Basic Data about the Module:

Module Title: Terminology

Study Time:  
Lecture:  3 hours
Reflection: 2 hours
Study Project: 4 hours

 Aims:

The aim of the module is to give an understanding of the terminology and terms used in testing a
completed electrical installation.

 Learning Outcomes:

On successful completion of the module, course delegates should be able to:

 Understand the need for testing a completed electrical installation and the role that
period regular tests play in keeping the installation healthy.
 Be able to list the required tests (in their correct order), outline the practical
method whereby the tests are carried out, and indicate, on suitable paperwork, a
range of typical values to be expected.

 Study Project:

Briefly explain why the 'earth-fault loop impedances' (EFLIs) used by the electrical engineer in
designing the installation would not be the exact values measured at the final testing stange of an
electrical installation.

Your answer should make reference to (at least) the following points:

 DIfferences between the actual and the declared EFLI at the point of supply
 DIfferences between the actual install cable lengths and those used during design
 Differences between the 'designed cable temperature' and the measurement
temperature at the time of testing

Testing electrical installations

Again, you will realise that we are not wishing to turn you into test engineers for the electrical
systems neither is there a need for you to understand the relevance and test method for each test
but you should be aware of the various tests that are required, there interrelationship with the
electrical programme and any requirements that are necessary to allow the electrical testing to
proceed.  It is also suggested that it will become obvious that the various tests that must be
carried out are extremely time consuming and this must be considered in the programming of the
commissioning process.

You will remember Kipling’s (an accomplished author and poet as well as a maker of exceedingly
fine cakes) little couplet which he used as a reporter to ensure that he had gathered all the
relevant information on a scoop:

I have six honest serving men,

They taught me all I knew;
They are ‘Why’, and ‘Where’ and ‘What’,
And ‘When’ and ‘How’ and ‘Who’.
If we ask these questions of the electrical testing we will learn all we need to know!  Remember
we are not interested in knowing all there is to know about electrical testing but rather all we need
to know as those responsible for ensuring the testing and commissioning is correctly carried out
and integrated into the overall programme.

Why do we test?

We have seen that the Wiring Regulations are not statutory documents but can be used in the law
courts to prove that an installation has, or has not been, compliant with those statutory
requirements such as the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989.  There are other less well known
statutory requirements and these refer to work in cinemas, agricultural and horticultural
installations and theatres and other places licensed for public entertainment.  If involved in these
types of work the Electrical Contractor should be reminded of his duties with regards to these
requirements.  Please note that, in Scotland , the Wiring Regulations are incorporated into the
Building Regulations and therefore there is a statutory requirement to comply with the Wiring
Regulations.

There will be a contractual duty to test the electrical systems to the 16 th Edition of

the Institute of Electrical Engineers ’ Wiring Regulations (BS 7671:2001).  The compliance with the
Wiring Regulations would mean that the installed electrical installations would need to be tested in
accordance with Part 7 which requires that each system be:

 Inspection
 Testing
 Certification

These requirements will be examined throughout this section.

The reasons that the electrical installations are tested is firstly to ensure safety to personnel,
livestock, property and equipment and then to identify any departure from the Wiring Regulations
which may give rise to danger.

Where do we test?

The vast majority of the testing is carried out on the site but there will be a need for some of the
testing to be carried out at the manufacturer’s workplace.  The testing on site is described in this
module and the only issue of concern here is again the safety issue.  Whilst the testing is
proceeding there will be other building operations being carried out and it is imperative that firstly
the conditions for the test engineers is acceptable and secondly that the other operatives are
protected.  To reinforce the section on ‘Safety’ we should be aware that the test engineers can
(and should) refuse to carry out any testing if conditions are felt to be unsafe.

What do we test?

The Wiring Regulations states that:

‘Every installation shall, during erection and/or on completion before being put into service be
inspected and tested to verify, so far as is reasonably practicable, that the requirements of the
Regulations have been met’.

In other words, every electrical installation has to be inspected and tested.

There are some installations which are not covered by the Wiring Regulations – structured cabling,
for example, and it will be seen that these have to be tested also and have their own test regimes
and methods.

When do we test?
The testing, clearly, follows the installation work.  However, there may be a need for selective
testing before the commissioning period begins.  If the Mechanical Contractor has a need to run
pumps for the flushing process, for example, the circuit feeding the Motor Control Panel (MCP) and
the circuits feeding the pumps will need to be certified separately.

How do we test?

