Lecture # 1
ENDOCRINOLOGY
Dr Maha Saleem
Introduction
1. Neurotransmitters are released by axon terminals
of neurons into the synaptic junctions and act
locally to control nerve cell functions.
2. Neuroendocrine hormones are secreted by
neurons into the circulating blood and influence
the function of cells at another location in the
body.
3. Hormones are the chemicals produced by special
tissues that are transported by vascular system to
effect other tissues at low concentrations
The endocrine and nervous system are integrated in
the control of physiological process
Examples:
1. secretion of adrenal medulla
2. Suckling causing the release of milk
Characteristics of endocrine system
that is different from nervous system
Amplification of the signal
Increases the rate of existing enzyme reactions
Action is slow and prolonged, lasting from minutes
to days.
Classification of hormones
There are three general classes of hormones:
1. Proteins and polypeptides: including hormones
secreted by the anterior and posterior pituitary gland,
the pancreas (insulin and glucagon), the parathyroid
gland (parathyroid hormone), and many others.
2. Steroids secreted by the adrenal cortex (cortisol and
aldosterone), the ovaries (estrogen and progesterone),
the testes (testosterone), and the placenta (estrogen
and progesterone).
3. Derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine, secreted by
the thyroid (thyroxine and T3, triiodothyronine) and
the adrenal medullae (epinephrine and
norepinephrine).
Synthesis of hormone
Protein hormones are initially synthesized as
preprohormone and then cleaved in the RER to
form prohormone and in the Golgi apparatus to
form active hormones, which are stored in granules
before being released by exocytosis
Steroids are synthesized from cholesterol, which is
synthesized by liver; steriod are not stored but are
released as they are synthesized
Diffuse out rapidly as they synthesize in the
cytoplasm through lipid bi-layer and enter into the
interstitial fluid and then into blood
Transport of Hormones in the Blood
Water-soluble hormones:
protein hormones are hydrophilic
Dissolved in the plasma and trans- ported from their
sites of synthesis to target tissues, where they diffuse
out of the capillaries, into the interstitial fluid and
ultimately to target cells
Steroid and thyroid hormones:
In contrast, these hormones are
lipophilic and circulate in the blood mainly bound to
plasma proteins especially globulin e.g. transcortin,
thyroxin binding. Usually less than 10 per cent of
steroid or thyroid hormones in the plasma exist free in
solution.
Hormone- cell interaction
Mechanisms of Action of Hormones
Hormone Receptors and Their Activation
In or on the surface of the cell membrane. The
membrane receptors are specific mostly for the
protein, peptide, and catecholamine hormones
In the cytoplasm or In the cell nucleus. The
primary receptors for the different steroid hormones
are found mainly in the cytoplasm. The receptors
for the thyroid hormones are found in the nucleus
and are believed to be located in direct association
with one or more of the chromosomes.
Intracellular Signaling After Hormone
Receptor Activation
1. Ion Channel–Linked Receptors
2. G Protein–Linked Hormone Receptors
Enzyme-Linked Hormone Receptors
Adenylyl Cyclase–cAMP Second Messenger
System
Adenylyl Cyclase–cAMP Second
Messenger System
Phospolipase C system
Second Messenger System
Molecules that relay signals from receptors on the
cell surface to target molecules inside the cell.
They greatly amplify the strength of the signal,
cause some kind of change in the activity of the cell
e.g. cAMP, IP3, Ca, Diacylglycerole
Feed Back Control of Hormone Secretion
❖ Negative Feed Back control
After a stimulus causes release of the hormone, conditions or
products resulting from the action of the hormone tend to
suppress its further release. In other words, the hormone (or
one of its products) has a negative feedback effect to prevent
over secretion of the hormone or over activity at the target
tissue.
❖ Positive Feed Back Control
Positive feedback occurs when the biological action
of the hormone causes additional secretion of the
hormone. One example of this is the surge of
luteinizing hormone (LH) that occurs as a result of
the stimulatory effect of estrogen on the anterior
pituitary before ovulation. The secreted LH then
acts on the ovaries to stimulate additional secretion
of estrogen, which in turn causes more secretion of
LH
