type - Single Slope type – Dual Slope type -
A/D Converter using Voltage-to-Time Conversion - Over-sampling A/D
Converters, Sigma – Delta converters.

UNIT V WAVEFORM GENERATORS AND SPECIAL

FUNCTION ICS 9

Sine-wave generators, Multivibrators and Triangular wave generator,

Saw-tooth wave generator, ICL8038 function generator, Timer IC 555,
IC Voltage regulators – Three terminal fixed and adjustable voltage
regulators - IC 723 general purpose regulator - Monolithic switching
regulator, Low Drop – Out(LDO) Regulators - Switched capacitor filter
IC MF10, Frequency to Voltage and Voltage to Frequency converters,
Audio Power amplifier, Video Amplifier, Isolation Amplifier,
Optocouplers and fibre optic IC.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
 Course Outcomes

At the end of the course, the student should be able to:

Design basic building blocks of Op-amp.

Design Linear and non linear applications of Op-amp.
Use analog multiplier IC and PLL for signal processing applications.
Design ADC and DAC using Op-amp.
Design Waveform generator circuits using Op-amp and IC555 timer.
Analyze special function ICs.
Course Outcomes and Blooms K Level

Course Statement Blooms

Outcomes K_Level

CO1 Design basic building blocks of Op-amp K4

CO2 Design Linear and non linear applications of K4

Op-amp.

CO3 Use analog multiplier IC and PLL for signal K3

processing applications.

CO4 Design ADC and DAC using Op-amp. K4

CO5 Design Waveform generator circuits using Op- K3

amp and IC555 timer.

CO6 Analyze special function ICs. K3

CO-PO/PSO mapping
 Program Outcomes PSO
Course Level of PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO PSO
Outcome Outcome 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
ADC
K3 K4 K4 K5 K3/ A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2 K3 K3 K3
K5/
K6

CO1 K4 3 2 2 2 3 1 - - - - 1 1 3 3 3

CO2 K4 3 3 3 2 3 1 - - - - 1 1 3 3 3

CO3 K3 3 2 2 1 3 1 - - - - 1 1 3 3 3

CO4 K4 3 3 3 2 3 1 - - - - 1 1 3 3 3

CO5 K3 3 2 2 1 3 1 - - - - 1 1 3 3 3
CO-PO/PSO mapping

CO6 K3 3 2 2 1 3 1 - - - - 1 1 3 3 3

Average 3 2 2 2 3 1 - - - - 1 1 3 3 3
CO
Mapping
 CO-PO/PSO mapping
After Successful Completion of the course, the students
should be able to
Course Statement Highest
Outcomes Cognitive
Level
CO1 Design basic building blocks of Op-amp K4

CO2 Design Linear and non linear applications of Op-amp. K4

CO3 Use analog multiplier IC and PLL for signal processing K3
applications.
CO4 Design ADC and DAC using Op-amp. K4

CO5 Design Waveform generator circuits using Op-amp K3

and IC555 timer.
CO6 Analyze special function ICs. K3
 Unit -2
Applications of Operational Amplifier
 LECTURE PLAN
UNIT II – APPLICATIONS OF OPEATIONAL AMPLIFIER

Mode of Delivery
Taxonomy level
Proposed Date
No. of Periods

Pertaining CO
Actual Date

Reason for
Deviation
S.No

Topic

1 Sign Changer, Scale 1 9th 9th CO2 K4 PowerPoint -

Changer, Phase Shift March March Analyze through
online
Circuits 2021 2021
2 Voltage Follower, V 1 10th 10th CO2 K2 PowerPoint -
to I and I to V March March Understand through
online
converters 2021 2021
3 Adder, Subtractor, 1 11th 11th CO2 K4 PowerPoint -
Instrumentation March March Analyze through
online
Amplifier 2021 2021
4 Integrator, 1 13th 13th CO2 K4 PowerPoint -
Differentiator March March Analyze through
online
2021 2021
5 Logarithmic 1 15th 15th CO2 K2 PowerPoint -
Amplifier, March March Understand through
online
Antilogarithmic 2021 2021
Amplifier
6 Comparators, 1 16th 16th CO2 K3 PowerPoint -
Schmitt trigger March March Apply through
online
2021 2021
7 Precision Rectifier, 1 17th 17th CO2 K3 PowerPoint -
Peak detector, March March Apply through
online
Clipper 2021 2021

8 Clamper, Low pass 1 18th 18th CO2 K4 PowerPoint -

and High pass March March Analyze through
online
Butterworth filters 2021 2021

9 Band pass 1 20th 20th CO2 K4 PowerPoint -

Butterworth filters, March March Analyze through
online
Problems 2021 2021

Total No. of Periods : 9

 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

Activity 1: Finding the Hidden Objects and Circuits

Find out the

hidden object
shown in the
picture

Find out the hidden Circuits From the following

1. Name the circuit

2. How many no. of
hidden circuits
available and Name
each of them
 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING
Activity 2: Simulate using PSPICE and Interpret the
results Observed
Lecture Notes
 UNIT II
APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Sign Changer, Scale Changer, Phase Shift Circuits, Voltage Follower, V-to-I and I-to-V
converters, adder, subtractor, Instrumentation amplifier, Integrator, Differentiator,
Logarithmic amplifier, Antilogarithmic amplifier, Comparators, Schmitt trigger,
Precision rectifier, peak detector, clipper and clamper, Low-pass, high-pass and band-
pass Butterworth filters.

Introduction
Op-Amp has enormous applications

1. Linear Applications:
In linear circuits, the output signal varies with the input in a linear manner.
Some linear applications are
Adder, Subtractor, V-I Converters, I-V Converters, Instrumentation
amplifiers, Analog Computation, Power amplifiers etc

2. Non - Linear Applications:

These circuits are highly non linear with input and output characteristics.
Example: Rectifier, Peak Detector, Clipper, Clamper, Sample and hold circuit, log
and antilog amplifier, multiplier.

Basic Op-amp Applications:

i) Scale Changer/ Inverter, Sign Changer, Phase Shifter

ii) Summing Amplifier (Inverting and Non-inverting)
iii) Subtractor
iv) Adder/ Subtractor

Click on the link below to know about Different Op-amp Applications

Op-Amp Applications
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/linear_integrated_circuits_applicatio
ns/linear_integrated_circuits_applications_op_amp_applications.htm
Sign Changer (Inverter)

Consider the basic Inverting Amplifier

Fig: Inverting Amplifier

𝑅𝑓
If = 1 ⇒ 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = −1
𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝑉0𝑢𝑡
Then = −1 ⇒ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑖𝑛

Then the circuit is known as Inverter or Sign Changer.

The Output is 180 out of phase with respect to input though the magnitudes are
same.

Scale Changer (Inverter)

Consider the basic Inverting Amplifier

Fig: Inverting Amplifier

𝑅𝑓
If = 𝐾 ⇒ 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = −𝐾
𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝑉0𝑢𝑡
Then = −𝐾 ⇒ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝐾 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑖𝑛

Where K is the real Constant.

Then the circuit is known as Inverter or Sign Changer.
Phase Shift Circuits

The phase shift circuit produce phase shift of the input depend on the frequency
and maintain constant gain

1. Phase lag circuit:

Phase lag circuit has the input voltage common to both inverting and non-
inverting terminal (Common mode operation).
One capacitor is present in between the non inverting terminal and ground.

Fig: Phase Lag Circuit

Considering as inverting Amplifier

𝑅1
𝑉0 = − ∗ 𝑉𝑖
𝑅1

⇒ 𝑉0 = − 𝑉𝑖 −−→ (1)
Considering as non - inverting Amplifier

𝑅1
𝑉0 = 1 + ∗ 𝑉𝑎
𝑅1

⇒ 𝑉0 = 2 ∗ 𝑉𝑎 − − → (2)
Voltage 𝑉𝑎
1
𝑉𝑖 ∗
𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝑉𝑎 =
1
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶

1
𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝑗𝜔𝐶
⇒ 𝑉𝑎 =
(𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 1)
𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝑉𝑖
⇒ 𝑉𝑎 = −−→ (3)
𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 1

Substituting (3) in (2) we get

𝑉𝑖
𝑉0 = 2 ∗ −−→ (4)
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
When both the input voltages are tied together (1) + (4).

2 ∗ 𝑉𝑖
⇒ 𝑉0 = −𝑉𝑖 +
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

2 ∗ 𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔)
𝑉0 (𝑗𝜔) = −𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) +
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

2
𝑉0 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) −1 +
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

𝑉0 (𝑗𝜔) −1 − 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 2
=
𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

𝑉0 (𝑗𝜔) 1 − 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
=
𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

The phase angle can be

𝜃 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜔𝑅𝐶 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜔𝑅𝐶 = − 2 ∗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝜔𝑅𝐶)

 When 𝜔 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃 = 0 and
𝜔 = ∞ ⇒ 𝜃 = −180°

Fig: Bode Plot of Phase lag Circuit

The phase angle can be

𝜃 = − 2 ∗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝜔𝑅𝐶)

= − 2 ∗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶)

𝑓
= − 2 ∗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑓0
1
Where 𝑓0 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐶

So as frequency increases phase lag increases.

Click on these Youtube Videos to know more about the Phase

shift Circuits
Phase Shift Circuit using Op-Amp, Phase Lag Circuit - 1/2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYWhkFug5qk

Phase Shift Circuit using Op-Amp, Phase Lead Circuit, Part- 2/2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QU6HWnnkSBA
2. Phase lead circuit:
Consider the circuit with high pass RC network which leads in-phase with input.

Fig: Phase Lead Circuit

Considering as inverting Amplifier

𝑅1
𝑉0 = − ∗ 𝑉𝑖
𝑅1

⇒ 𝑉0 = − 𝑉𝑖 −−→ (1)
Considering an inverting Amplifier

𝑅1
𝑉0 = 1 + ∗ 𝑉𝑎
𝑅1

⇒ 𝑉0 = 2 ∗ 𝑉𝑎 − − → (2)

𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝑅
𝑉𝑎 =
1
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑉𝑎 =
(𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 1)
𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝑉𝑖 𝑅 (𝑗𝜔𝐶)
⇒ 𝑉𝑎 = −−→ (3)
𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 1
Substituting (3) in (2) we get

2 ∗ 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
𝑉0 = ∗ 𝑉𝑖 −−→ (4)
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
When both the input voltages are tied together (1) + (4).

2 ∗ 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
⇒ 𝑉0 = −𝑉𝑖 + ∗ 𝑉𝑖
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

2 ∗ 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
𝑉0 𝑗𝜔 = −𝑉𝑖 𝑗𝜔 + ∗ 𝑉 (𝑗𝜔)
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 𝑖

2𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
𝑉0 (𝑗𝜔) = 𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) −1 +
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

𝑉0 (𝑗𝜔) −1 − 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 2𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

=
𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

𝑉0 (𝑗𝜔) −1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
=
𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

Fig: Bode Plot of Phase lead Circuit

The phase angle can be

𝜃 = 180° − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜔𝑅𝐶 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜔𝑅𝐶 = 180° − 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝜔𝑅𝐶)

When 𝜔 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃 = 180° and

𝜔 = ∞ ⇒ 𝜃 = 0°

So as frequency increases phase lead decreases

 Voltage Follower

Consider the non inverting amplifier

In which the input resistance is infinite (i.e inverting terminal is not grounded)
and the feedback resistance is zero (i.e feedback loop is closed).
Now the modified circuit is known as voltage follower.

Fig: Voltage Follower

𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 = 1 + 𝑉 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝑅𝑖 𝑖
Substituting 𝑅𝑓 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑖 = ∞

0
𝑉0 = 1 + 𝑉 ⇒ 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖
∞ 𝑖
The output is equal to input voltage both in magnitude and phase.
Output follows input voltage exactly.
Input impedance of the voltage follower is very high (i.e M) and output
impedance is zero.
So it draws minimum current
Applications:
It can be used as buffer for impedance matching (i.e) to connect a high
impedance source to a low impedance load

Watch this Youtube video to know the applications of Voltage

Follower Circuit
Applications of the Op-Amp Voltage Follower Circuit
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ScONCdsdxYk
Voltage to current Converter (Transconductance
Amplifier)

This circuit convert the input voltage signal to the proportional output current.
There are two types of circuit
i) V-I converter with floating load
ii) V-I converter with grounded load

V-I Converter with floating load

Fig: Voltage to current converter with floating load

The load 𝑅𝐿 is floating.

Since the voltage is 𝑉𝑖𝑛 at node ‘a’

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑅

𝑖𝐿 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 /𝑅

Floating load is not grounded.

The circuit produces output current 𝑖𝐿 which is proportional to the input voltage
𝑉𝑖𝑛 .
V-I Converter with grounded load

Fig: Voltage to current converter with grounded load

In this circuit load 𝑅𝐿 is grounded

Let 𝑉1 be the voltage at node ‘a’
This circuit is an non-inverting amplifier

𝑅
So 𝑉0 = 1 + 𝑅 𝑉𝑎 −−→ (1)

Applying KCL at node ‘a’.

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐿

𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑎
+ = 𝐼𝐿
𝑅 𝑅

𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑅

𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑜 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅 = 2 𝑉𝑎

𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑜 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅
𝑉𝑎 = −−→ (2)
2
 Substituting (2) in (1) we get

𝑅 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑜 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅
𝑉0 = 1 +
𝑅 2

𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑜 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅
𝑉0 = 2 ∗
2

𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑜 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑅

𝑖𝐿 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 /𝑅

As the input impedance of a non-inverting amplifier is very high, this circuit has
the advantage of drawing very little current from the source
Applications of V-I Converter
 Low Voltage dc and ac voltmeter
 LED
 Zener Diode

Watch this animated Youtube video to know about Voltage to

Current Converter using Op-amp
Op-Amp: Voltage to Current Converter
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DeDk0Rl3Oa0

Watch this animated Youtube video to know about Current to

Voltage Converter using Op-amp
Op-Amp: Current to Voltage Converter (Transimpedance Amplifier)
and it's applications
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OMnZehJNGCY
Current to Voltage Converter (Trans resistance Amplifier)

Photocell, Photo diode and Photovoltaic cell give an output current that is
proportional to an incident radiant energy/light.
These current can be converted to voltage by using a current to voltage converter.
Thereby small amount of light or radiant energy incident on the photo diode can
be measured.