This is obviously the main part of this section – the ‘how’ of electrical testing.  We saw that there
are three criteria for testing to satisfy the requirements of the Wiring Regulations and these are:

 Inspection
 Testing
 Certification

If these are considered we will see how the electrical systems are tested.

 Inspection

This is a check of the system to ensure that the quality is acceptable and also to ensure that the
cables, switchgear, etc. have been correctly sized.  The Wiring Regulations used to state that this
inspection was to be ‘visual’ now it expects that the check must also be made:

 By smell – is there any signs of insulation charring perhaps caused by a loose

termination?
 By touch – is there signs of overheating caused by cables being inadequately
sized?
 By hearing – are there signs of buzzing or vibration of relays?

So an inspection will include:

 Is the distribution board correctly installed?

 Is there a chart listing the circuitry and the size of the fuses or circuit breakers?
 Are the incoming and outgoing cables correctly sizes and terminated?
 Are the protective devices the correct type and rating?
 Are the cables correctly identified?
 Are the conduits correctly bushed and secured?
 Are cable glands and lock nuts tight?
 Are all the circuit protective conductors soundly connected?
 Is the containment correctly sized
 Has the requirement to segregate certain circuits been observed
 Are fire barriers installed2

Such items as these may be part of the Inspection and Test System and the Electrical Contractor
should confirm that the electrical installations are visually acceptable before proceeding.  See the
Inspection and Test System in Module 1 of this course.

2
 This should be discussed with the Electrical Contractor.  It is usual for the Electrical Contractor to
install internal fire barriers (for example, within trunking) and the Main Contractor to install any
other fire protection but this should be discussed.  The Electrical Contractor sometimes will exclude
all fire protection, so ensure that they install, at least, the internal fire protection.  Also ensure
they are aware of all fire breaks or compartments.

 Testing

It is now time to look at the individual test in particular.  You are not expected to know all the
requirements of these tests but you should be aware that there is a sequence, the testing is quite
extensive and, to carry it out correctly, is time consuming.
Testing can be hazardous both to the tester and others who are within the area of the installation
of the tests.  The danger is compounded if the tests are not carried out in the correct sequence. 
For example, it is most important that the continuity and hence the effectiveness of the protective
conductor installation is confirmed before the insulation resistance tests are carried out as the high
voltage used for insulation testing could appear on all extraneous metalwork associated with the
installation in the event of an open-circuit protective conductor and a low insulation resistance. 
Again, earth-fault impedance tests cannot be carried out before an installation is connected to the
supply and the dangers associated with such a connection before verifying polarity, the
effectiveness of the protective system and the insulation resistance should be obvious.

Some tests are carried out before the supply is connected whilst others cannot be performed until
the installation is energised.

The correct sequence as specified by the 16th Edition of the IEE Wiring Regulations is as shown in
the Table 1.3

TABLE 1.3
No. Correct Sequence for Safe Testing
Before Connection of the Supply
1 Continuity of Protective Conductors
2 Main and Supplementary Bonding Continuity
3 Continuity of Ring Final Circuit Conductors
4 Insulation Resistance
5 Site Applied Insulation
6 Protection by Separation
7 Protection by Barriers and Enclosures
8 Insulation of Non-Conducting Floors and Walls
9 Polarity
No. With the Supply Connected
10 Confirm Correct Polarity
11 Earth Fault Loop Impedance
12 Earth Electrode Resistance
13 Correct Operation of Residual Current Devices
14 Correct Operation of Switches and isolators (Functional Tests)

Sequence of tests

1 & 2.    Continuity of protective conductors main and supplementary bonding 

(Regulation 713-02): All protective and bonding conductors must be tested to ensure that they
are all electrically safe and correctly connected.  If the supply is not connected it is permissible to
disconnect the protective and equipotential conductors from the main earthing terminal to carry
out the testing.  If the supply is connected (for example, the periodic testing) the protective and
equipotential conductors must not be disconnected because if a fault occurs when the testing is
being carried out these conductors may rise to a high potential above earth.  In these cases an
earth-fault loop impedance tester can be used to verify the integrity of the protective system.

There are various methods to determine the integrity and measurement of the resistance of the
protective conductors.

Using the neutral conductor as a return lead:

A temporary link is made at the distribution board between the neutral and the protective
conductor system. 
The test engineer must remember to remove this link when this test is completed!

A low resistance tester is connected to the earth and neutral of the point from which the
measurement is taken and the resistance can be calculated.

