DESIGN OF HEAT, AIR AND MOISTURE CONTROL

IN BUILDINGS
A major project report submitted to
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by
ANIL YADAV : 18WJ5A0303
B.SAI CHARAN : 17WJ1A0340
CH.SAI KUMAR : 17WJ1A0355

Under the Guidance of

Mr. M.CHAKRAPANI

ASST PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS
(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
Ibrahimpatnam, Ranga Reddy District-501506
Telangana, India.
2019-2020
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify the Major-Project entitled "DESIGN OF HEAT, AIR

AND MOISTURE IN BUILDINGS” is being submitted by ANIL YADAV (18WJ5A0303),
B.SAI CHARAN (17WJ1A0340) and CH.SAI KUMAR(17WJIA0355) in partial fulfillment
for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technologyin Mechanical Engineering to the
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad is a record of bonafide work
carried out by them under my guidance and supervision.

The results embodied in this Major-Project report have not been submitted to any other
University or Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma.

Internal Guide

Mr. M Chakrapani

Asst Professor

External Examiner Head of the Department

(MECHANICAL ENGINEERING)
 DECLARATION

We declare that this Major-Project report titled “DESIGN OF HEAT, AIR AND
MOISTURE IN BUILDINGS” submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree
of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering to the Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University Hyderabad is a record of original work carried out us under the
guidance of Mr. M.Chakrapani, Asst Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
and has not formed the basis for the award of any other degree or diploma, in this or any other
Institution or University. In keeping with the ethical practice in reporting scientific
information, due acknowledgements have been made whenever the findings of others have
been cited.

Mr. Anil Yadav Mr. CH. Sai Charan

18WJ5A0303 17WJ1A0340

Mr. CH. Sai Kumar

17WJ1A0355
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express our sincere thanks to Dr.H.S.SAINI, Managing Director, Guru Nanak
Institutions and Dr.M.RAMALINGA REDDY, Director, Guru Nanak Institutions Technical
Campus, School of Engineering and Technology for providing us with all the necessary
facilities and their support.

We place on record, our sincere thanks to Dr.G.SANKARANARAYANAN, Professor and

Dean of Mechanical Engineering, for the continuous encouragement.

We place on record, our sincere thanks to Dr.A.RAJ KUMAR, Professor and Head of the
Department, Mechanical Engineering for his whole-hearted co-operation, providing excellent
lab facility, constant encouragement and unfailing inspiration.

We would like to say sincere thanks to Dr.S.NAGAKALYAN, Professor, Department of

Mechanical Engineering for Co-ordinating Projects.

We especially thank our internal guide Mr. M Chakrapani , Asst Professor, Department of
Mechanical Engineering for the suggestions and constant guidance in every stage of the
project. We also like to thank all of our lecturers helping us in every possible way.

On a more personal note we thank our BELOVED PARENTS and FRIENDS for their moral
support during the course of our project.

ANIL YADAV : 18WJ5A0303

B.SAI CHARAN : 17WJ1A0340
CH.SAI KUMAR : 17WJ1A0355
 ABSTRACT

HVAC (Heating, Ventilation & Air conditioning) system is air condition system to adjust the comfort
level of both the room ambient temperature and air humidity for the humans to feel the comfort and
live luxurious life. HVAC will have air flow rate, water flow rate, and temperature every movement it
varies minute to minute dynamically in order to provide exact amount of heat removal from the coil
and heat flow rate through diffusers.
Buildings with HVAC systems implemented will have lower indoor heat and higher outdoor heats in
tropical climate zones. And in polar zones, its other way around. Atmospheric air will have moisture
content within, which can condense at the surfaces like walls and windows when the temperature of
the surface is at the dew point temperature of the air. Surfaces like walls, windows etc would have this
effect and results in mold and fungal formation on the surfaces.
This project deals with arranging heat insulations for the buildings so that surface temperatures are
maintained to avoid any possible moisture condensations.

I
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DESCRIPTION PAGE NUMBERS

Abstract I
Table of contents II-III
List of figures IV-V
List of tables VI

1 INTRODUCTION 01-23

1.0 Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning 01

1.1 Motivation 01
1.2 History of HVAC 02
1.3 Importance of HVAC 02
1.4 Classification of HVAC systems 03
1.4.1 All-air systems 03
1.4.2 Air-water systems 04
1.4.3 Water systems 04
1.4.4 Refrigerant-based systems (Unitary systems) 04

1.5 Basic components of an HVAC system 05

1.5.1 Outdoor Air Intake 06
1.5.2 Mixed-Air Plenum and Outdoor Air Controls 06
1.5.3 Air Filters 06
1.5.4 Heating and Cooling Coils 07
1.5.5 Humidification and Dehumidification Equipment 07
1.5.6 Supply Fans 07
1.5.7 Ducts 08
1.5.8 Terminal Devices 08
1.5.9 Return Air Systems 08
1.5.10 Exhausts or Exhaust Fans 09
1.5.11 Self-Contained Units 09

II
 1.5.12 Controls 09
1.5.13 Boilers 10
1.5.14 Cooling Towers 10
1.5.15 Water Chillers 10
1.6 Working of Air conditioners 11
1.7 Types of Air Conditioning Systems 11
1.7.1 Window Air Conditioner 12
1.7.2 Split Air Conditioner 12
1.7.3 Packaged Air Conditioner 13
1.7.4 Central Air Conditioning System 13
1.7.5 Variable refrigerant flow 14
1.8 Main components in Air Conditioning System 15
1.8.1 Compressor 15
1.8.2 Condenser 16
1.8.3 Expansion Valve 16
1.8.4 Evaporator 17
1.8.5 Fans 17
1.9 Refrigerant 18
1.10 Types of Refrigerants 18
1.11 Various Lines and Curves in Psychometric Chart 19

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 23
3 METHODOLOGY 24-52
4 CALCULATIONS 53-55
5 RESULT AND CONCLUSION 56
REFERENCES 57

III
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE NUMBER

Fig 1.1 Generic classifications of centralized AC system 3
Fig 1.2 Typical HVAC System Components 5
Fig 1.3 Window air conditioning system 12
Fig 1.4 Split Air Conditioning system 12
Fig 1.5 Packaged Air Conditioning System 13
Fig 1.6 Central air conditioning system 13
Fig 1.7 Variable refrigerant flow 14
Fig 1.8 Line diagram of Air Conditioning System 15
Fig 1.9 Compressor 15
Fig 1.10 Condenser 16
Fig 1.11 Expansion Valve 16
Fig 1.12 Evaporator 17
Fig 1.13 Fans 17
Fig 1.14 Working of chiller 19
Fig 1.15 Air Cooled Chiller 20
Fig 1.16 Water Cooled Chiller 21
Fig 1.17 Air Handling Unit 21
Fig 1.18 Psychometric Chart 22
Fig 3.1 Phycrometric chart 24
Fig 3.2 Opposite blade damper 25
Fig 3.3 Chilled water distribution system 26
Fig 3.4 Temperature sensors 27
Fig 3.5 a. Bourdon tube pressure gauge 28
b. Diaphragm pressure gauge
c. Diaphragm pressure gauge

IV
Fig 3.6 Electro chemical sensors
Graph Variable frequency drive

V
VI
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.0 Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning

Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) systems control the indoor environment
throughout the year to ensure comfortable conditions in homes, offices, and commercial
facilities. Air conditioning is used in most commercial properties, ranging from small shops and
cafes to large office buildings and public spaces. To meet these diverse applications, air
conditioning systems have different heating and cooling capacities and come with various setups
and layouts.
Many of our homes, most offices and commercial facilities would not become fordable without
control of the indoor environment. The "luxury label" attached to air conditioning in earlier
decades has given way to appreciate it practicality in making our live healthier and more
productive. Along with rapid development in improving human comfort came the realization that
goods could be produced better, faster, and more economically in a properly controlled
environment.
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efficiency

1.1 Motivation:
The awareness of the importance of living place and indoor air quality has increased for both
health and comfort. The growing requirements for closely controlled working environments in
laboratories, hospitals, and industrial facilities have rapidly increased overall energy demands.
Therefore the HVAC systems designers are challenged as never before to come up with the most
energy efficient systems. One way of addressing the challenge is by optimizing conventional
setups and introducing efficient innovative systems utilizing renewable energy resources.

1
1.2 History of HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning):
In 1902, a 25-year-old Engineer from New York named Willis Carrier invented the first modern
air conditioning system. The mechanical unit, which sent air through water-cooled coils was
not aimed at human comfort. However, it was designed to control humidity in the printing
plant where he worked.
The first modern electrical air conditioning unit was invented by Willis Carrier in 1902in
Buffalo, New York. After graduating from Cornell University, Carrier found a job at Buffalo
ForgeCompany.
Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) is the technology of vehicular and the indoor
environmental comfort. It’s goal is to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality.
Air conditioners use chemicals that easily convert the gas to liquid and back again. This chemical
is used to transfer heat from the air inside of a home to the outside air. The machine has three
main parts they are compressor, condenser and an evaporator.
Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning(HVAC) equipment perform heating and/or
cooling for residential, commercial or industrial buildings, The HVAC system may also be
responsible for providing fresh outdoor air to dilute interior airborne contaminants such as
odors from occupants, volatile organic compounds(VOC's) emitted from interior furnishings,
chemicals used for cleaning etc, A properly designed system will provide a comfortable
indoor environment year-round when properly maintained.