Fig: Current to Voltage Converter

The negative input terminal is at virtual ground. So no current flows along 𝑅𝑆

Current is flown across the feedback resistance 𝑅𝑓
∴ 𝑉0 = −𝐼𝑆 𝑅𝑓
The lowest current that this circuit can be measured depends on the bias current
𝐼𝐵 of the op-amp.
𝑅𝑓 shunted with capacitor 𝐶𝑓 to reduce high frequency noise and the possibility of
oscillations.
Adder (Summing Amplifier)

An op-amp can be used to design a circuit whose output is sum of several input
signals.
Such a circuit is called summing amplifier (or) summer (or) Adder.
Two types of summing amplifier are
 Inverting Summer
 Non-inverting Summer

1. Inverting Summer

Consider the inverting amplifier with

 Three input Voltages - 𝑉1, , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3
 Three input Resistance - 𝑅1, , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3
 Feedback Resistance - 𝑅𝑓

Assume the op-amp is ideal

𝑖. 𝑒 𝐴𝑂𝐿 = ∞, 𝑅𝑖 = ∞

Fig: Inverting Summer

Since the input bias current is assumed to be zero, there is no voltage drop across
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 . Hence non inverting input terminal is at ground potential.
Applying KCL at node ‘a’.
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉1 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉2 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉3 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉0
+ + + =0
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑓

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑎 = 0

−𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉0
− − − =0
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑓

𝑉0 −𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
= − −
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 = − 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑓

𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 = − 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓

𝑉0 = − 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

Therefore the output is the sum of three input voltages with 180 phase
shift

If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 3𝑅𝑓
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉0 = − 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉
3 ∗ 𝑅𝑓 3 ∗ 𝑅𝑓 3 ∗ 𝑅𝑓 3

𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝑉0 = −
3
Therefore the output is the average of three input voltages with 180
phase shift

In practical circuit, input bias current compensating resistor 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 should be

provided.
The value of 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 should be provided as the parallel combination of
𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑓
∴ 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2 ∥ 𝑅3 ∥ 𝑅𝑓
2. Non - Inverting Summer

Consider the non - inverting amplifier with

 Three input Voltages - 𝑉1, , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3
 Three input Resistance - 𝑅1, , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3
 Feedback Resistance - 𝑅𝑓

Assume the op-amp is ideal

𝑖. 𝑒 𝐴𝑂𝐿 = ∞, 𝑅𝑖 = ∞

The amplifier gives the non inverted sum of all the input voltages.
The output voltage is in-phase with the input voltages.

Fig: Non - Inverting Summer

The op-amp is the non-inverting amplifier

So the output Voltage
𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 = 1 + 𝑉𝑎 −−→ (1)
𝑅
To find 𝑉𝑎 - Apply KCL to node ‘a’

𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉1 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉2 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉3
+ + += 0
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
𝑉𝑎 + + = + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
 Therefore the output voltage 𝑉𝑎

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑉𝑎 = −−→ (2)
1 1 1
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Substituting (2) in (1) we get

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑉0 = 1 +
𝑅 1 1 1
+ +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑓 /2
1
𝑉 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 /2 1
𝑉0 = 1 +
𝑅𝑓 /2 1+1+1
𝑅𝑓 /2

𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝑉0 = 3 ∗
3

𝑉0 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

Watch this animated Youtube video to know about Current to

Voltage Converter using Op-amp
Op-Amp: Summing Amplifier (Inverting and Non-Inverting
Summing Amplifiers)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jsKSfaFQ4d4
Subtractor

A basic differential amplifier can be used as subtractor when all the resistance are
equal in value.
The output can be derived by superposition principle

𝑉0 = 𝑉01 + 𝑉02

Fig: Subtractor

𝑉01 ⇒ 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉2 𝑖𝑠 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉1 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛

𝑉02 ⇒ 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉1 𝑖𝑠 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉2 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛

𝑅 𝑅
𝑉01 = 1 + 𝑉 𝑉02 = − 𝑉
𝑅 𝑎 𝑅 2

𝑅 𝑉1 ∗ 𝑅 𝑅
𝑉01 = 1 + 𝑉02 = − 𝑉
𝑅 𝑅+𝑅 𝑅 2

𝑉1 ∗ 𝑅
𝑉01 = 2 ∗
2𝑅 𝑉02 = − 𝑉2

𝑉01 = 𝑉1

𝑉0 = 𝑉01 + 𝑉02

Thus total output Voltage 𝑉0 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2

Adder - Subtractor

It is possible to perform addition and subtraction simultaneously with a single op-

amp.

Fig: Adder-Subtractor

The output voltage can be obtained by using superposition theorem.

Output voltage 𝑉0 = 𝑉01 + 𝑉02 + 𝑉03 + 𝑉04

To find 𝑽𝟎𝟏 :
Voltage 𝑉1 is applied; 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 and 𝑉4 is grounded

−𝑅 𝑉1
𝑉01 = ⇒ 𝑉01 = − 𝑉1
𝑅/2 2
To find 𝑽𝟎𝟐 :
Voltage 𝑉2 is applied; 𝑉1 , 𝑉3 and 𝑉4 is grounded

V2 V2/2

V02=-V2

−𝑅 𝑉2
𝑉02 = ⇒ 𝑉02 = − 𝑉2
𝑅/2 2

To find 𝑽𝟎𝟑 :
Voltage 𝑉3 is applied; 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 and 𝑉4 is grounded

𝑅 𝑉3 𝑅ൗ2
𝑉03 = 1+
𝑅/2 𝑅 + 𝑅/2

𝑉3 𝑅ൗ2
𝑉03 = 1 + 2
3𝑅/2

⇒ 𝑉03 = 𝑉3
 To find 𝑽𝟎𝟒 :
Voltage 𝑉4 is applied; 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 and 𝑉3 is grounded

V4

𝑅 𝑉4 𝑅ൗ2
𝑉04 = 1+
𝑅/2 𝑅 + 𝑅/2

𝑉4 𝑅ൗ2
𝑉04 = 1 + 2
3𝑅/2

⇒ 𝑉04 = 𝑉4

To find the output voltage

𝑉0 = 𝑉01 + 𝑉02 + 𝑉03 + 𝑉04

𝑉0 = −𝑉1 − 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉4

So the circuit is an adder - subtractor

Watch this Youtube video to know the step by step operation

of Adder/Subtractor Circuit
Adder-Subtractor circuit using OPAMP

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EdxVoSl5nZU
Instrumentation Amplifier

No. of industrial and consumer applications needs to measure and control physical
quantities.
Ex : Measurement and control of temperature, humidity, light intensity, water flow
etc.
These physical quantities are usually measured with the help of transducers.
The output of the transducer has to be amplified so that it can drive the indicator
or display system.
This function is performed by an instrumentation amplifier.
The important features of an instrumentation amplifier are
i) high gain accuracy
ii) high CMRR
iii) high gain stability with low temperature coefficient
iv) low dc offset
v) low output impedance

A725 meet the above stated requirements.

Differential amplifier has low impedance which may load the signal source heavily.
Therefore high resistance buffer is used proceeding each input to avoid the
loading effect.

Fig: Instrumentation Amplifier

 As 𝑉𝑑 = 0 i.e for 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 , the voltage across R will be zero.
As no current flows through R and 𝑅′ the non inverting amplifier 𝐴1 acts as
voltage follower
∴ 𝑉1′ = 𝑉1

Similarly output of 𝐴2 𝑖𝑠 𝑉2′ = 𝑉2 .

However if 𝑉1 ≠ 𝑉2; current flows in R and R’ and 𝑉2′ − 𝑉1′ > 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 .
This circuit has more differential gain and CMRR.
The output 𝑉0 of the differential amplifier can be observed by superposition
principle.
𝑅2 ′ 𝑅2 𝑉2′ 𝑅2
𝑉0 = − 𝑉1 + 1 +
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅2 ′ 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑉2′ 𝑅2
=− 𝑉1 +
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅2 ′ 𝑅2 ′
=− 𝑉1 + 𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅1 2

𝑅2
𝑉0 = (𝑉2′ −𝑉1′ ) −−→ (1)
𝑅1

To find 𝑽′𝟏 :
𝑉1′ = 𝑉11
′ ′
+ 𝑉12

′
𝑉11 ⇒ Voltage observed at 𝑉1′ when 𝑉2 is grounded and supply voltage 𝑉1 is given
′
𝑉12 ⇒ Voltage observed at 𝑉1′ when 𝑉1 is grounded and supply voltage 𝑉2 is given

′
𝑅′
𝑉11 = 1+ 𝑉1
𝑅

′
𝑅′
𝑉12 =− 𝑉
𝑅 2
 𝑅′ 𝑅′
𝑉1′ = 1 + 𝑉1 − 𝑉
𝑅 𝑅 2

𝑅′ 𝑅′
= 𝑉1 + 𝑉 − 𝑉
𝑅 1 𝑅 2

𝑅′
𝑉1′ = 𝑉1 + (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) −−→ (2)
𝑅

To find 𝑽′𝟐 :
𝑉2′ = 𝑉21
′ ′
+ 𝑉22

′
𝑉21 ⇒ Voltage observed at 𝑉2′ when 𝑉2 is grounded and supply voltage 𝑉1 is given
′
𝑉22 ⇒ Voltage observed at 𝑉2′ when 𝑉1 is grounded and supply voltage 𝑉2 is given

′
𝑅′
𝑉21 =− 𝑉
𝑅 1

′
𝑅′
𝑉21 = 1+ 𝑉2
𝑅

𝑅′ 𝑅′
𝑉2′ =− 𝑉 + 1+ 𝑉2
𝑅 1 𝑅

𝑅′ 𝑅′
=− 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉
𝑅 𝑅 2

𝑅′
𝑉2′ = 𝑉2 + (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) −−→ (3)
𝑅

Substituting (2) and (3) in (1) we get

𝑅2 𝑅′ 𝑅′
𝑉0 = 𝑉2 + (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) − 𝑉1 + (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
𝑅1 𝑅 𝑅
 𝑅2 𝑅′ 𝑅′
𝑉0 = 𝑉2 + (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) − 𝑉1 + (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
𝑅1 𝑅 𝑅

𝑅2 𝑅′ 𝑅′
= (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) + (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) + (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑅1 𝑅 𝑅

𝑅2 2𝑅 ′
= 1+ (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑅1 𝑅

If we choose 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 25 𝐾𝛺; 𝑅 ′ = 25𝐾𝛺, 𝑅 = 50𝛺

𝑅2 25𝐾
For Differential Amplifier ⇒ 𝐴 = = =1
𝑅1 25𝐾

𝑅2 2𝑅′ 25𝐾 2∗25 𝐾

For Instrumentation Amplifier ⇒ 𝐴 = 1+ = 25𝐾 1 + = 1001
𝑅1 𝑅 50

So we can observe the gain of instrumentation amplifier is very large when

compared to differential amplifier.
The differential gain of the instrumentation amplifier can be varied by replacing
the resistance R by a potentiometer.
When Resistance R=0 ⇒ Gain = ∞

Fig: Instrumentation Amplifier using Bridge

 Figure shows the instrumentation amplifier using a transducer bridge where its
resistance changes as a function of the physical quantity to be measured.
The bridge is initially balanced by a dc supply voltage 𝑉𝑑𝑐 so that 𝑉1 = 𝑉2
As the physical quantity changes, resistance 𝑅𝑇 also changes causing 𝑉1 ≠ 𝑉2 . This
differential voltage now get amplified by the three op-amp differential
instrumentation op-amp.

Applications of Instrumentation amplifier

 As temperature indicator
 Temperature controller
 Light intensity meter

Watch this Youtube video for the analytical approach of

Instrumentation Amplifier
Instrumentation Amplifier Explained (with Derivation)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pSctPegtZfc

Watch this Lecture about Intsturmentation Amplifier by Prof.

Avishek Chatterjee, IIT Kharagpur

Lecture 75: Instrumentation Amplifier

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ssEAzB8MR7g

Watch this Youtube video to know more about the

applications of Instrumentation Amplifier
APPLICATIONS OF INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EdxVoSl5nZU
Differentiator

Differentiator circuit performs the mathematical operation of differentiator. The

output waveform is the derivative of the input waveform.
Differentiator circuit has capacitor in its input.

Ideal Differentiator

Fig: Ideal Differentiator

From the circuit we know that

𝑖𝑐 = 𝑖𝑓

𝑑𝑉𝑖 𝑉0
𝐶1 =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑓

𝑑𝑉𝑖
∴ 𝑉0 = −𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
𝑑𝑡

Thus the output voltage 𝑉0 is a constant (−𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 ) times the derivative

of the input voltage 𝑉𝑖
Negative sign indicates 180° phase shift
In S Domain (Taking Laplace Transform)

𝑑𝑉𝑖
𝑉0 = −𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
𝑑𝑡

𝑉0 𝑆 = −𝑆𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 𝑉𝑖 (𝑆)

𝑉0 𝑆
= −𝑆𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆)

Substitute 𝑆 = 𝑗𝜔

𝑉0 𝑆
= −𝑗𝜔𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆)

𝑉0 𝑆
= −𝑗𝜔𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆)

𝐴 = 𝜔𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 ⇒ 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓

= 2𝜋𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1

𝑓 1
𝐴= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑎 =
𝑓𝑎 2𝜋𝑅𝑓 𝐶1

At 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑎 ⇒ 𝐴 = 1 i.e 0 dB , an gain increase at a rate of + 20 dB / decade

Gain increases a frequency increases and decreases as frequency decreases.