 Continuity of ring final circuit conductors (Regulation 713-03): The ring final circuit feeding
13 amp sockets is widely used both in domestic, commercial and industrial applications.  It is very
important that each of the three rings associated with each circuit (phase, neutral and protective
conductors) should be continuous and not broken.  If this happens current will not be properly
shared by the circuit conductors.  The diagram overleaf shows what could happen if the ring is
broken.
The ring circuit would appear to be correct if the only test was to check for power at the socket
outlets. 

Note 1 It will be seen that all the circuits will apparently operate correctly but where there is a
break it is obvious that the cable carrying the power to all the sockets to the break would
carry all the current and this could overload the cable.  In this case if all the sockets are
drawing 4 amps one of the legs would be drawing 28 amps and the other 4 amps.  The
cable would be overloaded.
Note 2 If a multiple connection – or bridge – exists then the load will be unevenly split between the
two legs of the ring.

 Insulation resistance (Regulation 713-04 and 713-05): A low resistance between phase and
neutral conductors, or from live conductors to earth, will result in a leakage current.  This current
could cause deterioration of the insulation leading eventually to a fire, as well as involving a waste
of energy, which leads to increased running costs of the installation.  Therefore the resistance
between the poles or to earth must never be less than ½ megohm (0.5 MΩ) for the usual supply
voltages.  In addition to the leakage current due to insulation resistance there is a further current
leakage in the reactance of the insulation simply because it acts as the dielectric of a capacitor. 
This current dissipates no energy and is not harmful but we wish to measure the resistance of the
insulation so a direct voltage is used to prevent reactance from being included in the
measurement.  Insulation will sometimes have a high resistance when a low voltage is applied
across it but will break down when a higher voltage is applied.  For this reason, the high voltages
shown in Table 1.4 below are necessary.

Table 1.4
Minimum Insulation
Nominal Circuit Voltage Test Voltage (Volts)
Resistance (MΩ)
Extra-Low voltage circuits applied from a safety
250 0.25
isolating transformer
Up to 500 volts except for the above 500 0.5
Above 500 volts up to 1000 volts 1000 1.0
Between SELV and LV circuits 500 5.0
The insulation resistance tester must be capable of maintaining the required voltage when
providing a steady state current of 1 mA

As a considerable voltage is being applied for this test it is important that:

 Electronic equipment which could be damaged by the application of the high test
voltage is disconnected3
 Capacitors and indicator lamps must be disconnected or inaccurate readings will be
obtained.

The test to earth must be carried out on the complete installation with lamps and other equipment
disconnected but with fuses inserted and circuit breakers and switches closed.  Where two-way
switching is wired only one of the strapper wires will be tested.  To test the other both two-way
switches should be operated and the system re-tested. 

If desired the installation can be tested as a whole and a value of at least 0.5 MΩ should be
achieved.  In the case of a large installation where many parallel paths will exist the reading would
be expected to be much lower.  If this happens the installation should be subdivided and retested
so that each part meets the minimum requirement.

As 500 volts is used for these tests safety must be a consideration and the Electrical Contractor
must ensure that nobody can come into contact with the circuits under test.  The voltage produced
by the insulation tester may not kill an operative but the shock may cause him to be harmed by
falling from stepladders.

In addition insulation resistance tests between poles must be carried out as shown:

As noted the minimum reading is 0.5MΩ.  However, where a reading of less than 2 MΩ is recorded
for an individual circuit (the minimum value required by the Health & Safety Executive) there is
the possibility of defective insulation and remedial work may be necessary.

The insulation tests are to ensure that there is a suitably high resistance between phase and
neutral conductors and also these conductors and earth.  Also resistance will result in current
leakage and energy waste which would deteriorate the insulation and be a potential fire hazard. 
The test to earth requires all lamps to be removed and other equipment (including fluorescent
lights) to be disconnected, all switches closed and fuses left in.  The readings obtained should be
as Table 3.2.  Note that these are minimum readings and if the above readings were obtained as
shown in a new installation then investigation would be necessary.

5.         Site applied insulation  (Regulation 713-05): The regulation states:

‘Where insulation applied on site in accordance with Regulation 412-02 is intended to
provide protection against direct contact  it shall be verified that the insulation is capable of
withstanding, without breakdown or flashover, an applied voltage test equivalent to that specified
in the British Standard or similar type-tested equipment’.