1.3 Importance of HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning):

HVAC is an important part of residential structures such as family homes, apartments,
buildings, hotels and senior living facilities, medium to large industrial and office buildings
such as skyscrapers and hospitals, onboard vessels and in marine environments, where safe
and healthy building conditions are regulated with respect to temperature and humidity using
fresh air from outdoors.
Ventilating or ventilation(V in HVAC) is the process of exchanging or replacing air in any
space to provide high indoor air quality which involves temperature control, removal of
moisture, oxygen replenishment, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide
and other gases.

2
1.4 Classification of HVAC systems:
Mostly, HVAC systems are categorized based on the fluid media used in the thermal
distribution system. Each type of the system has certain technical and economic benefit. Few
are better than others for specific applications. Four types of such HVAC systems are:
 All-air HVAC systems
 Air-water HVACsystems
 All water HVAC systems
 Refrigerant-based HVAC systems (Unitary systems)

Fig 1.1 Generic classifications of centralized air-conditioning systems

1.4.1 All-air systems:

An all-air system delivers both sensible and latent cooling, and possibly humidification. The
systems are often used in the buildings that require individual control of multiple zones, for
example, hotels, hospitals, schools, and office buildings. These systems can be further
classified as single/double duct systems and multi-zone systems with constant or variable air
volume. Single duct normally consumes less energy than dual duct system. However,
variable volume systems are more efficient than constant volume systems. The major benefit
of these systems are the greatest potential for use of outside air for free cooling.

3
1.4.2 All-water systems:
In air-water systems both air and water are distributed to terminal units installed in the zones
to be conditioned throughout a building. The air and water are cooled or heated in central
HVAC system and from there are distributed to air-conditioned spaces. Air- water systems
are typically categorized in three types, such as induction system with two or four pipe
systems, fan-coil systems and radiant panels. In such systems it is possible to provide
simultaneous cooling and control on individual zone in an economic way through thermostats.
However, the overall operation and control are complicated due to handling both primary air
and secondary water. In general, such systems are limited to perimeter zones. Initial cost of
these systems could be high compared to all air systems.

1.4.3 Water systems:

In water systems, water is used in the thermal distribution system to heat and/or cool a space.
Direct heat transfer process occurs between water and the indoor air. These systems can
satisfy indoor cooling and heating loads except ventilation loads. The most common
terminal units that are being used with chilled-water systems include fan coils, chilled ceilings
and chilled floors. Such systems can also be used with systems using natural convection in
combination with cooling coils such as, silent cooling and chilled beams. In water systems,
the thermal distribution system required significantly less space compared to the all-air
systems. Individual room control and simultaneous cooling and heating are also possible.
However, these systems require higher maintenance compared to all-air systems.

1.4.4 Refrigerant-based systems (Unitary systems):

In such systems, cooling process takes place at a very short distance from the delivery
terminals. These systems are mostly window or wall mounted and factory assembled having
varying capacity and type. Examples of such systems are window, split and packaged air
conditioners. Advantages associated with such system are simple and inexpensive room
control and lower initial cost compared to central systems. But these systems are less flexible
in terms of air flow rate, condenser and evaporator sizes. Power consumption per kW could
be higher compared to central systems.

4
1.5 Basic components of an HVAC system:
The basic components of an HVAC system that delivers conditioned air to maintain thermal
comfort and indoor air quality are:
 Outdoor air intake
 mixed-air plenum and outdoor air control
 Air filter
 Heating and cooling coils
 Humidification and de-humidification equipment
 Supply fan
 Ducts
 Terminal device
 Return air system
 Exhaust or relief fans and air outlet
 Self-contained heating or cooling units
 Control
 Boilers
 Cooling tower
 Water chillers

Fig 1.2 Typical HVAC System Components

5
1.5.1 Outdoor Air Intake:
Building codes require the introduction of outdoor air for ventilation in most buildings. Most
non-residential air handlers are designed with an outdoor air intake on the return side of the
ductwork. Outdoor air introduced through the air handler can be filtered and conditioned
(heated or cooled) before distribution. Other designs may introduce outdoor air through air-
to-air heat exchangers and operable windows.
Indoor air quality problems can be produced when contaminants enter a building with the
outdoor air. Rooftop or wall-mounted air intakes are sometimes located adjacent to or
downwind of building exhaust outlets or other contaminant sources. Problems can also result
if debris (e.g., bird droppings) accumulates at the intake, obstructing airflow.

1.5.2 Mixed-Air Plenum and Outdoor Air Controls:

Outdoor air is mixed with return air (air that has already circulated through the HVAC
system) in the mixed-air plenum of an air handling unit. Indoor air quality problems frequently
result if the outdoor air damper is not operating properly (e.g., if the system is not designed
or adjusted to allow the introduction of sufficient outdoor air.
When dampers that regulate the flow of outdoor air are arranged to modulate, they areusually
designed to bring in a mini- mum amount of outdoor air (in the occupied mode) underextreme
outdoor temperature conditions and to open as outdoor temperatures approach the desired
indoor temperature. Systems that use outdoor air for cooling are called “air economizer
cooling” systems.

1.5.3 Air Filters:

Filters are primarily used to remove particles from the air. The type and design of filter
determine the efficiency at removing particles of a given size and the amount of energy needed
to pull or push air through the filter. Filters are rated by different standards and test methods
such as dust spot and arrestance which measure different aspects of performance.
Filters should be selected for their ability to protect both the HVAC system components and
general indoor air quality. In many buildings, the best choice is a medium efficiency, pleated
filter because these filters have a higher removal efficiency than low efficiency filters, yet
they will last without clogging for longer than high efficiency filters.

6
1.5.4 Heating and Cooling Coils:
Heating and cooling coils are placed in the airstream to regulate the temperature of the air
delivered to the space. Malfunctions of the coil controls can result in thermal discomfort.
Condensation on under insulated pipes and leakage in piped systems will often create moist
conditions conducive to the growth of molds, fungus, and bacteria.
During the cooling mode (air conditioning), as water condenses from the air- stream the
cooling coil provides dehumidification. Dehumidification can only take place if the chilled
fluid is maintained at a cold enough temperature (generally below 45°F for water). Under
these conditions, molds and bacteria will proliferate unless the pan is cleaned.

1.5.5 Humidification and Dehumidification Equipment:

In some buildings (or zones within buildings), there are special needs that warrant the strict
control of humidity (e.g., operating rooms, computer rooms). This control is most often
accomplished by adding humidification or dehumidification equipment and controls. In office
facilities, it is generally preferable to keep relative humidity above 20% or 30% during the
heating season and below 60% during the cooling season.
Office buildings in cool climates that have high interior heat gains, thermally efficient
envelopes (e.g., insulation) and economizer cooling may require humidification to maintain
relative humidity within the comfort zone. When humidification is needed, it must be added
in a manner that prevents the growth of micro biological organisms within the ductwork.

1.5.6 Supply Fans:

After passing through the coil section where heat is either added or extracted, air moves
through the supply fan chamber and the distribution system. Air distribution systems
commonly use ducts that are constructed to be relatively airtight. Elements of the building
construction can also serve as part of the air distribution system (e.g., pressurized supply
plenums or return air plenums located in the cavity space above the ceiling tiles and below
the deck of the floor above).
Proper coordination of fan selection and duct layout during the building design and
construction phase and ongoing maintenance of mechanical components, filters and controls
are all necessary for effective air delivery.

7
1.5.7 Ducts:
The same HVAC system that distributes conditioned air throughout a building air can
distribute dust and other pollutants, including biological contaminants. Dust accumulation or
dirt on any components of an air handling system its cooling coils, plenums, ducts, and
equipment housing may lead to contamination of the air supply.
The presence of dust in ductwork does not necessarily indicate a current micro biological
problem. A small amount of dust on duct surfaces is normal and to be expected. Special
attention should be given to trying to find out if ducts are contaminated only where specific
problems are present, such as water damage or biological growth observed in ducts.

1.5.8 Terminal Devices:

Thermal comfort and effective contaminant removal demand that air delivered into a
conditioned space be properly distributed within that space. Terminal devices are the supply
diffusers, return and exhaust grilles, and associated dampers and controls that are designed to
distribute air within a space and collect it from that space.
Occupants who are uncomfortable because of distribution deficiencies often try to
compensate by adjusting or blocking the flow of air from supply outlets. Adjusting system
flows without any knowledge of the proper design frequently disrupts the proper supply of air
to adjacent areas. Distribution problems can also be produced if the arrangement of movable
partitions, shelving, or other furnishings interferes with airflow.

1.5.9 Return Air Systems:

In many modern buildings the above ceiling space is utilized for the unducted passage of
return air. This type of system approach often reduces initial HVAC system costs, but it
requires the designer, maintenance personnel and contractors obey strict guidelines related to
life and safety codes (e.g., building codes) that must be followed for materials and devices
that are located in the plenum.
In addition, if a ceiling plenum is used for the collection of return air, openings into the
ceiling plenum created by the removal of ceiling tiles will disrupt airflow patterns. It is
particularly important to maintain the integrity of the ceiling and adjacent walls in areas that
are designed to be exhausted, such as closets, bathrooms and chemical storage areas.

8
1.5.10 Exhausts or Exhaust Fans:
Most buildings are required by law (e.g., building or plumbing codes) to provide for exhaust
of areas where contaminant sources are strong, such as toilet facilities, janitorial closets,
cooking facilities and parking garages. Other areas where exhaust is frequently
recommended but may not be legally required include the reprographics areas, graphic arts
facilities, beauty saloons, smoking lounges, shops and any area where contaminants are
known to originate.
For successful confinement and exhaust of identifiable sources, the exhausted area must be
maintained at a lower overall pressure than surrounding areas. Any area that is designed to
be exhausted must also be isolated (disconnected) from the return air system so that
contaminants are not transported to another area of the building.