Drawback of ideal differentiator:

 At high frequency, the ideal differentiator become unstable and
break into oscillation.
 The output impedance (i.e 1ൗ𝜔𝐶1) decreases with increase in
frequency thereby making the circuit sensitive to high frequency
noise.
Practical Differentiator

Practical differentiator eliminate the problem of instability and high frequency

noise

Fig: Practical Differentiator

From the circuit we can say

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑉0 𝑉0
= −𝐶𝑓 −
𝑍1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑓

𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑉0 𝑉0
= −𝐶𝑓 −
1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑓
𝑅1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶
1

In S domain

𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 𝑉0 (𝑆)
= −𝐶𝑓 𝑆 𝑉0 (𝑆) −
1 𝑅𝑓
𝑅1 + 𝑆𝐶
1

𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 𝑉0 (𝑆)
= −𝐶𝑓 𝑆 𝑉0 (𝑆) −
𝑆𝑅1 𝐶1 + 1 𝑅𝑓
𝑆𝐶1

𝑆𝐶1 𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 𝑉0 (𝑆)

= −𝐶𝑓 𝑆 𝑉0 (𝑆) −
𝑆𝑅1 𝐶1 + 1 𝑅𝑓
 𝑆𝐶1 1
𝑉 (𝑆) = −𝑉0 𝑆 𝑆𝐶𝑓 +
1 + 𝑆𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑖 𝑅𝑓

𝑆𝐶1
𝑉0 𝑆 1 + 𝑆𝑅1 𝐶1
=−
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 1 + 𝑆 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓
𝑅𝑓

𝑉0 𝑆 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅𝑓
=−
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 1 + 𝑆𝑅1 𝐶1 1 + 𝑆𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓

𝑉0 𝑆 𝑆 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
=− −−→ (1)
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 1 + 𝑆𝑅1 𝐶1 1 + 𝑆𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓

If 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 = 𝑅1 𝐶1

𝑉0 𝑆 − 𝑆 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
= 2
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 1 + 𝑆𝑅1 𝐶1

𝑉0 𝑆 − 𝑆 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
= 2
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 1 + 𝑗 𝜔 𝑅1 𝐶1

𝑉0 𝑆 − 𝑆 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
= 2
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 1 + 𝑗 ∗ 2𝜋𝑓 ∗ 𝑅1 𝐶1

𝑉0 𝑆 − 𝑆 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 1
= 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑏 =
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 𝑓 2𝜋𝑅1 𝐶1
1 + 𝑗 ൗ𝑓
𝑏

For frequency 𝑓 < 𝑓𝑏 Gain increases at +20dB/decade.

𝑓 > 𝑓𝑏 Gain increases at - 20dB/decade.

Ideal differentiator becomes instable at high frequency because the gain

increased continuously even after the limit of 𝑓𝑏 . This is reduced by practical
differentiator thereby avoiding high frequency noise and stability problems.
 Fig: Frequency Response of Practical Differentiator

The value of 𝑓𝑏
𝑓𝑎 < 𝑓𝑏 < 𝑓𝑐
where 𝑓𝑐 - Unity gain bandwidth of the op-amp in open loop configuration

Condition for good differentiator : 𝑇 ≥ 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1

where T is the time period of the input signal

When 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 ≫ 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 & 𝑅1 𝐶1 equation (1) becomes

𝑉0 𝑆
= −𝑆𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆)

and the output voltage remains the same of ideal differentiator

Note in practical differentiator if 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 ≫ 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 & 𝑅1 𝐶1 the differentiator become

ideal differentiator
 Steps to design a good differentiator
1. Choose 𝑓𝑎 (highest frequency) of input signal
Assume 𝐶1 < 1𝜇𝐹 (In Problems Assume 𝐶1 = 0.1𝜇𝐹 if the value is not given)
1
𝑓𝑎 =
2𝜋𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
2. Substitute 𝑓𝑏 = 10𝑓𝑎
1 1
w.k.t 𝑓𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑅 ⇒ 10 𝑓𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑅
1 𝐶1 1 𝐶1

3. 𝑅1 𝐶1 = 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 ⇒ 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑅𝑓

Input Square Waveform Input Sin Waveform

Output Spike Waveform

Output (-cos 𝜽) Waveform

Fig: Differentiator Input and Output Waveforms

Watch this Youtube video for the analytical understanding of

Differentiator and Integrator

Op-Amp as DIFFERENTIATOR And INTEGRATOR - Applications of Op-

AMP - BEE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=YZsup_LoMu8
Integrator

A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of the input voltage
waveform is called Integrator.
By Interchanging resistor and capacitor of differentiator we get the circuit called
integrator.
It performs the mathematical operation of integrator and also used as low pass
filter.

Ideal Integrator

Fig: Ideal Integrator

From the circuit we know that
𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑓

𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑉0
= − 𝐶𝑓
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉0 −1
∴ = 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 𝑖

Integrating on both sides

𝑡
−1
𝑉0 𝑡 = න 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑉0 (0)
𝑅1 𝐶𝑓
0

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉0 (0) is initial input voltage

Thus the circuit provides the output voltage which is proportional to the time
integral of input and 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 is the time constant of the integrator.
Simple low pass RC circuit can also work as an integrator when time constant is
very large (Require large value of R & C)
Frequency response of ideal op-amp

In S Domain

−1
𝑉0 𝑆 = 𝑉 (𝑆)
𝑆𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 𝑖

𝑉0 𝑆 −1
=
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 𝑆𝑅1 𝐶𝑓

Substituting 𝑆 = 𝑗𝜔

𝑉0 𝑗𝜔 −1
=
𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 𝑗 𝜔 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓

𝑉0 𝑗𝜔 1
𝐴 = =
𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 𝜔 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓

1
=
2𝜋𝑓 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓

1
=
𝑓
ൗ𝑓
𝑏
𝑓𝑏 1
𝐴 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑅
𝑓 1 𝐶𝑓

The gain of an integrator decreases with increasing frequency. Integrator does

not have any frequency problem as faced by differentiator.
However the low frequencies such as at DC the gain becomes infinite.
Gain drops 0dB at frequency 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑏
So when 𝑓 = 0 𝐴 =∞
𝑓=∞ 𝐴 =0

1
From the graph 𝑓𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑅 is the frequency at which the gain of the integrator
1 𝐶𝑓
become 0 dB.

Fig: Frequency response of Integrator

At 𝜔 = 0, the gain 𝐴 = ∞ i.e at dc, the capacitor 𝐶𝑓 behaves as an open circuit

and there is no negative feedback. Hence op-amp operates in open loop, resulting
in an infinite gain.

But in practice, output never becomes infinite rather the output saturates at a
voltage close to the op-amp positive (or) negative power supply depending on the
polarity of dc signal.

Drawbacks of ideal integrator

At low frequency the output saturates.
Practical Integrator (Lossy Integrator)
The gain of the integrator at low frequency (dc) can be limited to avoid saturation
problem of the feedback capacitor 𝐶𝐹 is shunted by a resistance 𝑅𝐹
𝑅𝐹 ∥ 𝐶𝐹 combination behaves like a practical capacitor and this provides dc
stabilization.

Fig: Practical Integrator

From the circuit we know that

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑉0 𝑉0
= − 𝐶𝑓 −
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑓
In S domain

𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 𝑉0 (𝑆)
= − 𝐶𝑓 𝑆 𝑉0 (𝑆) −
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓

𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 1
= −𝑉0 𝑆 𝐶𝑓 𝑆 +
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓

𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 1 + 𝑆 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓
= −𝑉0 𝑆
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
 𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) 𝑅𝑓 1
=−
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 𝑅𝑖 1 + 𝑆 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓
Substituting 𝑆 = 𝑗𝜔

𝑉𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) 𝑅𝑓 1
=−
𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 𝑅𝑖 1 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓

𝑉𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) 𝑅𝑓 1
𝐴 = = ∗
𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 𝑅𝑖
1+𝜔2 𝑅𝑓 2 𝐶𝑓 2

𝑅𝑓 1
= ∗
𝑅𝑖
1+ 2𝜋𝑓 2 𝑅𝑓 2 𝐶𝑓 2

𝑅𝑓 1 1
= ∗ 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑅
𝑅𝑖 𝑓 𝑓 𝐶𝑓
1+ ൗ𝑓𝑎

𝑅𝑓
At 𝑓 = 0 then 𝐴 = 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
At 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑎 then 𝐴 = = = 0.707 ∗
2 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖

𝑅𝑓
i. If 𝑓 < 𝑓𝑎 , 𝐴 = ; the circuit acts as inverting amplifier.
𝑅1

ii. If 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑎 ⇒ 50% accuracy in the output waveform

iii. If 𝑓 = 10 𝑓𝑎 ⇒ 99 % accuracy in the output waveform

Input Square Waveform Input Sin Waveform

Output Triangular Waveform

Output cos Waveform

Fig: Integrator Input and Output Waveforms

Logarithmic Amplifier

Log and antilog computation may require functions such as ln 𝑋, log 𝑋 𝑜𝑟 sinh 𝑋 .
These can be performed continuously with log omp’s.
To have direct dB display on digital voltmeter and Spectrum analyser, log amplifier
are used
Log amplifiers can also be said to compress the dynamic range of signal
The fundamental log amplifier is formed by placing a grounded base transistor in
which is placed in the feedback path.

Fig: Fundamental log-amp circuits

The base is grounded and the collector is virtually grounded.

Transistor voltage current relationship is given by

𝑞𝑉𝐸ൗ
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝐾𝑇 −1

where 𝐼𝑠 - Emitter saturation current ≅ 10−13 𝐴

K – Boltzmann Constant
T – Absolute temperature (in K)
𝑉𝐸 - Base emitter Voltage
Since 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐸 (∵ 𝐼𝐵 is grounded)

𝑞𝑉𝐸ൗ
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝐾𝑇 −1

𝐼𝐶 𝑞𝑉𝐸
= 𝑒 ൗ𝐾𝑇 − 1
𝐼𝑆

𝑞𝑉𝐸
ൗ𝐾𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 𝐼
𝑒 +1 ∵ 𝐼𝐶 ≫ 𝐼𝑆 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼𝐶 ≫ 1
𝐼𝑆 𝑆

𝑞𝑉𝐸ൗ 𝐼𝐶
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 =
𝐼𝑆

Taking natural log on both sides

𝑞𝑉𝐸ൗ 𝐼𝐶
𝐾𝑇 = 𝑙𝑛 𝐼𝑆

𝐼𝐶
𝑉𝐸 = 𝐾𝑇ൗ𝑞 𝑙𝑛
𝐼𝑆

𝑉
Figure shows 𝐼𝐶 = 𝑅 𝑖
1

𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝐸 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

We know that 𝑉𝐸 = − 𝑉𝑜

𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑖
−𝑉0 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

− 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑖
𝑉0 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

− 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑖
𝑉0 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆
𝑞 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

Thus the output voltage is proportional to the logarithmic of input voltage.

Although the circuit gives natural log (ln), once can fine 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 by proper scaling
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑋 = 0.4343 ln 𝑋
Problems in this circuit
1. Output voltage depends on the room temperature
2. Emitter Saturation current varies from transistor to transistor & with
temperature. So stable 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 cannot be obtained.

The drawbacks can be avoided by the following circuit

Fig: Log amplifier with saturation current and temperature compensation

The input is applied to one log amplifier and reference voltage is applied to
another log amplifier
The two transistors are integrated close together in the same silicon wafer
This provides a close match of saturation current and ensure good thermal
tracking.

Assuming 𝐼𝑆1 = 𝐼𝑆2 = 𝐼𝑆

− 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑖
𝑉1 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

− 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉2 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆
The output of differential amplifier is

𝑅
𝑉3 = 𝑉 − 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
𝑅 2

− 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑖
= 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆 𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

− 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑉𝑖
= 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
− 𝐾𝑇 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆
= 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑉𝑖
𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

− 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
= 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑉𝑖

𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑖
𝑉3 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

Reference level is now set with a single external voltage source. It depends on
device and temperature has been removed.
𝑉𝑜 still depends on temperature and directly proportional to the gain
𝑅
𝐴4 Compensates which provides a non-inverting gain of 1 + 𝑅 2
𝑇𝐶

𝑅2
𝑉0 = 1 + 𝑉3
𝑅𝑇𝐶

𝑅2 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑖
𝑉0 = 1 + 𝑙𝑛
𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑞 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

Where 𝑅𝑇𝐶 is the temperature sensitive resistance with positive temperature

coefficient which makes the output constant as the temperature changes.
This circuit uses four op-amps and becomes expensive if FET op-amps are used
for precision.
The same output can be obtained by using the following circuit but with an
inversion
 Fig: Log amplifier using two op-amps only
𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝐵𝐸1 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉𝐵𝐸2 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

− 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝐴 = − 𝑉𝐵𝐸1 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

𝑅𝑇𝐶
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉0
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑇𝐶

w.k.t 𝑉𝐵𝐸2 = 𝑉𝐵2 − 𝑉𝐸2

𝑉𝐵𝐸2 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸2 + 𝑉𝐴

𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑖
𝑉0 = 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑙𝑛
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆 𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆
𝑉0 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑞 𝑉𝑖
𝑅1 𝐼𝑆
 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉0 = ln
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑞 𝑉𝑖

𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉0 = ln
𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑞 𝑉𝑖

𝑅2 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑖
𝑉0 = − 1 + ln
𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑞 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

The two transistors used in two log amplifier circuits are integrated close together
in the same Silicon wafer

Watch this Lecture about Log and Anti-log Amplifier by Prof.

T. Natarajan, IIT Madras

Lecture - 36 Logarthmic and Anti-Logarthmic Amplifer

https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=_9M1FH1kg7Y

Watch this Youtube video for the analytical approach of Log

and Antilog Amplifier
Log and Antilog Amplifiers Explained | Applications of Log and
Antilog Amplifiers
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nrfb-s0wl6g
Antilog Amplifier

The input 𝑉𝑖 for the antilog amplifier is fed in to the temperature compensating
voltage divider 𝑅2 and 𝑅𝑇𝐶 R2 & RTC
The output of antilog amplifier is fed back to the inverting input of 𝐴1 through the
resistance 𝑅1 .
The circuit shown in figure Anti log amplifier with temperature compensation.
The two matched transistor 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 are used.
The external voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is connected to inverting input terminal of op-Amp 𝐴2 ,
through Resistance 𝑅1 .

Fig: Antilog amplifier

 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝐵𝐸1 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉𝐵𝐸2 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

− 𝐾𝑇 𝑉0
𝑉𝐴 = − 𝑉𝐵𝐸1 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

𝑅𝑇𝐶
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑖
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑇𝐶

w.k.t 𝑉𝐵𝐸2 = 𝑉𝐵2 − 𝑉𝐸2

𝑉𝐵𝐸2 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸2 + 𝑉𝐴

𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑙𝑛
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆 𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑞 𝑉𝑜
𝑅1 𝐼𝑆

𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉𝑖 = ln
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑞 𝑉𝑜

𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝑉0
𝑉𝑖 =− ln
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑞 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑞 𝑉0
𝑉𝑖 − = ln
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

Multiplying by 0.4343 on both sides to change from ln to 𝑙𝑜𝑔10

𝑞 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑉0
− 0.4343 ∗ 𝑉𝑖 = 0.4343 ∗ ln
𝐾𝑇 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
 𝑞 𝑅𝑇𝐶
Let 𝐾 ′ = 0.4343 ∗ 𝐾𝑇 𝑅2 +𝑅𝑇𝐶

𝑉0
− 𝐾 ′ 𝑉𝑖 = 0.4343 ∗ ln
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

𝑉0
− 𝐾 ′ 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

𝑉0 ′
= 10− 𝐾 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

′𝑉
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 10− 𝐾 𝑖

Hence an increase of input by one volt causes the output to decrease by a decade

Log Amplifier can also be performed with the help of diode

instead of Transistor. Click on the youtube link to know
more about it.