1.5.11 Self-Contained Units:

In some designs, small decentralized units are used to provide cooling or heating to interior
or perimeter zones. With the exception of induction units, units of this type seldom supply
outdoor air. They are typically considered a low priority maintenance item. If self contained
units are overlooked during maintenance, it is not unusual for them to become a significant
source of contaminants, especially for the occupants located nearby.

1.5.12 Controls:
HVAC systems can be controlled manually or automatically. Most systems are controlled by
some combination of manual and automatic controls. The control system can be used to
switch fans on and off, regulate the temperature of air within the conditioned space, or
modulate airflow and pressures by controlling fan speed and damper settings. Most large
buildings use automatic controls, and many have very complex and sophisticated systems.
Regular maintenance and calibration are required to keep controls in good operating order.
Local controls such as room thermostats must be properly located in order to maintain
thermal comfort. Problems can result from:
 Thermostats located outside of the occupied space (e.g., in return plenum).
 Poorly designed temperature control zones.

9
1.5.13 Boilers:
Like any other part of the HVAC system, a boiler must be adequately maintained to operate
properly. However, it is particularly important that combustion equipment operate properly
to avoid hazardous conditions such as explosions or carbon monoxide leaks, as well as to
provide good energy efficiency. Codes in most parts of the country require boiler operators
to be properly trained and licensed.
Elements of boiler operation that are particularly important to indoor air quality and
thermal comfort include:
 Operation of the boiler and distribution loops at a high enough temperature to supply
adequate heat in cold weather.
 Design of the boiler combustion exhaust to prevent re-entrainment, (especially from
short boiler stacks, or into multi- story buildings that were added after the boiler plant
was installed).

1.5.14 Cooling Towers:

Maintenance of a cooling tower ensures proper operation and keeps the cooling tower from
becoming a niche for breeding pathogenic bacteria, such as Legionella organisms. Cooling
tower water quality must be properly monitored and chemical treatments used as necessary
to minimize conditions that could support the growth of significant amounts of pathogens.
Proper maintenance may also entail physical cleaning (by individuals using proper protection)
to prevent sediment accumulation and installing drift eliminators.

1.5.15 Water Chillers:

Water chillers are frequently found in large building air conditioning systems because of the
superior performance they offer. A water chiller must be maintained in proper working
condition to perform its function of removing the heat from the building. Chilled water supply
temperatures should operate in the range of 45°F or colder in order to provide proper moisture
removal during humid weather. Piping should be insulated to prevent condensation. Other
than thermal comfort, IAQ concerns associated with water chillers involve potential release
of theworking fluids from the chiller system.

10
1.6 Working of Air conditioners:
An air conditioner cools and dehumidifies the air, as it passes over a cold coil surface. The
indoor coil is an air-to-liquid heat exchanger with rows of tubes that supplies the liquid
through the coil. Finned surfaces connected to these tubes increase the overall surface area of
the cold surface thereby increasing the heat transfer characteristics between the air passing
over the coil and liquid passing through the coil. The type of liquid used will depends on the
system selected. Direct-expansion (DX) equipment uses refrigerant as the liquid medium.
Chilled-water (CW) can also be used as a liquid medium. When the required temperature of a
chilled water system is near the freezing point of water, freeze protection is added in the form
of glycols or salts.
Regardless of the liquid medium used, the liquid is delivered to the cooling coil at the cold
temperature. In case of direct expansion equipment, air passing over indoor cooling coilsheats
the cold liquid refrigerant. Heating refrigerant causes boiling and transforms refrigerant from
a cold liquid to a warm gas. This warm gas (or vapour) is pumped from the cooling coil to the
compressor through a copper tube (suction line to the compressor) where the warm gas is
compressed. In some cases, accumulator is placed between the cooling coil and compressorto
capture unused liquid refrigerant and ensures that only vapour enters the compressor.
The compression process increases the pressure of refrigerant vapour and increase the
temperature of the vapour significantly. The compressor pumps the vapour through another
heat exchanger (outdoor condenser) where heat is rejected and the hot gas is condensed to a
warm high-pressure liquid. This warm high-pressure liquid is pumped through a smaller
copper tube (liquid line) to a filter (or filter/dryer) and then on to an expansion device.

1.7 Types of Air Conditioning Systems:

The Major types of Air conditioning systems are
 Window Air Conditioner
 Split Air Conditioner
 Packaged Air Conditioner
 Central Air Conditioning System
 VRV or VRF air Conditioning System

11
1.7.1 Window Air Conditioner:
Window air conditioner is the most commonly used air conditioner for single rooms. In this
air conditioner all the components namely compressor, condenser, expansion valve,
evaporator and cooling coils are enclosed in a single box. This unit is fitted in a slot made in
the wall of the room or more commonly a window sill.

Fig 1.3 Window air conditioning system

1.7.2 Split Air Conditioner:

The split air conditioner comprises of two parts: The outdoor unit and The indoor unit. The
outdoor unit, fitted outside the room, houses components like the compressor, condenser and
expansion valve. The indoor unit comprises the evaporator or cooling coil and the coolingfan.
For this unit you don't have to make any slot in the wall of the room. Further, at present day
split units have aesthetic appeal and do not take up as much space as a window unit. A split
air conditioner can be used to cool one or two rooms.

Fig 1.4 Split Air Conditioning system

12
1.7.3 Packaged Air Conditioner:
An HVAC designer will suggest this type of air conditioner if you want to cool more than
two rooms or a larger space at your home or office. There are two possible arrangementswith
the package unit. In the first one, all the components, namely the compressor, condenser
(which can be air cooled or water cooled), expansion valve and evaporator are housed in a
single box. The cooled air is thrown by the high capacity blower, and it flows through the
ducts laid through various rooms. In the second arrangement, the compressor and condenser
are housed in one casing.

Fig 1.5 Packaged Air Conditioning System

1.7.4 Central Air Conditioning System:

Central air conditioning is used for cooling big buildings, houses, offices, entire hotels, gyms,
movie theaters, factories etc. If the whole building is to be air conditioned, HVAC engineers find
that putting individual units in each of the rooms is very expensive making this a better option.
A central air conditioning system is comprised of a huge compressor that has the capacity to
produce hundreds of tons of air conditioning.

Fig 1.6 Central Air Conditioning system

13
1.7.5 Variable refrigerant flow:

Variable refrigerant flow (VRF), also known as variable refrigerant volume (VRV), is an
HVAC technology invented by Daikin Industries, Ltd. in 1982. Like ductless minisplits,
VRF’s use refrigerant as the cooling and heating medium. This refrigerant is conditioned by a
single outdoor condensing unit, and is circulated within the building to multiple indoor units.

VRF’s come in two system formats, two pipe and three pipe systems. In a heat pump two
pipe system all of the zones must either be all in cooling or all in heating. Heat Recovery
(HR) systems have the ability to simultaneously heat certain zones while cooling others; this
is usually done through a three pipe design, with the exception of Mitsubishi and Carrier,
whose systems are able to do this with a two pipe system using a branch circuit (BC) controller
to the individual indoor evaporator zones. In this case the heat extracted from zones requiring
cooling is put to use in the zones requiring heating.

Fig 1.7 Variable refrigerant flow

14
1.8 Main components in Air Conditioning System:
In order to operate the refrigeration cycle successfully each component must be present within the
refrigeration system. There are five major mechanical components of an Air Conditioning system,
they are:

 Compressor
 Condenser
 Expansion Valve
 Evaporator
 Fan

Fig 1.8 Line diagram of Air Conditioning System

1.8.1 Compressor:

The purpose of the compressor is to draw the low-temperature, low-pressure vapour refrigerant
from the evaporator through the suction line. Once drawn the vapour refrigerant the vapour
refrigerant is compressed. When vapour is compressed its temperature and pressure rises.
Therefore, the compressor transforms the vapour from a low-temperature, low pressure vapour to
a high-temperature. The vapour is then released from the compressor to the condenser.

Fig 1.9 Compressor

15
1.8.2 Condenser:

The purpose of the condenser is to extract heat from the refrigerant to the outside air. Fans
mounted above the condenser unit are used to draw air through the condenser coils. The high-
pressure and high temperature refrigerant will be cooled to low temperature without changing the
pressure and with Phase change. As heat has to flow from the condenser to all, the condensation
temperature must be higher than that of the air. The liquid refrigerant then passes from the
condenser in to the metering device.

Fig 1.10 Condenser

1.8.3 Expansion Valve:

Within the refrigeration system, the expansion valve is located at the end of the liquid line,
before the evaporator. The valve then reduces the pressure of the refrigerant as it passes through
the orifice. The high pressure liquid reaches the expansion valve to reduce the pressure. Due to
sudden expansion the temperature falls down to the low temperature. This low pressure, low
temperature liquid is then pumped in to the evaporator.

Fig 1.11 Expansion Valve

16
1.8.4 Evaporator:

The purpose of the evaporator is to remove unwanted heat from the space using the liquid
refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant contained within the evaporator boils at a low temperature. To
enable the transfer of heat, the temperature of the liquid refrigerant must be lower than the
temperature of the product being cooled. The liquid refrigerant is drawn from the evaporator by
the compressor suction line. When leaving the evaporator coil the liquid refrigerant is in vapor
state.

Fig 1.12 Evaporator

1.8.5 Fans:

Fans play a major role in the air conditioning unit. Here, the Fans generate ambient air in the air
conditioning system. The main purpose of the fans is to do two works that are to cool the evaporator
and to send the cool air inside the room and the other side the fan works to remove the heat from
the super-heated vapour in the condenser.