Log amplifier using op-amp | Logarithmic Amplifier

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-qs3qJz6dTU

Antilog amplifier using op-amp | Anti-logarithmic Amplifier

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gsF6GVz9wV0

LOG & ANTILOG AMPLIFIER Explanation and solved Numericals-

YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YU0y4CfR2rc
Comparator

A Comparator as its name implies, compares a signal voltage at one input of an

op-Amp with a known reference voltage on the other input .
Depending upon the comparison it produces output voltage which is either
positive saturation voltage + 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 or negative saturation voltage – 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡

Fig: Ideal Comparator Fig: Non -Ideal Comparator

Characteristics Characteristics

Practically it may be seen that the change in the output state take place with an
increment in input voltage 𝑉𝑖 of only 2mV
This is uncertainty region where output cannot be directly defined.
This is due to input offset voltage and offset null compensating techniques can be
used to eliminate this.

Parameters to be considered for comparators:

1.Speed of operation :
 The output of comparator must switch rapidly between saturation levels
and also as respond instantly to any change of conditions at its inputs.
 This implies that bandwidth of op-amp must be wide i.e wider than
bandwidth , higher the speed of operation.
 Speed of operation improved with positive feedback.
2. Accuracy:
 The accuracy of the comparator depends on its voltage gain. It requires
small difference in voltage to cause the comparator’s output to switch
between saturation.
Two types of Comparator
1. Non-Inverting Comparator
2. Inverting Comparator

Non-Inverting Comparator

In Non-Inverting Comparator, the input signal 𝑉𝑖 is applied to non inverting

terminal and reference voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is applied to inverting input terminal of op-
amp.

Fig: Non Inverting Comparator

Fig: Output Waveform of Non

Inverting Amplifier

If the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 is greater than 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 then output is +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 i.e it is almost
equal to + 𝑉𝐶𝐶 .
If the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 is lesser than 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 then output is - 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 i.e it is almost
equal to - 𝑉𝐶𝐶 .
Thus two possible output level of comparator are +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 and -𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 ,indicating
whether the input voltage is greater than or less than the reference voltage.
 Fig: Non Inverting Comparator Fig: Non Inverting Comparator
Input and Output waveform for −𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇 Input and Output waveform for +𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇
The output voltage is
−𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉0 = ൝
+𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

Inverting Comparator

In Inverting Comparator, the input signal 𝑉𝑖 is applied to inverting terminal and

reference voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is applied to non - inverting input terminal of op-amp.

Fig: Inverting Comparator

 In practical circuit 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is obtained by using 10K potentiometer which forms a
potential divider with supply voltages 𝑉 + and 𝑉 −
Thus a 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 of desired amplitude and polarity can be obtained by simply adjusting
the 10K potentiometer.
If the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 is greater than 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 then output is -𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 i.e it is almost
equal to - 𝑉𝐶𝐶 .
If the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 is lesser than 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 then output is + 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 i.e it is almost
equal to + 𝑉𝐶𝐶 .
Thus two possible output level of comparator are +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 and -𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 , indicating
whether the input voltage is greater than or less than the reference voltage.

Fig: Inverting Comparator Fig: Inverting Comparator

Input and Output waveform for −𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇 Input and Output waveform for +𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇

The output voltage is

+𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉0 = ൝
−𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

The output is depending on the supply voltage because supply voltage is + 𝑉𝐶𝐶
To obtain the output voltage that is independent of power supply voltages. The
circuit can be obtained by connecting R with two back to back Zener diodes at the
output.
 R is chosen so that Zener diode operate at the recommended current.

Fig: Comparator with Zener diode at output

When 𝑉1 is applied ; 𝑉𝑍2 conducts ⇒ 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑍2 + 𝑉𝐷

When 𝑉2 is applied ; 𝑉𝑍1 conducts ⇒ 𝑉0 = − 𝑉𝑍1 + 𝑉𝐷
The limiting voltage of 𝑉0 are 𝑉𝑍2 + 𝑉𝐷 and − 𝑉𝑍1 + 𝑉𝐷 where 𝑉𝐷 (~0.7𝑉) is
diode forward voltage

Applications of comparator:

1. Zero crossing detector

2. Window detector
3. Time marker generator
4. Phase detector

Click on the link below to know the real time applications

of comparator.

Comparator and how to use it (explained with real life

application) - Electronics Basic #1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1e1J2c2NqQY

24. Comparator and it's Applications

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MgPNwVzXXJ4
1. Zero crossing detector

A basic Comparator can be used as zero crossing detector provided that 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is
set to zero

Fig: Inverting Zero Crossing Detector

Fig: Input and Output Waveform of

Zero Crossing Detector

This circuit is also called as sine to square wave generator

2. Window Detector

This circuit can be used a indicator of a certain instant at which an unknown input
is between two threshold levels.
Eg : - Figure shows three level indicator
Yellow (LED 3) for too low input (<3V)
Green (LED 2) for safe input (3-6 V)
Red (LED 1) for high input (>6V)

Fig: Three level comparator with LED Detector

The three LEDs turned ON and OFF as indicated below

Input (Volts) Yellow Green Red

LED 3 LED2 LED1
<3 V ON OFF OFF

3-6 V OFF ON OFF

>6V OFF OFF ON

3. Time Marker Generator

This circuit convert the sinusoidal input into a train of positive pulses of spacing T.

Fig: Time Marker Generator

The output of the zero crossing detector

is differentiated by an RC Circuit
𝑅𝐶 ≪ 𝑇
So that the voltage 𝑉 ′ is a series of
positive and negative pulses.
The negative pulses are clipped off after
passing through the diode D.
This train of positive pulses can be used
for triggering the monoshots, SCR,
sweep voltage of CRT etc Fig: Waveforms of Time Marker Generator

4. Phase Detector

The phase angle between two voltages can be measured using the time marker
generator circuit.
Both the voltages to be measured can be converted into spikes using that circuit.
The time interval between the pulse spikes are measured for both voltages.
Time interval is proportional to the phase difference.
Schmitt Trigger (Regenerative Comparator)

A comparator circuit which is used to avoid unwanted triggering in output voltage

(due to noise) is called regenerative comparator.

It uses positive feedback

 Gain increases considerable
 Transfer characteristics become more close to ideal curve

𝐴
We know that 𝐴𝑣𝑓 = 1+𝐴𝑂𝐿
𝑂𝐿 𝛽

If open loop gain − 𝛽𝐴𝑂𝐿 = 1, then feedback gain 𝐴𝑣𝑓 = ∞.

It makes transition time = 0

In practical − 𝛽𝐴𝑂𝐿 ≠ 1. So − 𝛽𝐴𝑂𝐿 > 1

So Schmitt trigger circuit gives an output waveform virtually discontinuous at the
comparison voltage. So this circuit exhibit a phenomenon called hysteresis/
backlash.

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

Fig: Schmitt Trigger

The input voltage 𝑉𝑖 triggers the output 𝑉0 every time it exceeds certain voltage
levels.

These voltages are called

 Upper threshold Voltage (𝑉𝑈𝑇 )
 Lower threshold Voltage (𝑉𝐿𝑇 )

Hysteresis width = 𝑉𝑈𝑇 − 𝑉𝐿𝑇

⇒ Transfer curve for 𝑉𝑖 increasing

⇒ Transfer curve for 𝑉𝑖 decreasing

Fig: Complete input and output curve

If 𝑉0 = +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
The voltage at +ve terminal is

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅1 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑅2
𝑉𝑈𝑇 = +
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

When 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝑈𝑇 ⇒ 𝑉0 = +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡

𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑈𝑇 ⇒ 𝑉0 = −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡

If 𝑉0 = −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
The voltage at +ve terminal is

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅1 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑅2
𝑉𝐿𝑇 = −
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

When 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝐿𝑇 ⇒ 𝑉0 = +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡

𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝐿𝑇 ⇒ 𝑉0 = −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡

𝑉𝐿𝑇 < 𝑉𝑈𝑇 and the difference between the two voltages is the hysteresis width.
2𝑅 𝑉
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝑈𝑇 − 𝑉𝐿𝑇 = 𝑅 2+𝑅𝑠𝑎𝑡 (𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
1 2

Because of hysteresis the circuit triggers at a higher voltage for increasing signals
than for decreasing ones.

If 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝐻 ⇒ 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 + 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡

𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝐻 ⇒ 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 − 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑜 + 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡

Schmitt trigger is used to convert a very slow varying input voltage into a square
wave output.
 If 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑔 = 0

𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑅2
𝑉𝑈𝑇 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑅2
𝑉𝐿𝑇 = −
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

If an input sinusoid of frequency f = 1/T is applied to such a comparator, a

symmetrical square wave is obtained at the output.

The vertical edge of the output waveform will not occur at time when sine wave
passes through zero, but is shifted in phase by 𝜃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 sin 𝜃 = 𝑉𝑈𝑇ൗ𝑉𝑚 where 𝑉𝑚
is the peak sinusoidal voltage.

Fig: Schmitt trigger used as squarer Fig: Shift of 𝜽 in output waveform

An interesting application of hysteresis is in the detection and counting of the zero

crossing of an arbitrary waveform if it is superimposed with interference
(frequency much higher than arbitrary waveform)
Consider the example where clean signal crosses zero axis a number of times
when corrupted with noise interference around each of the zero crossing points.
A simple comparator would change state at each of the zero crossings. This can
be solved by introducing hysteresis of appropriate width in the circuit (by 𝑉𝑈𝑇 and
𝑉𝐿𝑇 )

Fig: Schmitt trigger Vs Simple Inverter

The hysteresis in the comparator characteristics thus provides an effective means

of rejecting interference.

Watch this You tube video to understand the operation of

Schmitt Trigger
Schmitt Trigger Explained (Design of Inverting and Non-inverting
Schmitt Trigger using Op-Amp)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5-ohKRWeod4
Op-amp Circuits Using Diodes

Precision Diode

Limitations of Ordinary Diode:

Diode cannot rectify voltage between 𝑉𝛾 (0.7𝑉) (Cut in voltage of diode)
A circuit that acts like an ideal diode can be designed by placing a diode in
feedback loop of an op-amp
Here the cut in voltage is divided by the open loop gain 𝐴𝑂𝐿 ~104 . So that 𝑉𝛾 is
virtually eliminated

Fig: Precision Diode Fig: Input and Output Waveforms

𝑉 0.7
Cut in voltage of this circuit is 𝐴 𝛾 = = 70𝜇𝑉
𝑂𝐿 104
𝑉𝛾
When 𝑉𝑖 > 𝐴
𝑂𝐿

 Diode Conducts (ON)

 Circuit acts as voltage follower
 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 during positive half cycle

𝑉
When 𝑉𝑖 < 𝐴 𝛾
𝑂𝐿

 Diode does not conduct (OFF)

 No current is delivered to 𝑅𝐿

This circuit is called Precision diode. It is capable of rectifying millivolt level input
signals
 Applications of Precision Diode:
 Half wave rectifier
 Full wave rectifier
 Peak value detector
 Clipper
 Clamper

Half wave Rectifier

An inverting amplifier can be converted into an ideal half wave rectifier using two
diodes

Fig: Half wave Rectifier

When 𝑉𝑖 is positive Fig: Input and Output Waveforms

 Diode 𝐷1 Conducts (ON)
 𝑉𝑂𝐴 is inverted (Negative half cycle)
 Diode 𝐷2 is Off
 Output voltage 𝑉0 is zero

When 𝑉𝑖 is negative
 Diode 𝐷1 is off
 𝑉𝑂𝐴 is inverted (Positive half cycle)
 Diode 𝐷2 conducts
 Circuit acts as inverter and the output becomes positive
 Principal limitations of the circuit is slew rate of op-amp.
In this circuit op-amp must be high speed, since it alternates between open loop
and closed loop.
If both the diodes are reverse biased, positive signal gets transmitted and
reversed which provides negative output.

Full wave Rectifier (Absolute Value Circuit)

Full wave rectifier rectifies both the positive and negative cycle of

Fig: Full wave Rectifier

Fig: Input and Output Waveforms

For +ve half cycle : (𝑉𝑖 > 0)
 Diode 𝐷1 Conducts (ON) & Diode 𝐷2 is OFF
 Both op-amp act as inverter

𝑉𝑖

𝑅
𝑉1 = − 𝑉 = −𝑉𝑖
𝑅 𝑖

𝑅 𝑅
𝑉0 = − 𝑉1 = − − 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖
𝑅 𝑅

∴ During Positive half cycle 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖

For -ve half cycle : (𝑉𝑖 < 0)

 Diode 𝐷1 is OFF and Diode 𝐷2 is ON
Applying KCL at node ‘a’
𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑎
+ + =0
𝑅 2𝑅 𝑅

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑎 = 0

𝑉𝑖 𝑉1 𝑉1
+ + =0
𝑅 2𝑅 𝑅

1 1 𝑉𝑖
𝑉1 + =−
2𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

2+1 𝑉𝑖
𝑉1 =−
2𝑅 𝑅

3 𝑉𝑖
𝑉1 =−
2𝑅 𝑅

2
𝑉1 = − 𝑉
3 𝑖

The circuit act as non-inverting amplifier

𝑅
𝑉0 = 1 + 𝑉
2𝑅 1

1 2
𝑉0 = 1 + − 𝑉
2 3 𝑖

3 2
𝑉0 = − 𝑉
2 3 𝑖

𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖
 Peak Detector

The function of a peak detector is to compute the peak value of the input.
The circuit follows the voltage peaks of a signal and store the highest value on a
capacitor.
If a highest peak signal value comes along with the new value, then the new
value is stored. The highest peak value is stored until the capacitor is discharged.

Fig: Positive peak detector Fig: Output 𝑽𝟎 corresponding to 𝑽𝒊

When 𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑐
 Diode D is forward biased
 Circuit acts a voltage follower
 Therefore 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 as long as 𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑐

When 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝑐
 Diode D is reverse biased
 Capacitor hold the charge till the input voltage again attain a greater
value.
 Therefore 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑐 when 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝑐
Clipper

A Precision diode may also be used to clip-off a certain portion of the input signal
to obtain a desired output waveform.
Clipper can be used to clip off the positive cycle or negative half cycle

Positive Clipper

The clipping level is determined by the reference voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 .

Positive clipper clips of the voltages greater than the reference voltage
i.e 𝑉0 > 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 are clipped off.

Fig: Positive Clipper Circuit

When 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 diode D conducts

 The op-amp works as a voltage follower i.e 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖

When 𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 diode D is off

 The op-amp works in open loop i.e 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
 Fig: 𝑽𝒊 and 𝑽𝟎 for Positive 𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇 Fig: 𝑽𝒊 and 𝑽𝟎 for Negative 𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇

Negative Clipper

Negative clipper clips off the negative parts of the input signal below the
reference voltage
The positive clipper can be easily converted into a negative clipper by simply
reversing diode D and changing the polarity of the reference voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 .

Fig: Negative Clipper Circuit

 Fig: 𝑽𝒊 and 𝑽𝟎 for Negative 𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇 Fig: 𝑽𝒊 and 𝑽𝟎 for Positive 𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇

When 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 diode D is off ⇒ 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

When 𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 diode D is conducts ⇒ 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖

Watch this YouTube video for animated explanation of

Operation Amplifier using Diodes

What is Precision Rectifier? Precision Rectifier Explained

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5HweBajP-5g

Active Clipper Circuit (Clipper Circuit using op-amp) Explained

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZaX5tL_xktQ

Active Clamper Circuit (Clamper Circuit using Op-Amp) Explained

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xU7nGvADHZM

Experiment on Peak Detector by Prof. Hardik J Pandya, IISC

Bangalore

lec59 - Experiment: Peak detector circuit using Op-Amp

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=25i1-Enhtw0
Clamper (DC inserter or restorer or Peak Clamper)

This circuit adds a desired dc level to the output voltage i.e output is clamped to a
desired dc level.
The circuit is used to add a desired dc level to the output voltage.
If the Clamped dc level is positive, then it is called positive clamper.
Similarly, if the Clamped dc level is negative, then it is called negative clamper.

Fig: Peak Clamper Circuit

This circuit clamps the peaks of the input waveform and therefore is also called a peak
clamper.
This is a clamper circuit with variable dc voltage (+𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 / −𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) applied at positive
terminal of op-amp.
The output voltage is the net result of ac and dc input voltage.
For Positive 𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇 (+𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇 ) and 𝑽𝒊 is not applied
 𝑉 ′ is positive
 Diode D acts as forward biased
 Output 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
Now for Positive 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (+𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) at positive terminal and 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 at negative
terminal
 During Negative half cycle
- Diode D Conducts
- Capacitor 𝐶1 charges diode to negative peak voltage 𝑉𝑚
 During Positive half cycle
- Diode D is reverse biased
- Capacitor 𝐶1 retain its previous voltage 𝑉𝑚

Therefore 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑚 (𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)

Hence total output voltage =𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 + 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑚

Similarly for Negative 𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇 (− 𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇 )

Total output voltage 𝑉0 = - (𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 + 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑚 )

Fig: Waveform for +𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇 Fig: Waveform for - 𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇

Filters

Filters are circuits which separate the signals according to their frequency.
Mostly used in communication and signal processing.
Filters can be built from.
i) Passive RLC Components
ii) Crystals
iii) Resistor, Capacitors and Op-amps (Active Filters)

RC Active Filters

Filters are frequency selective electric circuit that passes signals of specific band
of frequencies and attenuates signals of frequencies outside the band.
Classifications
i) Low pass filter
ii) High pass filter
iii) Band pass filter
iv) Band stop (or) Band reject filter
Filter circuits can be done using passive components (Resistor, Capacitor and
Inductor)
 They are suitable for high frequencies (at Radio frequencies)
 At low frequencies (i.e at audio frequencies) inductors become large,
heavy and expensive. More no. of turns must be used i.e Low Q,
resulting high power dissipation.

Hence the active filters are used to solve the problems of these RLC Passive filters
i.e op-amp can be used along with resistors and capacitors.
The active filters by a capacitor in feedback loop, avoid the use of inductors.
Advantages
 Provide Gain
 High input impedance
 Low Output impedance.
Limitations
 Limited by gain bandwidth for high frequency and slew rate of op-amp.
 High frequency active filters are more expensive than passive filters.
 Fig: Frequency Response of LPF Fig: Frequency Response of HPF

Fig: Frequency Response of BPF Fig: Frequency Response of BSF

Watch this YouTube video to know about Active Low pass filter
and High pass filter in a nutshell

Active Low Pass Filter and Active High Pass Filter Explained
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gEeF8sEQTEc
Low Pass Filter

First Order Low Pass Filter

It consists of a single RC network connected to the non-inverting terminal of

operational amplifier.
Voltage Gain

Freq
Fig: First Order LPF
Fig: Frequency Response of
First Order LPF

For non Inverting Amplifier

𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 𝑆 = 1 + 𝑉 𝑆 −−→ (1)
𝑅1 1

1
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆)
𝑉1 𝑆 = 𝑆𝐶
1
𝑅 + 𝑆𝐶

𝑉𝑖 (𝑆)
= 𝑆𝐶
𝑅𝑆𝐶 + 1
𝑆𝐶

𝑉𝑖 (𝑆)
= −−→ (2)
1 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶

Substituting (2) in (1) we get

𝑅𝑓 𝑉𝑖 (𝑆)
𝑉𝑜 𝑆 = 1 + −−→ (3)
𝑅1 1 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶
 Output Transfer Function is

𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) 𝑅𝑓 1 𝐴𝑜
𝐻 𝑆 = = 1+ =
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 𝑅𝑖 1 + 𝑆𝑅𝐶 1 + 𝑆𝑅𝐶

1
Let 𝜔ℎ = 𝑅𝐶

𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) 𝐴𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝜔ℎ Standard form of transfer function

𝐻 𝑆 = == = ⇒
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 𝑆 𝑆 + 𝜔ℎ of a first order LPF
1+𝜔
ℎ

Substitute 𝑆 = 𝑗𝜔

𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) 𝐴𝑜 𝐴𝑜 1
𝐻 𝑆 = == = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓ℎ =
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 𝑓 2𝜋𝑅𝐶
1+𝑗
𝑓ℎ

When 𝑓 ≪ 𝑓ℎ ⇒ 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐴0

𝐴0 𝐴0
𝑓 = 𝑓ℎ ⇒ 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = = = 0.707 𝐴0
1+𝑗 2

𝑓 ≫ 𝑓ℎ ⇒ 𝐻 𝑗𝜔 =0

Maximum gain occur at f=0 ie 𝑓 ≪ 𝑓ℎ , the gain falls by 3dB at 𝑓 = 𝑓ℎ and the gain
decreases at -20dB decade when 𝑓 ≫ 𝑓ℎ

Second Order LPF

Frequency response can be improved by using a second order active filters.
Second order filter consists of two RC pairs and has a roll off rate of -40
dB/decade.
 𝑹𝒇

𝑹𝒊

𝑹 𝑹
𝑽𝑨 𝑹 𝑽𝑩

𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝑪
𝑪

Fig: Second Order low pass Filter

Fig: Frequency Response Second Order low pass Filter

The Op-amp is connected in non-inverting mode

𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 = 1 + 𝑉 −−→ (1)
𝑅𝑖 𝐵

⇒ 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑉𝐵

𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝐵 = −−→ (2)
𝐴𝑜

Apply KCL at node A

𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑑
+ + 𝑉 − 𝑉𝐴 𝐶 = 0
𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑜
In S domain

𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴
+ + 𝑆 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝐴 𝐶 = 0
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴
+ + 𝑆𝑉𝑜 𝐶 = + + 𝑆𝑉𝐴 𝐶
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵
= + + 𝑆𝑉𝐴 𝐶 − 𝑆𝑉𝑜 𝐶 −
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

𝑉𝑖 2 𝑉𝐵
= 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑆𝐶 − 𝑆𝐶𝑉𝑜 −
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

From equation (2)

𝑉𝑖 2 𝑉0
= 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑆𝐶 − 𝑆𝐶𝑉𝑜 − −−−→ (3)
𝑅 𝑅 𝐴𝑜 𝑅

Apply KCL at node B

𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 𝑑
+ 0 − 𝑉𝐵 𝐶 = 0
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵
− 𝑆𝑉𝐵 𝐶 = 0
𝑅
𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵
= + 𝑆𝑉𝐵 𝐶
𝑅 𝑅

𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
= + 𝑆𝐶
𝑅 𝐴𝑜 𝑅 𝐴𝑜

𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝑜 1
= + 𝑆𝐶
𝑅 𝐴𝑜 𝑅

𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝑜 1 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶
=
𝑅 𝐴𝑜 𝑅

𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝐴 = 1 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶 −−→ (4)
𝐴𝑜
Substituting equation (4) in (3) we get

𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑜 2 𝑉0
= 1 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶 + 𝑆𝐶 − 𝑆𝐶𝑉𝑜 −
𝑅 𝐴𝑜 𝑅 𝐴𝑜 𝑅

𝑉𝑖 1 2 1
= 𝑉𝑜 1 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶 + 𝑆𝐶 − 𝑆𝐶 −
𝑅 𝐴𝑜 𝑅 𝐴𝑜 𝑅

𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶 2 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶 1
= 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑆𝐶 −
𝑅 𝐴𝑜 𝑅 𝐴𝑜 𝑅

𝑉𝑖 (1 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶)(2 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶) 1
= 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑆𝐶 −
𝑅 𝐴𝑜 𝑅 𝐴𝑜 𝑅

𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶 2 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶 − 𝐴𝑜 𝑅𝑆𝐶 − 1

= 𝑉𝑜
𝑅 𝐴𝑜 𝑅

𝐴𝑜 𝑉𝑜
=
1 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶 2 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶 − 𝐴𝑜 𝑅𝑆𝐶 − 1 𝑉𝑖

𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜
=
𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶 2 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶 − 𝐴𝑜 𝑅𝑆𝐶 − 1

𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜
= 2
𝑉𝑖 2 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶 + 2𝑅𝑆𝐶 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶 − 𝐴𝑜 𝑅𝑆𝐶 − 1

𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜
𝐻 𝑆 = = 2 + 3𝑅𝑆𝐶 − 𝐴 𝑅𝑆𝐶
𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝑆𝑅𝐶 𝑜

𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜
𝐻 𝑆 = = 2 + 𝑅𝑆𝐶(3−𝐴 )
−−−→ (5)
𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝑆𝑅𝐶 𝑜

When 𝑆 = 0 ⇒ 𝐻 0 = 𝐴𝑜
Configuration in low pass filter
𝑆=∞⇒𝐻 ∞ =0

Let the transfer function be

𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜
𝐻 𝑆 = = 2
𝑉𝑖 𝑆 𝑆
1+ 𝜔 + 𝜔 (3−𝐴𝑜 )
ℎ ℎ
1
Where 𝐴𝑜 is the gain and 𝜔ℎ is the upper cut off frequency 𝜔ℎ =
𝑅𝐶
Let Damping Coefficient ∝= (3 − 𝐴𝑜 )

𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜
𝐻 𝑆 = = 2
𝑉𝑖 𝑆 𝑆𝛼
1+ 𝜔 +𝜔
ℎ ℎ

𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝜔ℎ 2
𝐻 𝑆 = =
𝑉𝑖 𝜔ℎ 2 + 𝑆 2 + 𝑆𝛼𝜔ℎ

𝐴𝑜 𝜔ℎ 2
= 2
𝑆 + 𝑆𝛼𝜔ℎ + 𝜔ℎ 2

Substitute 𝑆 = 𝑗𝜔

𝐴𝑜 𝜔ℎ 2
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) =
𝑗𝜔 2 + (𝑗𝜔)𝛼𝜔ℎ + 𝜔ℎ 2

𝐴𝑜
= 2
𝑗𝜔 𝜔
+ 𝑗𝛼 𝜔 + 1
𝜔ℎ ℎ

𝐴𝑜
= 2
𝑆ℎ + 𝛼𝑆ℎ + 1

𝜔
Where Normalized Frequency 𝑆ℎ = 𝑗 𝜔ℎ

Magnitude in dB

𝐴𝑜
20 log 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 20 log
2 2
𝜔2 𝜔
1− + 𝛼𝜔
𝜔ℎ 2 ℎ

𝜔
Where Normalized Frequency 𝑆ℎ = 𝑗 𝜔ℎ

For a heavily damped filter (𝛼 > 1.7)

 The response is stable
 But roll-off begins early to the pass band
If 𝛼 is reduced, ripples begins to appear at the early stage of passband and if it
reduced further it become oscillating
𝛼 = 1.414 ⇒ Filter is called Butterworth filter with flat response
Eg: Audio filters
𝛼 = 1.06 ⇒ Filter is lightly damped Chebyshev filter
Ringing occurs in this filter which disturb pulse response
Advantage : Faster initial roll off
𝛼 = 1.73 ⇒ Bessel filter is heavily damped
Gives better pulse response, but attenuates the upper end of
passband.
Butterworth filter with 𝛼 = 1.414
𝐴𝑜
20 log 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 20 log
4
𝜔
1+ 𝜔
ℎ

Hence nth order generalized low pass butterworth filter, the normalized transfer
function

𝐻(𝑗𝜔) 1
=
𝐴𝑜 2𝑛
𝜔
1+ 𝜔
ℎ

𝐴𝑜
20 log 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 20 log
2𝑛
𝜔
1+ 𝜔
ℎ

Fig: Second order low-pass active filter response for different damping
(unity gain 𝑨𝒐 = 𝟏)
High Pass Active Filter
High pass filter is the complement of low pass filter.
It can be obtained by simply interchanging R and C in low Pass Configurations.
𝑅𝑓

𝑅𝑖

𝐶 𝐶

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅
𝑅

Fig: Second order high pass active filter

The transfer function can be obtained as follows:

𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝑆 2
𝐻 𝑆 = = 2
𝑉𝑖 𝑆 + (3 − 𝐴0 )𝜔𝑙 𝑆 + 𝜔𝑙 2

1
Where 𝜔𝑙 = 𝑅𝐶

𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜
𝐻 𝑆 = = 2
𝑉𝑖 𝜔 𝜔
1 + 𝑆𝑙 (3 − 𝐴0 ) + 𝑆𝑙

𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜
𝐻 𝑆 = =
𝑉𝑖
𝜔 2 2 𝜔𝑙 2
1 − 𝜔𝑙 𝜔 3 − 𝐴𝑜

when 𝜔 = 0 , 𝐻 𝑆 =0
Configuration in high pass filter
ω = ∞, 𝐻 𝑆 = 𝐴𝑜

1 1
𝑓𝑙 = ⇒ 𝜔𝑙 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
 For Butterworth Filter ⇒ ∝= 3 − 𝐴𝑜 = 1.414
Substitute 𝑆 = 𝑗𝜔