Fig 1.13 Fans

17
1.9 Refrigerant:
A refrigerant is a substance or mixture, usually a fluid, used in a refrigeration cycle and
refrigeration cycle. Refrigeration is a process of moving heat from one location to other in
controlled conditions. The work of heat transport is traditionally driven by mechanical work,
but can also be driven by heat, magnetism, electricity, laser, or other means.
In most cycles it undergoes phase transitions from a liquid to a gas and back again. Many
working fluids have been used for such purposes. Fluorocarbons, especially chlorofluoro
carbons became commonplace in the 20th century, gerents used in various applications are
ammonia, sulfur dioxide, and non-halogenated but they are being phased out because of
their ozone depletion effects. Other common refry hydrocarbons such as propane.

1.10 Types of Refrigerants:

The most common and major types of refrigerants in use now a days are listed below. They
are:

 Halocarbons
 Isotropic refrigerants
 Zoetrope refrigerants
 Hydrocarbon refrigerants
 Inorganic refrigerants like carbon dioxide, ammonia, water and air.

Halocarbons are generally synthetically produced. Depending on whether they include

chemical elements hydrogen (H), carbon (C), chlorine (Cl) and fluorine (F) they are named
after as follows:

 CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons): R11, R12, R113, R114, R115.

 HCFCs (Hydro chlorofluorocarbons): R22, R123.
 HFCs (Hydro fluorocarbons): R134a, R404a, R407C and R410a.

18
1.11 Various Lines and Curves in Psychometric Chart:
A psychometric chart is a graphical representation of the psychometric processes of air. All
the properties of the air indicated in the psychometric chart are calculated at standard
atmospheric pressure. For other pressures relevant corrections have to be applied. The
psychometric chart looks like a shoe. Psychometric processes include the physical and the
thermodynamic properties such as

 Dry Bulb (DB) Temperature Lines

 Wet Bulb (WB) Temperature Lines
 Dew Point (DP) Temperature Lines
 Relative humidity
 Specific humidity
 Humidity Ratio

Fig 1.14 Psychometric Chart

19
1.11.1 Dry Bulb (DB) Temperature Lines:
The dry bulb temperature scale is shown along the base of shoe shaped psychometric chart
forming the sole. The DB temperature increases from the left to the right. The vertical lines
shown in the chart are the constant DB temperature lines and all the points located along a
particular vertical line have same DB temperature.

1.11.2 Wet Bulb (WB) Temperature Lines:

The outermost curve along the left side indicates the Wet Bulb (WB) temperature scale. The
constant temperature lines are the diagonal lines extending from WB temperature curved scale
downwards towards the right hand side of the chart.

1.11.3 Dew Point (DP) Temperature Lines:

Since the dew point temperature of the air depends on the moisture content of the air, constant
moisture lines are also constant DP temperature lines. The scale of the DP and WB
temperature is the same. However, while the constant WB temperature lines are diagonal lines
extending downwards, the constant DP temperature lines are horizontal lines. Thus the
constant DP and WB temperature lines are different.

1.11.4 Relative humidity:

The ratio of the vapor pressure of moisture in the sample to the saturation pressure at the dry
bulb temperature of the sample.

1.11.5 Specific humidity:

It is the ratio of water vapour content of the mixture to the total air content on the mass basis.

1.11.6 Humidity Ratio:

These are the horizontal lines on the chart. Humidity ratio is usually expressed as mass of
moisture per mass of dry air (pounds or kilograms of moisture per pound or kilogram of dry
air, respectively). The range is from 0 for dry air up to 0.03 (blew/lamb) on the right hand ω
-axis, the ordinate or vertical axis of the chart.

20
 Building Insulating materials:

Most commonly used building insulations are

 Mineral wool
 Glass fibre
 Cellulose fill
 Polyurethane foam spray
 Expanded polystyrene

 Extruded Polystyrene popularly known as styrofoam

What is thermal insulation in buildings?

Thermal insulation is a process to reduce the heat losses occurring during winter mounts and heat gain
occuring during summer mounts.

Thermal insulation is an important technology to reduce energy consumption in buildings by preventing heat
gain/loss through the building envelope.

Example for thermal insulators:

Non-metals are good thermal insulator, Other thermal insulators are Rubber, Tinfoil, Wood, Cloth, Paper, Styroform
and Plastic.

21
These materials are used in the walls and roof construction, so that the overall coefficient of heat transfer is
reduced and thereby the heat transfer between the external and internal surfaces is

reduced. This result overall change in the heat load and the building consumes less electrical energy for its
thermal needs.

22
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The basic concept behind air conditioning is known to have applied in ancient Egypt, where reeds were hung
in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation of water cooled the air blowing
through the window. This process also made the air more humid

AdnanShariahetal.[3]studied the effect of the absorptance of external surfaces of buildings on heating,

cooling and total loads using the TRNSYS simulation program. Two types of construction materials, namely
heavy weight concrete block and light weight concrete were used in the simulation. They also calculated the
effects of the absorptance on energy loads for insulated buildings. They reported that, for uninsulated
buildings ,as the absorptance was changed from one to zero, the total energy load decreased by 32%, while
for insulated buildings, it decreased by 26% in Amman. Whereas the decrease was about 47% for
uninsulated and 32% for insulated buildings in Aqaba.

Kulkarni et al. [4] optimized cooling load for a lecture theatre in a composite climate in India. The lecture
theatre had a dimension of 16m×8.4m×3.6m and was situated at Roorkee (28.58o N, 77.20o E) in the
northern region of India. The monthly, annual cooling load and cooling capacity of air conditioning system
was determined by a computer simulation program. They reported that the use of false celling, ceramic tiles
on roof and floor, electro chromic reflective colored, 13mm air gap, clear glass gave the best possible
retrofitting option.

Steven T. Tailor research helped us to realize the application of Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
(HVAC) controls starts with an understanding of the building and the use of the spaces to be conditioned and
controlled. All control systems operate in accordance with few basic principles but before we discuss these, let’s
address few fundamentals of the HVAC system first.

23
 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
A building envelope or building enclosure provides physical separation between the indoor space and the
outdoor environment. Abuilding assembly is any part of the building envelope, such as a wall, window, or
roof assembly that faces the interior and exterior of the building. A building component is any element,
layer, or material within a building assembly.

Heat Specific heat capacity c is the change in heat (energy) of a unit mass of material for a unit change of
temperature in J/(kg·K).Volumetric heat capacity c is the change in heat stored in a unit volume of material
for a unit change of temperature, in J/(m3·K).Heat flux q, a vector, is the time rate of heat transfer through a
unit area, in the direction perpendicular to that area, in W/m2.

Thermal conductivity k is a material property describing ability to conduct heat, and is defined by Fourier’s
law of heat conduction. Thermal conductivity is the property that describes heat flux through a unit thickness
of a material in a direction perpendicular to the isothermal planes, induced by a unit temperature difference.

Thermal resistivity R is the reciprocal of thermal conductivity. Units are (m2·K)/W

Thermal conductance C is the reciprocal of thermal resistance. Units are W/(m2·K).

Air transfer Ma is the time rate of mass transfer by air flow induced by an air pressure difference, caused by
wind, stack effect, or mechanical systems, in kg/s.

Moisture content w is the amount of moisture per unit volume of porous material, in kg/m3.

For building elements, general formula for estimating the heat load is

Q = U*A*ΔT – From the building surfaces. If the surface is exposed to radiation and the heat is significant,
like sun radiation, corresponding factors would be considered in the formulae. And more factors if the
building element is transparent in nature.

Formula for those surfaces:

Opaque surface – Q = A*{U* (OFtΔT+OFb+OFrDR)}

24
Transparent Surfaces:

Transparent surfaces Q = A*{U*(ΔT-0.46DR) +PXI*SHGC*IAC*FF

Internal heat gains from electrical lighting and equipment are estimated based on their electrical wattage
multiplied with the overall efficiency. Because, in energy balance equation, input energy is consumed to give
desired work output, and the loss of energy is always in the form of heat.

Heat into the buildings are classified as sensible heats and latent heats. The above mentioned sources provide
only sensible heats. People, ventilation air flow into the buildings contribute to latent heat as well.

Combined heat, air, and moisture transfer can have a detrimental effect on a building. Air in- and exfiltration
short-circuit the U-factor as a designed wall performance. Wind washing, indoor air washing, and stack-
induced air movement may increment the U-factor by a factor of 2.5 or more. High moisture levels in
building materials may also have a negative effect on the building envelope’s thermal performance.
Therefore, it is advisable to analyze the combined heat, air, and moisture transfer through building
assemblies. However, some of these transport phenomena, especially those involving airflow, are three-
dimensional in nature and difficult to predict because they mostly occur through accidental gaps, cracks, or
imperfect joints. Surface condensation occurs when water vapor contacts a non-porous surface that has a
temperature lower than the dew point of the surrounding air. Insulation should therefore be thick enough to
ensure that the surface temperature on the warm side of an insulated assembly always exceeds the dew-point
temperature there. However, even without reaching the dew point, relative humidity at the surface may
become so high that, given enough time, mold growth occurs.

Formula to provide insulation for the building to control this mold growth.

25
Using the psychometric chart, we can determine the dew point temperature when we know the ambient
temperature and the humidity ratio.

K – thickness of the surface

h – convective heat transfer coefficient of air.

26
R – Resistance between surface on warm side and cold side.

We need to add insulation for the surfaces to control the heat and moisture, the insulation material is chosen
based on the R value, and thickness L as calculated.

3.1 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

3.1.1 Air Distribution System :

Air-distribution systems include air handlers, ductwork, and associated components for heating, ventilating,
and air-conditioning buildings. They provide fresh air to maintain adequate indoor-air quality while
providing conditioned air to offset heating or cooling loads. Their many components need to operate in
unison to properly maintain desired conditions. They use relatively large amounts of energy so applying
smart operational strategies and good maintenance practice can significantly reduce energy consumption.

Two major organizations oversee the certification process for these systems:
27
 Air Movement and Control Association (ACMA) publications are the recognized standard for all products
related to air movement such as fans and dampers.

 Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association, Inc. (SMACNA) publications are the
recognized standard for fan-casing, plenum and duct construction, and installation.

Terminal units, the devices located near the conditioned space that regulate the temperature and/or volume of
supply air to the space are described in Operation and Maintenance of Terminal Units.

Types of Air Distribution Systems

Air-distribution systems fall into two broad categories, constant-volume (CV) and variable-air-volume
(VAV). The following descriptions provide an overview of generic system types commonly found in larger
commercial and institutional buildings.

Constant Volume

Constant-volume systems operate at a constant airflow rate; only temperature varies to maintain the zone
setpoint. Constant-volume units can be used in single-zone or multizone applications.

A single-duct system provides ventilation and cooling to the conditioned space. Zones requiring heating may
have a heating component in the terminal unit while some rely on a completely separate system for heating.

A dual-duct system uses a single fan to move air through both cooling and heating coils in the air handler,
distributing the air through separate hot and cold ducts. Depending on the zone requirements, the air streams
may either blend at a terminal mixing box or provide just cooling.

Another constant-volume system is the multizone unit. The multizone unit supplies air to several zones from
a centrally located air-handling unit. Individual zone requirements are met by mixing cold and warm air
through dampers in the air handler. The tempered air is then distributed to the zones via single ducts.

28
Variable Volume

The volume of supply air from a VAV air handler varies in response to terminal units' intake of supply air to
maintain zone temperature setpoints. The supply-air fan is controlled to maintain a static pressure setpoint in
the ductwork. In response to a static pressure sensor in the duct, supply-air volume is regulated in one of
three ways: 1) bypass dampers, 2) inlet vanes either upstream from or inside the supply fan casing, or 3) a
variable-speed drive (VSD) on the fan motor regulating the fan speed.

Variable-volume systems provide ventilation and cooling, usually through a single-duct system. If necessary,
air is heated at the terminal unit.

A variation on VAV design is the underfloor air-distribution system. Low-pressure supply air moves from
the air handler (or supply-air shaft) into an underfloor air plenum. The supply air then moves directly though
the diffusers into the conditioned space or into terminal units that may add heat to the air before entering the
conditioned space. This system uses less fan energy than an overhead VAV system, and heating and cooling
energy are reduced because the supply air enters the conditioned space at the floor level near the occupants,
not mixing with the entire air volume in the conditioned space as with overhead VAV systems.

Dampers

Dampers direct and control airflow through the air distribution system. They can also be installed in certain
fire-rated walls or floors for life-safety to prevent the migration of fire and smoke. These motorized units are
typically controlled by the fire-alarm system but recent advances in the reliability of direct-digital-control
(DDC) systems have allowed the HVAC DDC system to also control life-safety systems.

Dampers are classified by blade arrangement, leakage rate, and control type.

Blade arrangement (parallel or opposed-blade): Airflow through a parallel-blade damper is not linear
with respect to the damper position. Ninety percent of the design flow-rate can be reached with the damper at
50% open. An opposed-blade damper is much more linear, allowing for more precise control through the
entire travel of the actuator.

29
A variant of the parallel-blade damper is the back-draft damper. This typically operates by air pressure and is
designed to allow air movement only in one direction, such as from building exhaust systems. These are not
low-leakage dampers and can allow air to escape from a building under certain conditions, even when the
fan is off.

Opposed-blade damper (Ruskin)

Leakage rate: This typically specifies the quality of the construction: a lower leakage rate indicates a
higher-quality damper. Many energy codes now require "low-leakage" dampers in outside-air applications
for energy conservation.

Control type (modulation or two-position): Modulation dampers have actuators that respond to a variable
input from the DDC system and control airflow, typically between minimum and maximum positions. These
are used in VAV terminal units as well as air-side economizers in air handlers.

Two-position dampers have actuators that either fully open or fully close the damper. They are used for
isolating exhaust fans from the exterior when not running. They are also used extensively in life-safety
applications for fire dampers and fire/smoke dampers

30
 3.1.2 CHILLED WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Chilled water HVAC systems are standard in commercial environments in Melbourne, FL. But they’re
steadily making their way into residential places, too. These chilled water systems are different from regular
air conditioners that use R-22 refrigerant. Read on to learn what chilled water HVAC systems are and how
they work.

Chilled Water Distribution System :

A chilled water scheme is one by which chilled water is produced and circulated throughout the building or
through cooling coils in air handling units (AHU) to provide space cooling. It basically consists of a primary
loop (production) and a secondary loops (distribution). The primary loop takes care of chilled water
production in the plant, which consists of chillers, primary chilled water pumps, control valves and
accessories. The secondary loop takes care of pumping water to the changing demands of the space through
a network of pipes, valves and cooling coils

Types of Chilled Water System:

 Constant Volume Primary Chilled Water Systems:

A constant flow system is the simplest chilled water distribution scheme. Here, a set of constant speed
pumps distributes fixed quantity of water at all times and the temperature varies to meet the load. The system
uses 3-way control valves at air handler coils that allow some water to bypass the cooling coil during part
load conditions. At low loads, the chilled water flow through the cooling coil is restricted (in response to
supply air temperatures to the space) but the total quantity returned to the chiller remains constant

Looking at the equation that governs heat transfer the capacity of a chiller is proportional to the product of
flow rate and the temperature difference of entering and leaving chilled water, or chiller capacity (BTUM
GPM X 500 X AT

In constant flow systems, flow rate (GPM) is established for peak design condition and Delta-T the
difference between the chiller supply and return) varies in response to the load (BTU/hr)

In air-conditioning applications, since the design conditions occur only during 1% of the operational hours in
a year [i.e. 99% of the time the system runs on part load), some of the chilled water will always bypass
31
 through the three-way valve for most of coil's operational life. Higher quantities of bypassed chilled water
mixes with leaving water from the cooling coil yielding lower chilled water return temperature to the plant
The lower return water temperature reduces the operating temperature differential (AT) across the chiller as
the supply water temperature is fixed to a set point This phenomenon is termed "Low delta - T syndrome in
HVAC industry

 Primary/Secondary Chilled Water Systems :

ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-1989-Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential
Buildings requires "all HVAC hydronic systems having a total pump system power exceeding 10 hp must be
capable to flow at 50% of design value or less." This standard highly recommends use of primary/secondary
system for large complexes.

A primary- secondary pumping scheme divides the chilled water system into two distinct circuits (loops) that
are hydraulically separated by a neutral bridge (de-coupler).

1. Primary circuit is the place where chilled water is produced and its principal components are the chiller
and pumps. The primary pumps are typically constant volume, low head pumps intended to provide a
constant flow through the evaporator of the chiller. These are usually placed in tandem with each chiller
though can also be arranged in common header.

2. The secondary circuit is responsible for the distribution of the chilled water to the terminal units. Among
the components of the secondary circuits are pumps, terminal units such as fan-coils and air handling units
(AHU) and control valves. The secondary pumps can be constant speed or variable speed and are sized to
move the flow rate and head intended to overcome the pressure drop of secondary circuit only.

32
 3. The neutral bridge consists of two tees that are typically located at the suction header of the secondary
pumps and at the suction header of the primary pumps and connected by a de- coupling pipe. This de-coupler
separates the primary and secondary loops. This common pipe is designed for negligible pressure drop at
design flow. A well designed, low-pressure- drop common pipe is the heart of primary secondary pumping,
allowing the two pumps to operate independently.

 Primary/Secondary/Tertiary Water Systems:

Primary-secondary variable-flow systems are more energy efficient than constant-flow systems, because
they allow the secondary variable-speed pump to use only as much energy as necessary to meet the system
demand. Refer to the schematic below.

While the primary secondary system takes advantage of the reduced pumping cost offered by variable speed
secondary loop pumping, it is still "blinded by low temperature differential.

HOW DOES A CHILLED WATER HVAC SYSTEM FUNCTION:

A chilled water system uses water instead of air to cool your home. The water absorbs heat from the home
and disperses it outside. The system cools the water down to a temperature of 40 degrees and then circulates
it through the water coil’s air handler.

The heat gets absorbed from the air, and the air handler works to distribute the cold air into the home. The
system needs to pump the heated water outside to aid in heat removal, and the process continues until the
system achieves the desired thermostat set points.

3.1.3 REFRIGERATION DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM :

Unlike centralized direct expansion refrigeration systems, distributed systems use multiple smaller units that
are located close to the display cases that they serve. For instance, compressors in a distributed system may
be located on the roof above the cases, behind a nearby wall, or even on top of or next to the case in the sales
area. The close proximity of the compressors to the cases and coolers allows the system to use considerably
less piping and additionally use a smaller refrigerant charge than traditional DX systems. This reduction in
charge often results in a decrease in total refrigerant emissions.