𝐴𝑜
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 =
4
𝑓𝑙
1+
𝑓

𝐻 𝑗𝜔 1
=
𝐴𝑜 4
𝑓𝑙
1+
𝑓

For nth order Butterworth filter

𝐻 𝑗𝜔 1
=
𝐴𝑜 2𝑛
𝑓𝑙
1+
𝑓

Watch this YouTube video for the design of higher order LPF
and HPF

Butterworth Filter : Design of Low Pass and High Pass Filters

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lc6QT8VjqVc

Watch this YouTube video to know about Active Low pass filter
and High pass filter in a nutshell

Band Pass Filter and Band Stop Filter Explained

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmPIydL0lyM
Band Pass Filter (BPF)
Two types base on Q factor
i) Narrow Band pass filter (Q>10)
ii) Wide Band pass filter (Q<10)

𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑜
𝑄= =
𝐵𝑊 𝑓ℎ − 𝑓𝑙

𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓ℎ 𝑓𝑙

Where 𝑓ℎ - Upper cut off frequency

𝑓𝑙 - Lower cut off frequency
𝑓𝑜 - Central frequency

Narrow Band Pass Filter

𝑪𝟑

𝑹𝟓

𝑽𝑨 𝑪𝟐

𝑽𝑩

𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝑹𝟒

Fig: Narrow Band Pass filter using

Multiple Feedback

Node Voltage equation at node A is

𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝐴 0 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑑 𝑑
+ + 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝐴 𝐶3 + 𝑉 − 𝑉𝐴 𝐶2 = 0
𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐵

𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴
− + 𝑆 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝐴 𝐶3 + 𝑆 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 𝐶2 = 0
𝑅1 𝑅4
Assuming 𝑉𝐵 = 0

𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴
− + 𝑆 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝐴 𝐶3 + −𝑉𝐴 𝑆𝐶2 = 0
𝑅1 𝑅4

𝑉𝑖 1 1
+ 𝑉𝑜 𝑆𝐶3 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶3 + −−−→ (1)
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅4

Node voltage equation at Node B is

𝑑 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝐵
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 𝐶2 + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅5

𝑉0 − 𝑉𝐵
𝑆 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 𝐶2 + =0
𝑅5
Assuming 𝑉𝐵 = 0

𝑉0
𝑆𝑉𝐴 𝐶2 + =0
𝑅5

𝑉0
𝑉𝐴 = − −−−→ (2)
𝑆 𝐶2 𝑅5

Substitute (2) in (1)

𝑉𝑖 −𝑉0 1 1
+ 𝑉𝑜 𝑆𝐶3 = + 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶3 +
𝑅1 𝑆 𝐶2 𝑅5 𝑅1 𝑅4

𝑉𝑖 1 1 1
= 𝑆𝐶3 − + 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶3 + 𝑉𝑜
𝑅1 𝑆 𝐶2 𝑅5 𝑅1 𝑅4

−1 1 1
= 𝑆 2 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝑅5 + + 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶3 + 𝑉𝑜
𝑆𝐶2 𝑅5 𝑅1 𝑅4

−1 1 1
= + 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶3 + +𝑆 2 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝑅5 𝑉𝑜
𝑆𝐶2 𝑅5 𝑅1 𝑅4

𝑉𝑜 −𝑆𝐶2 𝑅5
= −−−→ (3)
𝑉𝑖 𝑅 1 + 𝑆𝐶 + 𝑆𝐶 + 1 +𝑆 2 𝐶 𝐶 𝑅
1 𝑅 2 3 𝑅4 2 3 5
1
 In terms of conductance substitute

1 1 1
𝐺1 = ; 𝐺4 = ; 𝐺5 =
𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑅5

−𝑆𝐶2 1ൗ𝐺
5
𝐻 𝑆 =
1 𝑆 2 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝐺1 + 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶3 + 𝐺4 +
𝐺1 𝐺5

−𝑆𝐶2 𝐺1
=
𝑆 2 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝐺5 𝐺1 + 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶3 + 𝐺4 +
𝐺5

−𝑆𝐶2 𝐺1
=
𝐺5 𝐺1 + 𝐺4 + 𝑆𝐺5 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + 𝑆 2 𝐶2 𝐶3

−𝐺1
𝐻 𝑆 = −−−→ (4)
𝐺5 𝐺1 + 𝐺4 𝐺 𝐶 + 𝐶3
+ 5 2𝐶 + 𝑆𝐶3
𝑆𝐶2 2

This H(S) is equivalent to the gain function of RLC circuit driven by a current
source 𝐺 ′ 𝑉𝑖 with Bandpass Characteristics

𝐺 ′ 𝑉𝑖 𝐶 𝐺 𝐿 𝑉𝑜

Fig: A Parallel Circuit

Fig: Band Pass Characteristics
The gain expression for RLC circuit is

𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) −𝐺 ′ −𝐺 ′
= = −−→ (5)
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 𝑌 1
𝑆𝐶 + 𝐺 + 𝑆𝐿
Equating (4) & (5)

−𝐺1 −𝐺 ′
=
𝐺5 𝐺1 + 𝐺4 𝐺 𝐶 + 𝐶3 1
+ 5 2𝐶 + 𝑆𝐶3 𝑆𝐶 + 𝐺 + 𝑆𝐿
𝑆𝐶2 2
Comparing we get

𝐺 ′ = 𝐺1 −−−→ 6

𝐶2
𝐿= −−→ (7)
𝐺5 𝐺1 + 𝐺4

𝐺5 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
𝐺= −−→ 8
𝐶2

𝐶 = 𝐶3 −−→ (9)

At resonance, the RLC circuit has unity power factor (ie) imaginary part is zero
which gives resonant frequency as

1
𝜔𝑜 2 =
𝐿𝐶

1 𝐺5 𝐺1 +𝐺4
Using (7) and (9) 𝜔𝑜 2 = 𝐶2 ⇒ 𝜔𝑜 2 = −−→ (10)
𝐶3 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝐺5 𝐺1+𝐺4

The gain at resonance is

𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑖൘ −𝐺 ′ −𝐺1 −𝐺1 𝐶2
𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 = = = −−→ (11)
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺5 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
 The Q factor at resonance is.

𝜔𝑜 𝐿 𝜔𝑜 𝐶
𝑄0 = = 𝜔𝑜 𝑅𝐶 =
𝑅 𝐺

𝜔𝑜 𝐶2 𝐶3
Using (8) & (9) 𝑄0 = −−→ (12)
𝐶2 +𝐶3 𝐺5

The Bandwidth is given by

𝑓0 𝜔0 𝜔0 1 𝐺
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿 = = = = =
𝑄0 2𝜋𝑄0 2𝜋𝜔𝑜 𝑅𝐶 2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝜋𝐶

𝐺5 𝐶2 +𝐶3
Using (8) & (9) 𝐵𝑊 = −−→ (13)
2𝜋𝐶2 𝐶3

The centre frequency is

𝑓0 = 𝑓𝐻 𝑓𝐿

Wide Bandpass filter

Wide band pass filter formed by cascading HPF and LPF section.
If the HPF and LPF are of the first order, then the band pass filter will have a roll
off rate of -20 dB/decade

Fig: Wide Bandpass filter

For first order LPF :

𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) 𝐴02 𝜔ℎ 𝐴02 𝜔ℎ

𝐻 𝑆 = = =
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 𝜔ℎ + 𝑆 𝜔ℎ + 𝑗𝜔

𝐴02 𝐴02 1
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 = 𝜔 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓ℎ =
1+𝑗𝜔 𝑓 2𝜋𝑅1 𝐶1
1+𝑗
ℎ 𝑓ℎ

𝐴02
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 =
2
𝑓
1+
𝑓ℎ

For first order HPF :

𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) 𝐴01 𝑆 𝐴01 (𝑗𝜔)

𝐻 𝑆 = = =
𝑉𝑖 (𝑆) 𝑆 + 𝜔𝑙 𝑗𝜔 + 𝜔𝑙

𝜔 𝑓
𝐴01 𝑗 𝜔 𝐴01 𝑗 1
1 𝑓𝑙
𝐻 𝑆 = 𝜔 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑙 =
1+𝑗𝜔 𝑓 2𝜋𝑅2 𝐶2
1+𝑗
1 𝑓𝑙

𝑓
𝐴01
𝑓𝑙
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 =
2
𝑓
1+
𝑓𝑙

Overall gain of wide band pass filter is the product gain of LPF and HPF.
Frequency response can be calculated as
𝑓
𝐴01 𝐴02
𝑉0 𝑓𝑙
=
𝑉𝑖 2 2
𝑓 𝑓
1+ 1+
𝑓𝑙 𝑓ℎ

𝑓
𝐴0
𝑉0 𝑓𝑙
= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴0 = 𝐴01 ∗ 𝐴02
𝑉𝑖 2 2
𝑓 𝑓
1+ 𝑓𝑙
1+ 𝑓ℎ

Similarly to obtain BPF of -40dB/decade fall off rate, second order HPF and LPF
sections to be cascaded.
Problems

1. Determine the output Voltage of the given circuit shown below

1K

1K
+2V
1K
+5V
1K 𝑉0
+7V

Given: 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑓 = 1𝐾Ω

This Circuit is Inverting adder

𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 = − 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1𝐾 1𝐾 1𝐾
=− ∗2+ ∗5+ ∗7
1𝐾 1𝐾 1𝐾

𝑉0 = −14 𝑉
Problems

2. Determine the output Voltage of the given circuit shown below for
voltage 𝑉1 = 1𝑉 and 𝑉2 = 3𝑉

5K

1K

1K
𝑉1 𝑉0

1K
𝑉2

Given: 𝑉1 = 1𝑉, 𝑉2 = 3𝑉, 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 1𝐾Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑓 = 5𝐾Ω

This Circuit is Non Inverting adder

𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑉0 = 1 +
𝑅 1 1
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

1 3
5𝐾 +
= 1+ 1𝐾 1𝐾
1𝐾 1 1
1𝐾 + 1𝐾

4
𝑉0 = 1 + 5
2

𝑉0 = 12 𝑉
Problems

3. Find out the output of a subtractor shown below

5K

1K

1V
𝑉0

2V
1K
5K

Given: 𝑅𝑓 = 1𝐾Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅1 = 1𝐾Ω

For Subtractor

𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑅1

5𝐾
= (2 − 1)
1𝐾

𝑉0 = 5 1

𝑉0 = 5 𝑉
Problems

4. For a Schmitt Trigger shown in below. Calculate threshold levels

and hysteresis. Assume 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 0.8 𝑉𝑐𝑐

𝑉𝑖𝑛

𝑉0

51K
120

Given: 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 15 𝑉, 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 0.8 ∗ 15 = 12 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 51𝐾Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 = 120Ω

Assuming 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0 since it is not given

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅1 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑅2 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅1 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑅2

𝑉𝑈𝑇 = + 𝑉𝐿𝑇 = −
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑅2 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑅2
𝑉𝑈𝑇 = 𝑉𝑈𝑇 = −
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

12 ∗ 120 12 ∗ 120
= =−
51𝐾 + 12 51𝐾 + 12

= 0.028 V = - 0.028 V

𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝑈𝑇 − 𝑉𝐿𝑇 = 0.028 𝑉 − −0.028𝑉 = 0.056 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡

Problems

5. Design an op-amp differentiator to differentiate an input signal that

varies in frequency from 100 Hz to 2 KHz
Given: 𝑓𝑎 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 𝐾𝐻𝑧

𝐶𝑓

𝑅𝑓

𝑅1 𝐶1

𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉0

𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝

1 1
𝑓𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑅 ⇒ 2𝐾𝐻𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑅
𝑓 𝐶1 𝑓 𝐶1

𝐼𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐶1 = 0.1𝜇𝐹

1
2𝐾 =
2𝜋𝑅𝑓 ∗ 0.1𝜇

1
𝑅𝑓 =
2𝜋 ∗ 2𝐾 ∗ 0.1𝜇

𝑅𝑓 = 795.77Ω

Relationship between 𝑓𝑎 & 𝑓𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑏 =10 ∗ 𝑓𝑎 ⇒ 𝑓𝑏 =10 ∗ 2𝐾𝐻𝑧 = 20𝐾𝐻𝑧

Problems

1 1
𝑓𝑏 = ⇒ 𝑅1 =
2𝜋𝑅1 𝐶1 2𝜋𝑓𝑏 𝐶1

1
𝑅1 =
2𝜋 ∗ 20 𝐾 ∗ 0.1𝜇

𝑅1 = 79.57Ω

𝑅1 𝐶1
𝑅1 𝐶1 = 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 ⇒ 𝐶𝑓 =
𝑅𝑓

795.57 ∗ 0.1𝜇
𝐶𝑓 =
79.57

𝐶𝑓 = 0.99 𝜇𝐹

𝐶𝑓 = 0.99𝜇𝐹

𝑅𝑓 = 795.57Ω

𝑅1 = 79.57Ω
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐶1 = 0.1𝜇𝐹 𝑉0

𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅𝑓
= 795.57Ω ∥ 79.57Ω
= 64.17 KΩ
Problems

6. Design an op-amp integrator with break frequency (or) cut off

frequency 𝑓𝑎 = 1𝐾𝐻𝑧 and gain is 0dB at frequency 𝑓𝑏 = 10𝐾𝐻𝑧
Given: 𝑓𝑎 = 1 𝐾𝐻𝑧 & 𝑓𝑏 = 10 𝐾𝐻𝑧

𝐶𝑓

𝑅𝑓

𝑅1
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉0

𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝

1 1
𝑓𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑅 ⇒ 2𝐾𝐻𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑅
𝑓 𝐶𝑓 𝑓 𝐶𝑓

𝐼𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐶𝑓 = 0.1𝜇𝐹

1
1𝐾 =
2𝜋𝑅𝑓 ∗ 0.1𝜇

1
𝑅𝑓 =
2𝜋 ∗ 1𝐾 ∗ 0.1𝜇

𝑅𝑓 = 1.59𝐾Ω
Problems

1 1
𝑓𝑏 = ⇒ 𝑅1 =
2𝜋𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 2𝜋𝑓𝑏 𝐶𝑓

1
𝑅1 =
2𝜋 ∗ 10 𝐾 ∗ 0.1𝜇

𝑅1 = 159.15Ω

𝐶𝑓 = 0.1𝜇𝐹

𝑅𝑓 = 1.59𝐾Ω

𝑅1 = 159.15Ω
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉0

𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅𝑓
= 1.59𝐾Ω ∥ 159.15Ω
1.59𝐾∗159.15
=
1.59𝐾+159.15