33
Instead of a single system that sends refrigerant through the entire store to all the loads in either of two
suction groups, the distributed approach divides the loads into a number of smaller systems and places the
systems closer to the loads. This simplifies the field piping and reduces energy losses in the system by
reducing the length of the piping runs. A typical distributed system store may have five or more units, each
one of which is matched to a narrower set of loads. The units can be placed along the rear exterior of the
store, or more often set on the roof, directly over the loads to which they are matched. Distributed system
units are generally smaller than centralized rack systems (often including built-in condensers on exterior-
placed units), therefore some versions of the units can be situated in back rooms or on top of walk-ins or
coolers (requiring connection to separate condensers). Distributed systems can operate more efficiently and
eliminate the need for an in-store mechanical room or a complete exterior machine house.

Sustainability Benefit:

One of the biggest concerns in the industry today is that of sustainability. As the regulatory structure and
consumer attitudes change, customers have moved increasingly toward so-called “greener” operations that
save energy and reduce their carbon footprint. With the advent of various global initiatives and conventions
such as the Kyoto Protocol and other agreements, the supermarket industry has become an easy target due to
its high leak rate (an average of about 25% across the industry) and high global warming numbers for its
refrigerants. This has resulted in, among other moves, the phase out of some refrigerants (R-22, for instance)
and the higher cost and taxing of others — as of Fall 2008, for instance, the tax on R-404A in Denmark was
over $32 per pound. In the U.S., regulatory compliance is expected to only get stricter. Customers are going
to have to find alternatives to traditional approaches and distributed systems offer one of the most effective
paths to greater sustainability.

Distributed systems use smaller compressors. Because suction groups are more closely matched, very little
excess capacity is required to be designed into the system. Smaller, more energy efficient compressors can
be used to provide only the capacity needed for each closely matched suction group.

While there are advantages in sustainability with distributed systems over traditional systems, the greatest
reductions in carbon footprint and energy use with distributed systems come when they are combined with
secondary refrigeration (see “Traditional Versus Secondary Supermarket Refrigeration.” Distributed
34
systems that employ both medium-temperature glycol cooling and low-temperature CO2 cooling enable
customers to achieve some of the lowest refrigerant charge values possible for whole stores.

3.2 CONTROL SYSTEMS :

3.2.1 VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE :

WHAT IS A VFD?

A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is like a throttle on a car:

• Based on demand, a VFD adjusts the speed of an HVAC fan or pump motor, saving energy and prolonging
equipment life.

• Without a VFD, an HVAC fan or pump motor is either 100% on or 100% off. There is no middle ground.

• VFDs provide a soft start by eliminating the initial power surge and mechanical shock of switching the
motor from off to on.

• VFDs have the potential to save significant energy and reduce operating costs for a variety of motor-driven
applications.

HOW DO VFDS WORK?

• A VFD responds to a signal from a controller, allowing the equipment to run at the power needed to meet
heating and cooling demand.

• The typical frequency adjustment range in HVAC applications is 10 - 60Hz AC.

• A VFD is wired in series between the main power source and the motor.

• VFDs have a bypass switch so that HVAC operation is not interrupted if the VFD needs maintenance.

HOW DO VFDS SAVE ENERGY?

An HVAC VFD provides the amount of energy needed to handle the instantaneous load of the heating or
cooling system. Without a VFD, the air of an HVAC is system is controlled by throttling an inlet vane or
braking an outlet damper. A better way to control the airflow is using a VFD that continuously regulates
35
motor speed. When air needs are low, the VFD will use less energy. For example, when an HVAC system
requires 50% airflow, the VFD uses 21% of full airflow energy, whereas an inlet vane control will use 65%
of full airflow energy and an outlet damper control will use 87% of full airflow energy. VFDs reduce
maintenance costs and extend operating life, allowing motors to run at less than their fully rated speed. VFDs
also allow more precise control of airflow, which helps to increase the comfort level in buildings.

ARE VFDS EXPENSIVE?

VFD cost decreases as the size of the motor increases. The larger the motor, the lower the cost per
horsepower. As a rule of thumb, adding a VFD to a motor costs approximately $200 to $500 per horsepower.
Customers taking advantage of PSO rebates for VFDs can save even more.

3.2.2 DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROLER :

Direct digital control is the automated control of a condition or process by a digital device
(computer).[1][2] Direct digital control takes a centralized network-oriented approach. All instrumentation is
gathered by various analog and digital converters which use the network to transport these signals to the
central controller. The centralized computer then follows all of its production rules (which may incorporate

36
 sense points anywhere in the structure) and causes actions to be sent via the same network to valves,
actuators, and other heating, ventilating, and air conditioning components that can be adjusted.

Large facilities require sophisticated controls to maintain comfortable temperature and humidity levels while
staying efficient and reliable. It’s for this reason that many industrial, commercial, and other buildings such
as schools, apartment complexes, and office spaces have dedicated direct digital control (DDC) systems.
DDC systems provide more precise control over HVAC and lighting operation, allowing you to set different
temperature zones, schedule and automate system operation, and monitor performance over time.

If your facility isn’t equipped with a DDC control system, installing one may be a worthwhile investment.
Let the Sitelog IQ team help you evaluate what would work best for your needs and develop a plan that is
beneficial to your operational demands.

Operating principles of DDC :

DDC systems consist of a central computer workstation that monitors HVAC, lighting, or other system
functions via a series of sensors. These sensors transmit data back to the workstation, where sophisticated
software monitors performance and makes operational adjustments as necessary.

From the central workstation, staff can oversee HVAC system performance in real-time and perform manual
program changes when required. DDC systems typically allow for a great deal of flexibility — while their
primary purpose is building automation and systems integration, they also enable staff to respond to unique
conditions, troubleshoot errors, and take care of basic maintenance from a single point that provides system-
wide visibility.

Benefits of Direct Digital Control Systems :

DDC and other building automation systems offer several advantages for building owners, maintenance
staff, and facility managers. A well-designed DDC system will:

 Respond quickly to environmental changes, helping maintain more stable temperatures and, ultimately,
better occupant comfort year-round

 Boost energy efficiency through programmable operations sequences

37
 Keep operating costs down by ensuring HVAC systems are running at peak efficiency at all times

 Reduce workloads by automating basic lighting and HVAC processes according to a set schedule

 Assist with diagnostics, reducing downtime and alerting you when preventative maintenance is necessary

 Simplify retro-commissioning, as individual equipment and systems can be swapped out without expensive
infrastructural upgrades

Direct digital control technology takes outdated building control tools and brings them into the 21st century.
By investing in a DDC setup up front, it will save you money in the long run while making your operation
more intelligent and data-driven overall.

3.3 SENSORS :

3.3.1 Temperature sensors :

The temperature sensors most commonly used with two-position electric controls are the
bimetallic strip, mercury switch, and the bulb-and-capillary, or remote bulb sensor, as shown in
Figure 6-1. A bellows-style sensor is commonly used for modulating electric controls.

Movement When Heated

Low Expansion Material

High Expansion Material

Fixed end

38
 Post

Bulb Capillary Diaphragm

3.3.2 Moisture Sensors :

Accurate, stable and affordable humidity measurement has always been chal- lenging to achieve in
HVAC systems. ASHRAE Standard 62.1 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality requires
maintaining inside relative humidity levels below 65%. Modern solid-state technology has
improved this process, but, with any humidity sensor, periodic calibration and maintenance are
required for sustained accuracy. For this reason, the designer must weigh the benefits of humidity
measurement costs with the life expectancy and dependability, as well as the maintenance costs
and the potential problems caused by imprecise measurements. It is usually desired to purchase the
most dependable and cost effective sensors as feasible for the application.

Humidity may be sensed as relative humidity, dew-point temperature or wet-bulb temperature,

with relative humidity being by far the most common. The three parameters are all interrelated and
the measurement of any one, along with coincident dry-bulb temperature (and barometric pressure
if it varies significantly), can be used to determine any of the others using known psychrometric
relationships and be properly used in control applications

Relative Humidity (rh). Historically, the first humidity sensors used hygro- scopic materials
(materials that can absorb water vapor from the air) that change dimension in response to changes
in humidity. These include animal hair, wood, and various fabrics, including some synthetic
fabrics such as NylonW and DacronW. These mechanical sensors are still commonly used in
portable sensors, such as you might have on your desk, inexpensive electric controls (humidistats),

39
and inexpensive enthalpy economizer controllers. Their accuracy is generally no better than 5%
relative humidity, when new, due to variations in material quality and to hysteresis effects.

Resistance-type humidity sensors use hygroscopic materials whose electrical resistance varies in a
repeatable fashion when exposed to air of varying humidity. One type uses a sulfonated polystyrene
resin placed on an insoluble surface. An electrically conductive layer is then bonded to the resin. The
electrical resistance of the assembly varies non-linearly but fairly repeatedly with humidity. A linear
signal is created using techniques similar to those used for thermistors described above. Like many
humidity sensors, the accuracy of the resistance-type sensor can be severely affected if the surface is
contaminated with substances (such as oil) that affect the water vapor absorption or desorption
characteristics of the resin.

Capacitance-type humidity sensors are available in various forms, all based on the variation in
electrical capacitance of a hygroscopic material. One type consists of an aluminum strip deposited
with a layer of porous aluminum oxide underneath a very thin layer of gold. The aluminum and
gold form the plates of the capacitor, with the aluminum oxide as the dielectric. The capacitance
varies as a function of the water vapor absorbed in the aluminum oxide layer. Water vapor is
absorbed and desorbed by passing through the very thin layer of gold. The accuracy of this sensor
(called a Jason-type hygrometer) is very good up to 85% relative humidity but the sensor can become
permanently damaged if exposed to higher humidity air and particularly condensation.

A variation of the Jason-type capacitance sensor uses a thin film of polymer in place of the
aluminum oxide, Figure 4-19. The polymer is carefully selected to provide a capacitance change as
a function of humidity but without the 85% humidity limitation of aluminum oxide. These sensors
are available with accuracies ranging from 5% rh to as fine as 1% rh, including hysteresis and
calibration uncertainty. Because of their accuracy and reliability, these sensors are becoming the
style most commonly used in analog electronic and digital control systems. However, they can be
expected to drift on the order of 1% to 3% rh per year under normal applications, so as with all
humidity sensors, periodic and regular calibration (quarterly) is suggested.

40
 Lithium Chloride Dew-point Sensors. Dew-point sensors are the most accurate type of humidity
sensor, but they are also the most expensive. One type of dew-point sensor uses a saturated salt
solution (usually lithium chloride) in contact with the air whose humidity is to be measured. When
steady state is reached, the temperature of the solution is indicative of the dew-point of the air. This
type of sensor is very accurate, very slow to respond, but inaccurate at low humidity levels. It is
also sensitive to contamination and requires periodic maintenance and calibrations, and is relatively
expensive. Newer versions use lithium chloride solution on a grid with an integral heater. The
lithium chloride is hygroscopic and attracts moisture lowering the grid resistance. This lowering
resistance increases the heater output which lowers the resistance. The balance between wetter lower
resistance and heater higher resistance provides the signal for the dew-point. The accuracy of the
sensor can be better than 1.5◦C.

Chilled-Mirror Dew-point Sensors. Another very accurate dew-point sensor

is the chilled-mirror type (Figure 4-20).

In these devices, a sample of air flows through a small sensor chamber equipped with a light source,
two photocells, and a chilled mirror. Light reflects off the mirror toward one photocell. When
condensation forms on the mirror, the light is scattered rather than reflected directly. The system
recognizes this by comparison with the direct reference photocell. The reduction in the light level
indicates the presence of condensation on the mirror. At the moment of condensation, an RTD
temperature sensor records the surface temperature of the mirror. That surface temperature is the dew-
point of the air flowing across the mirror.

The surface of the mirror is chilled by an array of semiconductors known as Peltier junctions, which
form a thermoelectric cooler that can be controlled by varying its electrical current. A control circuit
modulates the current passing through the semiconductors, keeping the temperature of the mirror
constant at the dew-point of the air. Chilled-mirror sensors are not as widely used in commercial
buildings as relative humidity sensors, mostly because of their cost and maintenance requirements.
But they are highly accurate, and are often used to calibrate lower-cost devices. Advantages include

41
● They measure the dew-point directly. Controls can be set based on the instrument’s output signal

without the need to calculate the dew-point based on temperature and rh.

● Contamination. The mirror surface must be kept clean and free of hygro-

scopic dust that creates condensation at a temperature higher than the true dew-point temperature of
the air. The air sample must be filtered, and the filter must be replaced regularly when particulate
loading is especially heavy.

Nevertheless, where very precise and repeatable humidity measurements are required, chilled-mirror
sensors are a good choice.

Figure 4-21 shows different packaging of electrical signal sensors for differ- ent applications
available in the marketplace. Note that the packaging for temperature sensors looks (and often is)
almost the same.

Psychrometers. A psychrometer measures humidity by taking both a wet- bulb and a dry-
bulb temperature reading. With those two values known, the other properties of the air, including
its moisture content, can be determined by computation or by reading a psychrometric chart. In
commercial buildings, psychrometers are seldom if ever used for control, but they are occasionally
used to check the calibration of humidistats or relative humidity sensors

Sling psychrometers are a choice for that purpose. These units consist of two thermometers with
thin bulbs. One is covered in a cotton sleeve which is wetted with (ideally distilled) clean water. The
two thermometers are mounted in a sling which is swung rapidly around-and-around and then
quickly read to obtain a steady wet- and dry-bulb temperature. Be careful to use the sling
psychrometer correctly as it does have some drawbacks. Slow air velocity, inadequate water
coverage of the wick, radiation heating of the wet bulb, and contamination of the wet wick are
compounded by the difficulty of being sure the wet-bulb reading is at its minimum while the ther-
mometer is swinging. These problems mostly come from not slinging long enough to get down to wet-
42
 bulb steady-state, so the measurement error is always above, rather than below the true wet-bulb
reading. In other words, poor measurements from sling psychrometers will always overestimate the true
moisture content. The only exception occurs when cold water rather than ambient-temperature water
wets the wick. In that case, it is possible to under- estimate the true humidity level by taking a
reading before stable conditions have been achieved.

Aspirated (fan powered) psychrometers with clean wet wicks using distilled water are more
accurate than sling-type units. An aspirated psychrometer combines low cost with the fundamental
measurement principle of wet- and dry-bulb readings. For typical humidity ranges of commercial
buildings (30 to 60% rh at 20 to 24◦C) aspirated psychrometers provide a reliable, low-cost way to
check readings from low-accuracy sensors.

In an aspirated psychrometer the wet- and dry-bulb thermometers are mounted inside a plastic case,
which contains a battery-powered fan. The fan draws air across both dry and wet thermometers at
a constant, high velocity to provide uniform evaporation. The case prevents radiation from influencing
the temperature of the thermometer bulbs. The wick must be changed regularly with gloved hands to
prevent skin oils and air stream particulate from affecting evaporation, and only ambient-temperature
distilled water can be used to wet the wick. Further, the wick must remain completely wetted until
the wet-bulb temperature has stopped dropping. As long as all those precau- tions are followed,
aspirated psychrometers can be useful to cross-check read- ings from low-accuracy sensors. The
advantages of aspirated psychrometers include the following :

 Recalibration is not an issue, as it is with electronic units, since physical properties are being
directly measured.

þ
 Reasonable accuracy in indoor environments. A tolerance of 5% of the

wet-bulb reading can be achieved in careful operation in middle- and upper-range humidity levels.

43
 Portable. The instrument can be brought to a room sensor location easily.

The limitations of wet-bulb readings must also remain clear:

 Requires a psychrometric chart. To obtain humidity values, the operator must carefully plot the point
and read values on an accurate psychrometric chart. Plotting and reading introduce two major sources
of error. Poor results from aspirated psychrometers usually come from incautious plot- ting and
reading of the psychrometric chart after the wet-bulb and dry- bulb readings are obtained. But, most
psychrometers do have charts already engraved on their bodies.

 Difficult to use in ducts. The device must draw air only from the duct and not from the air outside
that duct. It is difficult to avoid air mixing when opening an access door, and difficult to read the
results inside a dark duct.

 Difficult to use in low-relative-humidity air. Wet-bulb temperature readings below the freezing
point of water are difficult to obtain because it takes a long time to cool the wick low enough to
freeze the water, and a long time to stabilize the temperature after an ice layer has formed. These
precautions are seldom taken outside of a carefully countered lab- oratory test rig. That means
psychrometers are seldom useful in low- humidity air streams where sub-freezing wet-bulb
temperatures are common.

● Subject to error in reading the thermometers. For accurate results, the operator cannot neglect to

define what fraction of a degree the thermo- meter is sensing. Reading fractions of a degree from small
thermometers requires care, good light, and good eyesight.

● Subject to errors of contamination. In the day-to-day reality of building operations, the wet-bulb

wick is not always kept clean of particulate, and is often wetted with mineral-laden water or
handled by bare skin which adds oils. All of these raise the wet-bulb reading, increasing the
measurement error so the operator overestimates the true humidity

44
3.3.3 Pressure Sensors :

Pressure is almost always measured as a differential pressure, either the dif- ference between the
pressures of two fluids or the difference in pressure between a fluid and a reference pressure.
When the reference pressure is atmospheric pressure, we refer to the pressure of the fluid as gauge
pressure. The name comes from the common use of pressure gauges that measure the difference in
pressure between a fluid (such as water in a pipe or air in a duct) and the ambient air at the gauge
location. The absolute pressure of a fluid is the gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure roughly
100 kPa (1 bar) at sea level.

¼
Water pressure is typically measured in Pascals or bar (1 bar 100 kPa). Note that pressures can
be absolute, or gage. The absolute pressure of the atmosphere is about 100 kPa. When air is
compressed, the pressure gage is usually measuring relative to atmospheric pressure, hence gage
pressure.

Mechanical Pressure Gauges. The Bourdon tube (see Figure 4-22) is the sens- ing element used in
most pressure indicating gauges. It is a closed, spiral tube, connected at one end to the pressure being
sensed, with atmospheric pressure as a reference. As the sensed pressure increases, the tube tends to
straighten, and, through a linkage and gear, drives an indicating pointer. By adding a switch to the
linkage (not shown), the device can become a sensor with switching capability.

A spiral tube is similar in principal to the Bourdon tube, but it is formed into a spiral spring shape
that elongates or shortens as the sensed pressure changes. The diaphragm sensor (see Figure 4-23) is
an enclosure that includes two chambers separated by a flexible wall or diaphragm. The typical
diaphragm is a thin steel sheet, sensitive to small pressure changes. Slack diaphragms of fabric
are also sometimes used. Pressure differentials as low as a few Pas- cals or as high as several
thousand kPa can be sensed (not by the same sensor,

45
46
 Diaphragm pressure sensor

but sensors are classified by a wide range of pressure ratings). By means of appropriate linkages,
the sensor output can also be used as a modulating controller or two-position switch. The latter is

47
commonly used to indicate fan and pump status, proving flow indirectly by virtue of the fan’s or
pump’s ability to generate a pressure difference.