= 144.66Ω
Problems

7. Design a LPF at a cut off frequency pass band gain 1.5 and the cut
off frequency is 15.9 KHz

Given: 𝑓𝐻 = 15 .9 𝐾𝐻𝑧, 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐶1 = 0.001𝜇𝐹

1 1
𝑓𝐻 = ⇒ 𝑅=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐻 𝐶

1
𝑅=
2𝜋 ∗ 15.9𝐾 ∗ 0.001𝜇

𝑅 = 10𝐾Ω

𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑓 = 1.5 ⇒ 1+ = 1.5
𝑅1

𝑅𝑓
= 0.5 ⇒ 𝑅𝑓 = 0.5𝑅1
𝑅1

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑅1 = 10𝐾Ω , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑓 = 5𝐾Ω

𝑅𝑓 = 5𝐾Ω

𝑅1 = 10𝐾Ω

𝑉0
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅 = 10𝐾Ω

𝐶 = 0.001𝜇𝐹
Problems

8. Design a second order Low pass Butterworth filter having high cut
off frequency of 1KHz, 𝐴0 = 1.586

Given: 𝑓𝐻 = 1𝐾𝐻𝑧, 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐶 = 0.01𝜇𝐹

1 1
𝑓𝐻 = ⇒ 𝑅=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐻 𝐶

1
𝑅=
2𝜋 ∗ 1𝐾 ∗ 0.001𝜇

𝑅 = 15.9𝐾Ω

𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑓 = 1.586 ⇒ 1+ = 1.586
𝑅1

𝑅𝑓
= 0.586 ⇒ 𝑅𝑓 = 0.586𝑅1
𝑅1

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑅1 = 10𝐾Ω , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑓 = 15.85𝐾Ω

𝑅𝑓 = 5𝐾Ω

𝑅𝑖 = 10𝐾Ω

𝑉0
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅 = 15.9𝐾Ω 𝑅 = 15.9𝐾Ω

𝐶 = 0.01𝜇𝐹 𝐶 = 0.01𝜇𝐹
Problems

9. Design a second order Active Low pass Butterworth filter having

the cut off frequency of 1KHz

Given: 𝑓0 = 1𝐾𝐻𝑧, 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑅 = 10𝐾Ω

1 1
𝑓𝐻 = ⇒ 𝐶=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝜋𝑓0 𝑅

1
𝐶=
2𝜋 ∗ 5𝐾 ∗ 10𝐾

𝐶 = 3.18𝑛𝐹
For Second Order Butterworth Filter

𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑓 = 1.586 ⇒ 1+ = 1.585
𝑅1

𝑅𝑓
= 0.585 ⇒ 𝑅𝑓 = 0.585𝑅1
𝑅1

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑅1 = 10𝐾Ω , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑓 = 5.85𝐾Ω

𝑅𝑓 = 5.85𝐾Ω

𝑅1 = 10𝐾Ω

𝑉0
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐶 = 3.18𝑛𝐹 𝐶 = 3.18𝑛𝐹

𝑅 = 5.85𝐾Ω 𝑅 = 5.85𝐾Ω
Problems

10. Find the output voltage of Non-Inverting adder circuit shown in

figure

2𝑅

𝑉0
𝑅
2𝑉

1𝑉
𝑅
𝑅

For Non Inverting adder circuit

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑉0 = 1 +
𝑅 1 1 1
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

2 1 0
= 1+
2𝑅 𝑅+𝑅+𝑅
𝑅 1 1 1
𝑅+𝑅+𝑅

3
𝑉0 = 3
3

𝑉0 = 3𝑉
 Links to videos and e-book references

Op-Amp Applications
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/linear_integrated_circuits_applications/line
ar_integrated_circuits_applications_op_amp_applications.htm

Phase Shift Circuit using Op-Amp, Phase Lag Circuit – 1/2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYWhkFug5qk

Phase Shift Circuit using Op-Amp, Phase Lead Circuit, Part- 2/2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QU6HWnnkSBA

Applications of the Op-Amp Voltage Follower Circuit

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ScONCdsdxYk

Op-Amp: Voltage to Current Converter

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DeDk0Rl3Oa0

Op-Amp: Current to Voltage Converter (Transimpedance

Amplifier and it's applications
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OMnZehJNGCY

Op-Amp: Summing Amplifier (Inverting and Non-Inverting

Summing Amplifiers)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jsKSfaFQ4d4

Adder-Subtractor circuit using OPAMP

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EdxVoSl5nZU
 Links to videos and e-book references

Instrumentation Amplifier Explained (with Derivation)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pSctPegtZfc

Lecture 75: Instrumentation Amplifier

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ssEAzB8MR7g

APPLICATIONS OF INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EdxVoSl5nZU

Op-Amp as DIFFERENTIATOR And INTEGRATOR - Applications of

Op-AMP - BEE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=YZsup_LoMu8

Lecture - 36 Logarthmic and Anti-Logarthmic Amplifer

https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=_9M1FH1kg7Y

Log and Antilog Amplifiers Explained | Applications of Log and

Antilog Amplifiers
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nrfb-s0wl6g

Log amplifier using op-amp | Logarithmic Amplifier

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-qs3qJz6dTU

Antilog amplifier using op-amp | Anti-logarithmic Amplifier

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gsF6GVz9wV0
 Links to videos and e-book references

Comparator and how to use it (explained with real life

application) - Electronics Basic #1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1e1J2c2NqQY

24. Comparator and it's Applications

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MgPNwVzXXJ4

Schmitt Trigger Explained (Design of Inverting and Non-inverting

Schmitt Trigger using Op-Amp)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5-ohKRWeod4

What is Precision Rectifier? Precision Rectifier Explained

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5HweBajP-5g

Active Clipper Circuit (Clipper Circuit using op-amp) Explained

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZaX5tL_xktQ

Active Clamper Circuit (Clamper Circuit using op-amp) Explained

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xU7nGvADHZM

lec59 - Experiment: Peak detector circuit using Op-Amp

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=25i1-Enhtw0

Active Low Pass Filter and Active High Pass Filter Explained
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gEeF8sEQTEc
 Links to videos and e-book references

Butterworth Filter : Design of Low Pass and High Pass Filters

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lc6QT8VjqVc

Band Pass Filter and Band Stop Filter Explained

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmPIydL0lyM

Op-Amp Circuits
https://www.ee.iitb.ac.in/~sequel/ee101/ee101_opamp_1.pdf

Operational Amplifiers and Linear Integrated Circuits Theory and

Application
https://www2.mvcc.edu/users/faculty/jfiore/OpAmps/OperationalAmplifier
sAndLinearICs_3E.pdf

Operational Amplifiers Supplementary note

https://www.niser.ac.in/sps/sites/default/files/basic_page/Advanced%20El
ectronics%20Manual.pdf

Operational Amplifiers Theory and Practice (PDF 104P)

http://web.mit.edu/klund/www/books/opamps181.pdf

Understanding Operational Amplifiers

https://www.egr.msu.edu/classes/ece480/capstone/fall12/group05/Docum
ents/Team%205%20Techinical%20Presentation.pdf
 Test Yourself

1. If 𝑹𝒇 =0 and 𝑹𝟏 =∞ in which amplifier we get 𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽𝒊

a) Inverting Amplifier
b) Non-Inverting Amplifier
c) Differential Amplifier
d) None of the above

2. Select an Op-amp in Linear Application

a) Rectifier
b) Instrumentation Amplifier
c) Clipper
d) Multiplier

3. Closed loop gain of scale changer is

a) ACL = −K
b) ACL = 1
c) CarriACL = 0
d) ACL = ∞

4. Condition for sign changer to act as an inverter

a) 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = −1
b) 𝑅𝑓 = 𝐾𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = −𝐾
c) No need of relationship between 𝑅𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑖𝑛

5. In V-I converter the input impedance of a non-inverting amplifier is

a) Low
b) Very low
c) High
 Test Yourself

6. I-V converter is referred as

a) Transresistance amplifier
b) Transconductance amplifier
c) Transimpedance amplifier

7. Ideal Op-amp condition is

a) 𝐴𝑂𝐿 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑖 = 0
b) 𝐴𝑂𝐿 = ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑖 = 0
c) 𝐴𝑂𝐿 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑖 = ∞
d) 𝐴𝑂𝐿 = ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑖 = ∞

8. The compensation resistor is

a) 𝑅𝑜 ∥ 𝑅𝑓
b) 𝑅𝑖 ∥ 𝑅𝑓
c) 𝑅𝑜 ∥ 𝑅𝑖

9. Application of an instrumentation Amplifier

a) To measure humidity
b) To control temperature
c) To measure Light Intensity
d) All the above

10. The common features of an instrumentation amplifier

a) High CMRR
b) High Gain Accuracy
c) Low DC Offset
d) All the above
 Test Yourself

11. The output voltage of differentiator is

𝑑𝑉𝑖
a) 𝑉0 = −𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑖
b) 𝑉0 = 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑖
c) 𝑉0 = 𝐶1 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑖
d) 𝑉0 = −𝑅𝑓 𝑑𝑡

12. For good differentiator, the condition is

a) 𝑇 ≥ 𝐶1
b) 𝑇 ≥ 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
c) 𝑇 ≤ 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
d) None of the above

13. The output voltage of integrator is

−1 𝑡
a) 𝑉0 𝑡 = 𝑅 𝐶
‫׬‬0 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑓

−1 𝑑𝑉𝑖 𝑡
b) 𝑉0 𝑡 = 𝑅
1 𝐶𝑓 𝑑𝑡

𝑡
c) 𝑉0 𝑡 = −𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 ‫׬‬0 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
d) 𝑉0 𝑡 = −𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 ‫׬‬0 𝑉𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

14. To avoid the saturation problem in practical integrator

a) 𝐶𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑓

b) 𝐶𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑓
c) 𝐶𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑖𝑛
d) None of these
 Test Yourself

15. If 𝑹𝒇 is large, the lossy integrator approximates the ___________

a) Ideal Integrator
b) Practical Integrator
c) Practical Differentiator
d) Differentiator

16. The logarithmic amplifier are used

a) To have direct dB display on digital voltmeter
b) To compress the dynamic range of a signal
c) To compute ln, log or sinh functions
d) All the above

17. The applications of comparator are

a) Zero Crossing Detector
b) Window Detector
c) Phase Detector
d) All the above

18. The speed of operation ion comparator can be increased by

a) No feedback
b) Positive feedback
c) Negative feedback
d) None of the above
 Test Yourself

19. Schmitt Trigger is also referred as

a) Inverting Comparator
b) Regenerative Comparator
c) Non Inverting Comparator
d) None of the mentioned

20. The comparator with positive feedback is said to exhibit

a) Offset
b) Hysteresis
c) Regeneration
d) None of the mentioned

21. Identify the non linear applications of Op-amp

a) Power Amplifier
b) Subtractor
c) Adder
d) Sample and hold Circuit

22. Example of I-V converter is

a) Thyristor
b) Sensor
c) Photodiode
d) None of the above
 ASSIGNMENT

1. Use any one of the simulation platform and compare the performance K5
between PN Junction Diode and Precision diode CO2
Hint:
i) Use sinusoidal input signal
ii) Try with three different input voltages (100 V, 10 V and 1 V)
iii) Observe the input and output waveform for PN Junction Diode
and Precision Diode
2. Use any one of the simulation platform and observe the input and K4
output waveform for the following circuits CO2
i) Half wave rectifier
ii) Full wave rectifier
iii) Peak Detector
iv) Clipper
v) Clamper
3. Determine the output voltage of the following circuit. K3
CO2

4. Consider a Lossy integrator circuit for the components values K3

𝑅1 =1KΩ, 𝑅𝐹 =100KΩ, 𝐶𝐹 =10nF. Determine the lower frequency limit of CO2
integration and study for the response for Inputs (i) sine wave
(ii) Square input.
 ASSIGNMENT

5. Determine the output voltage. K4

CO2

6. Calculate the output voltage for this circuit when 𝑉1 = 2.5 V and K4
𝑉2 = 2.25 V. CO2
 PART A – QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Mention some of the linear applications of op – amps. K2

CO2
 Adder
 Subtractor
 Voltage –to- current converter,
 Current –to- voltage converters
 Instrumentation amplifier
 Analog computation
 Power amplifier

2. Mention some of the non – linear applications of op-amps. K2

CO2
 Rectifier
 Peak detector
 Clipper
 Clamper
 Sample and hold circuit
 Log amplifier,
 Anti – log amplifier

3. What is voltage follower? K3

CO2
A circuit in which output follows the input is called voltage follower.

4. What is the need for an instrumentation amplifier? K2

CO2
In a number of industrial and consumer applications, the
measurement of physical quantities is usually done with the help of
transducers. The output of transducer has to be amplified So that it
can drive the indicator or display system. This function is performed
by an instrumentation amplifier.
5. List the features of instrumentation amplifier. K2
CO2
1. High gain accuracy
2. High CMRR
3. High gain stability with low temperature co-efficient
4. Low dc offset
5. Low output impedance

6. What are the applications of V-I converter? K2

CO2
 Low voltage dc and ac voltmeter
LED
 Zener diode tester

7. Define Bandpass filter. K2

CO2
The bandpass filter is the combination of high and low pass filters,
and this allows a specified range of frequencies to pass through.

8. Write transfer function of op amp as an integer. K2

CO2
The transfer function of the integer is
1
𝐴 =
𝜔𝑅1 𝐶𝑓

9. What do you mean by a precision diode? K3

CO2
The major limitation of ordinary diode is that it cannot rectify
voltages below the cut – in voltage of the diode. A circuit designed
by placing a diode in the feedback loop of an op – amp is called the
precision diode and it is capable of rectifying input signals of the
order of millivolt

10. How does precision rectifier differ from conventional K4

rectifier? CO2

The major limitation of conventional rectifier is that it cannot rectify

voltages below Vγ (~ 0.7V), the cut-in voltage of the ordinary diode.
But the precision rectifier can rectify voltages in the order of
millivolts as the precision diode’s cut-in voltage is Vγ/104(open-loop
gain of op-amp).
11. Write down the applications of precision diode. K2
CO2
1. Half - wave rectifier
2. Full - Wave rectifier
3. Peak – value detector
4. Clipper
5. Clamper

12. Define Logarithmic and antilogarithmic amplifier. K2

CO2
When a logarithmic PN junction is used in the feedback network of
op-amp, the circuit exhibits log or antilog response.