These mechanical devices are made for a very wide range of pressures from Pa water gauge to
hundreds of kPa. Each gauge has a limited pressure range and, not surprisingly, the sensitivity
reduces the greater the range. The Bour- don and spiral tube are typically used on water systems
and diaphragm units on both water and air systems.

We learned about resistance, capacitance, and inductance in Chapter 2. These three phenomena are
used as the basis of the transducer constructed to measure electrical output from pressure sensors.
The first, and simplest, is the potentiometer. This consists of a coil of resistance wire and a
slider. As the mechanical sensor moves it moves the slider along the resistance coil.

The change in position on the coil is sensed by the transmitter and converted to an output indicating
pressure. The potentiometric unit is inexpensive and produces a high output but has low accuracy and
extensive movement shortens the life.

The second type, the capacitance sensor is shown in Figure 4-24. The capacitance between two
parallel charged surfaces changes as they move toward and away from each other. Again, a
relatively inexpensive sensor but converting the signal to directly relate to pressure is not simple
or inexpensive.

The inductive sensor is much like a transformer being two coils of wire around a metal core,
Figure 4-25. The metal core is connected to the mechanical movement. As the core moves, the
magnetic flux between the two coils changes and is measured by the transmitter. These units are
both rugged and durable but, like the capacitance unit, converting the signal to directly relate to
pressure is not simple or inexpensive.

Electrical Pressure Gauges. These gauges all use an electrical method of detecting property
changes. The first is one we have met before in temperature sensors, change in resistance. The strain
gauge is a metal foil which changes resistance when stretched. The semiconductor version of the
strain gauge has a higher output and is called the piezo resistive effect. These devices are bonded to a

48
frame designed to distort under pressure. The transmitter detects the resistance change and converts it
to a pressure signal output. The output from these sensors is often non-linear, suffer from hysteresis
(different reading on increasing pressure from decreasing pressure), and for accuracy need to be
temperature compensated so sophisticated electronic circuitry. The resulting signal is proportional
to differential pressure and may be used as a signal to an analog electronic or digital controller.
These devices are typically used on high-pressure water systems.

All the above sensors are designed to measure continuous pressures and changing pressures. The
piezoelectric pressure sensor is different. In these devices the charge generated in a crystal under
changing strain is detected, measured and amplified into a useful output signal. They only measure
changing pressures, which they do very fast, with very low forces over a very wide range of
strain. They thus find their niche in vibration and sound-sensing equipment.

49
3.3.4 Air Quality Sensor :

Air pollution sensors are devices that monitor the presence of air pollution in the surrounding area. They
can be used for both indoor and outdoor environments. These sensors can be built at home, or bought from
certain manufactures. Although there are various types of air pollution sensors, and some are specialized in
certain aspects, the majority focuses on five components: ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide, and nitrous oxide. The sensors were very expensive in the past, but with technological
advancements these sensors are becoming more affordable and more widespread throughout the population.
These sensors can help serve many purposes and help bring attention to environmental issues beyond the
scope of the human eye.

The EPA maintains a repository of air quality data through the Air Quality System (AQS), where it stores
data from over 10,000 monitors in the United States.[1]

50
While use of these sensors was expensive in the past, the 2010s saw a recent trend towards the development
of cheaper portable air-quality sensors that can be worn by individuals to monitor local air quality
levels.[2][3] These sensors, can then, in turn, help measure the spatiotemporal coverage and variety of
chemical species, and empower individuals and communities to better understand their exposure
environments and risks from air pollution.[4]

A research group led by William Griswold at UCSD handed out portable air pollution sensors to 16
commuters, and found "urban valleys" where buildings trapped pollution. The group also found that
passengers in buses have higher exposures compared to those in automobiles.

Air Quality monitoring is well known and established science which started back in the 80's. At that time,
the technology was quite limited, and the solution used to quantify the air pollution complex, cumbersome
and really expensive.

Fortunately, now days, with the most recent and modern technologies, the solutions used for Air Quality
monitoring are becoming not only more precise, but also faster at measuring. Devices are becoming smaller,
and cost much more affordable than ever before. For instance, new technologies like the Tapered element
oscillating micro balance (TOEM) provide significant advantages over the traditional Beta Attenuation
Monitors (BAM)

Even more recently, ultra-affordable sensors are starting to appear on the market - many of them linked to
the IOT trend of sensing everything. While most of them are purely gimmick, and so definitely useless toys,
some of them are starting to achieve performances comparable to professional monitors, at one hundred time
less of cost of them. In order to assess the reliability of those sensors, the Earth Sensing Labs from the World
Air Quality Index project is and has been conducting many Air Quality Sensor research and live-data
experiments from many years.

Particle Sensors : The particle sensors can detect the amount of dust in the Air. While the first generation
was just able to detect the amount of opacity, most recent sensors can now detect not PM 2.5 and PM10 but
also up to 7 different particle size.

Gas Sensors : On the opposite of particle sensors, the gas sensor can detect and count the type
of particle present in the air, such as for instance Ozone (O3), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Sulfur Dioxide
(SO2),

51
Electro Chemical Sensors : Electrochemical sensors are based on a chemical reaction between gases in the
air and the electrode in a liquid inside a sensor. In a metal oxide sensor (resistive sensor, semiconductor)
gases in the air react on the sensor surface and modify its resistance.

52
 CHAPTER 4
CALCULATIONS

Calculations:

Assume temperature of the ambient air = 40 C

Temperature maintained indoors = 20 C

Assumed relative humidity in summer = 30%.

Based on these values, using psychrometric chart, dew point temperature = 19 C

For a moist climate, convective heat transfer coefficient hi = 0.1 W/m2 –k

fhi, min = (19-18) / (40-18) = 0.045

L = k [ 0.045/0.1*(1-0.045) - R]

For the building materials, R values and k Values, refer ASHRAE handbook chapter 26.8 , Table 1. –
Building insulating materials design values.

Assume material under consideration is an external wall of the building with above thermal loads. Wall is
made of lightweight bricks, thus thermal conductivity k for wall = 0.22 (refer chapter 26.10 ASHRAE
fundamentals handbook)

Assume the surface finish material to be insulated vinyl siding.

R = 0.48 , refer to 26.9 , ASHRAE fundamentals.

53
Thickness of vinyl siding,

L = 0.22{(0.045/0.955)-0.48)}

L = 0.22(0.48-0.047) m

L = 0.095 m = 95 mm

Preferred thickness would be around 50 mm for aesthetic look of the building. Compare for the insulating
materials suggested in the ASHRAE handbook and choose one of them.

Assume cellulose filling is done between bricks and the plastering.

K = 0.046

L = 0.046 *(0.48-0.047)

L = 0.019 m = 19mm ; approximately 20 mm

This is acceptable thickness for the architects.

However, other factors like water vapour permeability, capillary absorption coefficients has to be considered
before finalizing the material.

Refer 26.19, Table 6 for permeability and capillary absorption coefficients.

Premeability :

For 64.5 mm thicknesss, 2420 ng/Pa-s m2

For 20 mm thickness = 20*2420 /64.5 = 750.38 ng / Pa-s m2

Water absorption coefficient = 0.1 kg/m2s1/2

Assume 4 occupants in the space. Each person requires 3.5 L/s of fresh air according to ASHRAE standards.

54
4*3.5=14 1/s is the ventilation requirement.

This means, 14 L/s is exhausted and fresh air of 14 L/s is taken into the room.

Recirculating air required to remove 25 kW of heat energy.

Q = Flow rate * Density * Cp of Air * AT

25000 = flow rate + 1.009 *4.18 * (25-20)

Flow rate=1185.5 L/s

55
 CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Results:

Selected material is cellulose fill between the walls and roof surfaces.

Thickness = 20 mm

Thermal conductivity = 0.046 W/m-K

Vapour permeability = 750 nano grams per Pascal- second per square meter area

Water absorption coefficient = 0.1 kg/m2s1/2

Conclusion
Air flow control is important for several reasons: to control moisture damage, reduce energy losses, and to ensure
occupant comfort and health. Airflow across the building enclosure is driven by wind pressures, stack effect, and
mechanical air handling equipment like fans and furnaces. A continuous, strong, stiff, durable and air impermeable air
barrier system is required between the exterior and conditions space to control airflow driven by these forces.

Moisture control, including ventilation, is the main method for containing mould and mites. The problems of building
moisture and dampness, microbial contamination, repair and control practices vary by climate zone. Regardless of the
climate, however, the prevention and control of moisture and the subsequent effects should be addressed in the early
phases of building construction and by sustained maintenance.

Effective moisture control includes control of liquid water, control of indoor humidity levels and condensation and
selection of materials and hygrothermal assembly design that minimize mould growth and other moisture problems.
Dynamic simulations of heat and moisture and mould growth models are useful for assessing the hygrothermal
performance of building assemblies. Methods should be further developed to allow calculation of fungal spore
transport through building assemblies.

56
REFERENCES

Colen, Harold R. 1990. HVAC Systems Evaluation, Kingston, MA: R.S. Means Company, Inc.

ASHRAE Handbook 2000, Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning Systems and Equipment, Atlanta, GA,
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.

Pacific Gas and Electric Company 1997, Central HVAC Systems and Applications in Commercial Facilities,
Pacific Gas and Electric Company.

FEMP O&M Best Practices Guide 2.0, July 2004

FEMP Continuous Commissioning Guidebook for Federal Energy Managers, October 2002

Healthcare Energy Guidebook, American Society for Healthcare Engineering, December 2003.

Building Performance Services, Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance, 2003.

57