The logarithmic amplifier is a current to voltage converter with the

𝐼
transfer characteristics 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑙𝑛 𝐼𝑓
𝑖

Antilog amplifier is a decoding circuit which converts the

logarithmically encoded signal back to the original signal levels as
given by 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉0 10−𝐾𝑉𝑖

13. Differentiate Comparator and Schmitt Trigger K4

CO2
Comparator Schmitt Trigger

It compares the input signal It operates between two

with references voltage then reference points namely
yields the output voltage UTP&LTP.
It need not consist of feedback It employs positive feedback

Comparator output need not Its output is square wave.

to be square wave

14. What is a comparator? K2

CO2
A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at
one input of an op-amp with a known reference voltage at the other
input. It is an open loop op - amp with output ± Vsat .
15. List the applications of Log amplifiers. K2
CO2
1. Analog computation may require functions such as ln 𝑥, log 𝑥, sin ℎ𝑥
etc. These functions can be performed by log amplifiers
2. Log amplifier can perform direct dB display on digital voltmeter
and spectrum analyzer
3. Log amplifier can be used to compress the dynamic range of a
signal

16. What are the limitations of the basic differentiator circuit? K3

CO2
1. At high frequency, a differentiator may become unstable and break
into oscillations
2. The input impedance decreases with increase in frequency ,
thereby making the circuit sensitive to high frequency noise.

17. Write down the condition for good differentiation. K3

CO2
1. For good differentiation, the time period of the input signal must
be greater than or equal to 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
2. 𝑇 ≥ 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 Where, 𝑅𝑓 is the feedback resistance and 𝐶1 is the input
capacitance

18. What are the applications of comparator? K2

CO2
1. Zero crossing detector
2. Window detector
3. Time marker generator
4. Phase detector

19. What is a Schmitt trigger? K2

CO2
Schmitt trigger is a regenerative comparator. It converts sinusoidal
input into a square wave output. The output of Schmitt trigger swings
between upper and lower threshold voltages, which are the reference
voltages of the input waveform.

20. What are the characteristics of a comparator? K2

CO2
1. Speed of operation
2. Accuracy
3. Compatibility of the output
21. What is a filter? K2
CO2
Filter is a frequency selective circuit that passes signal of specified
band of frequencies and attenuates the signals of frequencies outside
the band

22. What are the demerits of passive filters? K3

CO2
Passive filters works well for high frequencies. But at audio
frequencies, the inductors become problematic, as they become large,
heavy and expensive. For low frequency applications, more number of
turns of wire must be used which in turn adds to the series resistance
degrading inductor’s performance ie, low Q, resulting in high power
dissipation.

23. Define low pass filter. K2

CO2
A low pass filter allows only low frequency signals upto a certain
break point 𝑓𝐻 to pass through.

24. Define High pass filter. K2

CO2
A high pass filter allows only high frequency signals above a certain
break point 𝑓𝐿 to pass through.

25. Why active guard drive is necessary for an instrumentation K3

amplifier? CO2

Practically the common ground bus is shared by variety of circuits.

Due to ground loop interference, additional voltage drop gets inserted
which may cause error in low level measurements. Due to distributed
cable capacitances, there is degradation of CMRR. The active guard
drive eliminates all these problems.

26. What are the advantages of active filters? K3

CO2
Active filters used op- amp as the active element and resistors and
capacitors as passive elements.
27. Give the schematic of op-amp based current to voltage K3
converter. CO2

28. Draw the schematic of Phase lag and Phase lead circuit. K3
CO2

Fig: Phase Lag Circuit Fig: Phase Lead Circuit

29. Mention the limitations of Ideal Integrator and Ideal K4

Differentiator CO2

Limitations of Ideal Integrator

 In practice Output saturates at low frequencies

Limitations of Ideal Differentiator

 At high frequency, the ideal differentiator become unstable

and break into oscillation
 Output Impedance decreases with increase in frequency
thereby making the circuit sensitive to noise.

30. What is the need for converting first order filter into second K4
order filter CO2

 First order filter is not ideal one

 The frequency response can be improved in second order
filter
 PART B QUESTIONS

1. Draw the circuit diagram of an instrumentation amplifier and explain K2

its operation. List few applications. CO2

2. With neat diagram, explain the Logarithmic and anti-logarithmic K2

amplifiers. CO2

3. Sketch the basic circuit using op-amp to perform mathematical K2

operation of differentiation and explain, what are the limitations of an CO2
ordinary op-amp differentiator? Draw and explain the circuits of a
practical differentiator that will eliminate these limitations.

4. Draw and explain the ideal and practical integrator circuit derive the K3
output expression and also draw the output waveforms for the input CO2
(i) Sine wave and (ii) Square wave

5. Derive the transfer function of second order Butter worth Low pass K3
filter and design Low pass filter for the Cut off frequency 2KHz. CO2

6. In the circuit shown below in the figure below, 𝑅1 =12KΩ, 𝑅2 = 5KΩ, K3

𝑅3 = 8KΩ, 𝑅𝐹 = 12KΩ. The inputs are: 𝑉1 = 9V, 𝑉2 = -3V and 𝑉3 = -1V. CO2
Compute the output voltage.

𝑅1
𝑅2

𝑅3
7. Determine the output voltage. K4
CO2

8. Calculate the output voltage for this circuit when 𝑉1 = 2.5 V and K4
𝑉2 = 2.25 V. CO2

9. Explain the Op-amp comparators with suitable waveforms K2

CO2

10. Explain the working of Op-amp based Schmitt trigger circuit. K2

CO2

11. Explain the working of Precision half wave and Full wave rectifier K2
using Op-amp CO2

12. Explain the Clipper and Clamper circuits using Op-amp and Diode with K2
neat diagrams. CO2
13. Draw the second order butter worth active High pass filter and derive K2
CO2
an expression for its transfer function.

14. Design an Op-amp differentiator that will differentiate an input signal K3

CO2
with 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 =100 Hz and draw the corresponding waveform for Sine
and square inputs.

15. Consider a Lossy integrator circuit for the components values K3

CO2
𝑅1 =1KΩ, 𝑅𝐹 =100KΩ, 𝐶𝐹 =10nF. Determine the lower frequency limit of
integration and study for the response for Inputs (i) sine wave
(ii) step input (iii) Square input.

16. Explain the working of Voltage to current and current to voltage K2

CO2
converter.
 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION
COURSES

Course Name: Analog Circuits

Certification : NPTEL Online Certification

Duration : 12 weeks

Course Overview: This course is designed as the introductory course on Analog

Circuits for undergraduate students. It covers the basic components and
methodologies used for Analog Design. Most of the portion deals with OPAMP based
circuits. Later in the course some BJT based circuits are discussed.

Course Instructor: Prof. Jayanta Mukherjee, IIT Kanpur

Course Link : https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc21_ee07/preview

REAL TIME APPLICATIONS IN DAY TO DAY LIFE

System On Chip

Title : How do Smartphone CPUs Work? || Inside the System on a Chip

Description : A system on a chip (SoC) is an integrated circuit that integrates all or

most components of a computer or other electronic system. These components
almost always include a central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output ports
and secondary storage, often alongside other components such as radio modems
and a graphics processing unit (GPU) – all on a single substrate or microchip. It may
contain digital, analog, mixed-signal, and often radio frequency signal processing
functions.
The you-tube video link shown below will help you to understand about SoC, its
internal operation and how the CPU operations are performed inside the smartphone
in an animated way.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NKfW8ijmRQ4
Bio signal Measurement Using Op-Amp

Title : Investigating the right leg, RL, A or GND electrode in ECG, EEG and
other biosignal measurements.

Description : An operational amplifier is an integrated circuit that can amplify weak

electric signals. An operational amplifier has two input pins and one output pin. Its
basic role is to amplify and output the voltage difference between the two input
pins. Hence Operational amplifier can also used to amplify Biological signal such as
ECG, EMG, EEG etc..

The link given below shows the measurement of ECG and EMG bio signal
measurement of human body.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yvieC-Ycww8
 CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

Band Stop Filter using Op-amp

Notch Filter using Op-amp

Band Stop Filter using Op-Amp

By combining a basic RC low-pass filter with a RC high-pass filter we can form a

simple band-pass filter that will pass a range or band of frequencies either side of
two cut-off frequency points.
But we can also combine these low and high pass filter sections to produce
another kind of RC filter network called a band stop filter that can block or at least
severely attenuate a band of frequencies within these two cut-off frequency
points.There are various types of Noise presents.
The Band Stop Filter, (BSF) is another type of frequency selective circuit that
functions in exactly the opposite way to the Band Pass Filter we looked at before.
The band stop filter, also known as a band reject filter, passes all frequencies
with the exception of those within a specified stop band which are greatly
attenuated.
In signalling processing, computing noise can be considered random unwanted
data without meaning.
So for a wide-band band stop filter, the filters actual stop band lies between its
lower and upper -3dB points as it attenuates, or rejects any frequency between
these two cut-off frequencies.
The ideal band stop filter would have infinite attenuation in its stop band and zero
attenuation in either pass band. The transition between the two pass bands and
the stop band would be vertical (brick wall).
There are several ways we can design a “Band Stop Filter”, and they all
accomplish the same purpose.
Generally band-pass filters are constructed by combining a low pass filter (LPF) in
series with a high pass filter (HPF). Band stop filters are created by combining
together the low pass and high pass filter sections in a “parallel” type
configuration as shown.
 The frequency response curve of an ideal band stop filter is therefore given as:

Fig: Frequency and Phase Response of Band Stop filter

Band Stop Filter Circuit

Fig: Band Stop Filter Configuration

The summing of the high pass and low pass filters means that their frequency
responses do not overlap, unlike the band-pass filter.
This is due to the fact that their start and ending frequencies are at different
frequency points.
 The use of operational amplifiers within the band stop filter design also allows us
to introduce voltage gain into the basic filter circuit.

Fig: Band Stop Filter Circuit and its Characteristics

The two non-inverting voltage followers can easily be converted into a basic non-
𝑅
inverting amplifier with a gain of 𝐴𝑣 = 1 + 𝑅 𝑓 by the addition of input and
𝑖𝑛
feedback resistors, as seen in our non-inverting op-amp tutorial.

Need to Know more about the design of Band Stop Filter

Click on the following links

Band Stop Filter using Op-Amp

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/band-stop-filter.html

Active band stop filters using op-amp | Band reject filter

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gbntBvh9KwE

Band Pass Filter and Band Stop Filter Explained

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmPIydL0lyM
Notch Filter using Op-Amp

Operational amplifiers provide an excellent way of making and designing notch

filters. Op amp circuits for active notch filters are very effective whilst being easy
to design and construct using a minimal number of electronic components.
Notch filters can be used in a number of different applications where a particular
frequency or band of frequencies needs to be removed. Often notch filers are
fixed frequency, although it is possible to design some that have variable
frequencies.
Fixed frequency notch filters find applications such as removing fixed frequency
interference like mains hum, from audio circuits. They can also be used in
electronic circuit design in many areas, conveniently removing a single frequency
or narrow band of frequencies.

Fig: Frequency Response of Notch Filter

Op-Amp Active Notch Filter Circuit

The diagram below shows an op amp circuit for an active notch filter using a
single operational amplifier and a few additional electronic components.
The notch filter circuit is quite straightforward and the electronic circuit
design calculations for the component values are also easy to determine.
 Fig: Basic Op-Amp Notch Filter Circuit with Fixed Notch

The active notch filter circuit is quite straightforward to design. It employs

both negative and positive feedback around the operational amplifier chip
and in this way it is able to provide a high degree of performance.

Learn more about Notch Filter using Op-Amp.

Click on the following links
Op Amp Active Notch Filter Circuit
https://www.electronics-
notes.com/articles/analogue_circuits/operational-
amplifier-op-amp/notch-filter-active-circuit.php

Active band stop filters using op-amp | Band reject

filter
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gbntBvh9KwE

NARROW BAND REJECT FILTER or TWIN T NOTCH

FILTER using MULTI SIM software.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K8brksV9DZw
Assessment Schedule
 ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit 1 Assignment 5-3-2021 5-3-2021
Assessment
Unit Test 1 - -

Unit 2 Assignment 12-03-2021 12-03-2021

Assessment
Internal Assessment 1 26-3-2021

Retest for IA 1 30-3-2021

Unit 3 Assignment 3-4-2021

Assessment
Unit Test 2 -

Unit 4 Assignment 12-4-2021

Assessment
Internal Assessment 2 23-4-2021

Retest for IA 2 26-4-2021

Unit 5 Assignment 6-5-2021

Assessment
Revision Test 1 11-5-2021

Revision Test 2 13-5-2021

Model Exam 19-5-2021

Remodel Exam 23-5-2021

University Exam
Prescribed Text Books
&
Reference Books
PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOK AND REFERENCES:

TEXT BOOK:
1. D.Roy Choudhry, Shail Jain, ―Linear Integrated Circuits‖, New Age
International Pvt. Ltd., 2018, Fifth Edition.
2. Sergio Franco, ―Design with Operational Amplifiers and Analog
Integrated Circuits‖, 4th Edition, Tata Mc Graw-Hill, 2016.

REFERENCES:
1. Ramakant A. Gayakwad, ―OP-AMP and Linear ICs‖, 4th Edition,
Prentice Hall / Pearson Education, 2015.

2. Robert F.Coughlin, Frederick F.Driscoll, ―Operational Amplifiers and

Linear Integrated Circuits‖, Sixth Edition, PHI, 2001.

3. B.S.Sonde, ―System design using Integrated Circuits‖ , 2nd Edition,

New Age Pub, 2001.
4. Gray and Meyer, ―Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated
Circuits‖, Wiley International,5th Edition, 2009.
5. William D.Stanley, ―Operational Amplifiers with Linear
Integrated Circuits‖, Pearson Education,4 Edition,2001.
th

6. S.Salivahanan & V.S. Kanchana Bhaskaran, ―Linear Integrated

Circuits‖, TMH,2nd Edition, 4th Reprint, 2016.
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22. Missing pulse https://www.circuitstoday.com/mi Evaluate

detector circuit ssing-pulse-detector-circuit-using-
using NE555 ne555
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