This is unusual but worth considering because of the safety issues.  If an Electrical Contractor has
perhaps built a switchboard on site then the unit has to be tested as if it were constructed by a
manufacturer at his works (This is an arguable point however and is usually not required if the
contractors has constructed the switchboard from standard components already tested piecemeal
by a manufacturer – literally all the contractor has done, is to bolt the switchgear onto (say) an
angle-iron frame.  None the less, we cannot be really certain that the frame can withstand the
stress caused by a major fault. – the problem occurs when contractors manufacture their own
components, say linking pieces, that have not been through any British Standard tests). 

For this test special voltages are required for, if the insulation is rated between 300 volts and 660
volts then the voltage has to be 2500 volts. 

Where these high-voltage flash tests have to be carried out on site safety precautions must be
taken. These precautions may include barriers, signs and warning signals.

In practical terms site applied insulation should not be used as it introduces testing problems. 
Usually, there is a way around this difficulty but occasionally it is necessary.

3
 Include in this category are fluorescent starter switches, touch switches, dimmer switches, delay
timers etc.  The Electrical Contractor may try to test only to the light switch and leave the cabling
from the switch to the luminaires untested.  This is not acceptable and the luminaires should be
disconnected.  The common practice of installing a plug and socket for each luminaire helps this
situation but this is by no means universal and the entire wiring system needs to be tested.

[ Page: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 ]

 Protection by separation of circuits: This test is concerned with proving the safety of safety
extra-low voltages (SELV), protective extra-low voltages (PELV) and functional extra-low voltages
(FELV) circuits.

If we remind ourselves of the definition of these circuits:

SELV:   An extra-low voltage system which is electrically separate from Earth and from other
systems in such a way that a single fault current cannot give rise to the risk of electric shock.

PELV:   An extra-low voltage system which is not electrically separate from Earth but which
otherwise satisfies all the requirements of SELV.

FELV:   An extra-low voltage system in which not all of the protective measures required for SELV
or PELV has been applied.

(Note:  Remember that extra-low voltages are voltages not exceeding 50 volts a.c. or 120
volts d.c. whether between conductors or to Earth)

SELV:
The safety of this system stems from its low voltage level so is too low to cause enough current to
flow through the body to cause a lethal shock. 

SELV is isolated from earth.

The possible sources of SELV systems are:

Batteries: These may be expendable or rechargeable.  If they are used on SELV circuits whilst on
charge then the output side of the charging circuit must also be SELV.

Transformers: These must be to BS 3535 which specifies complete segregation of the windings

and a Class II enclosure – this means all insulated or double insulated.  By definition a transformer
enclosed within a metallic case cannot supply a SELV circuit.

Motor Generator:  Where the generator output has similar segregation to that provided by the
BS 3535 transformer

SELV wiring must be completely separate from higher voltages.  Under normal circuit conditions it
is permissible for current carrying parts with voltages up to 25 volts to be un-insulated.  (This
relaxation would normally only apply to such items as terminal screws etc.)

SELV cables should generally be double-insulated or enclosed in plastic conduit.  Where SELV cable
comes into contact with other circuits they must be insulated for the highest voltage present. 
Unsheathed cable should be segregated from exposed metalwork including earthed conduit.

By applying all the above conditions it will be seen that, apart from door bells and some lighting
transformers, many extra-low voltage systems are not SELV.

FELV:
Basically, FELV is an earthed system and SELV is not.

Testing of SELV and FELV circuits: In general, the requirement is a thorough inspection to
make sure that the source of low voltage (most usually a safety isolating transformer) complies in
all respects with the applicable British Standard.  This is followed by an insulation test between the
extra-low voltage and the low voltage systems.

The test is unusual in that a 500 volts d.c. supply (from an insulation resistance tester) must be
applied between the systems for one minute, after which the insulation resistance must not be less
than 5MΩ.  A further test at 3750 volts d.c. for one minute is passed if no flashover occurs.  This
test can be dangerous and special care must be taken.

For SELV and FELV circuits additional inspection must ensure that low voltage requirements (not
exceeding 50 volts a.c. or 120 volts d.c. ) are met.

Note:  If the voltage exceeds 25 volts a.c. or 70 volts d.c. , barriers and enclosures must be tested
to IP2X and a 500 volts insulation applied for one minute between the live conductors and metal
foil wrapped around insulation should produce a result of at least 0.5MΩ.

Protection by barriers and enclosures  (Regulation 713-07): Where manufactured

equipment has been installed there is no need for this test to be carried out on site.  However,
where barriers and enclosures have been manufactured on site there is a need for insulation (as
detailed above) and penetration tests.  Appendix 3/2 gives details of the IP (Index of Protection)
ratings but the two most common tests are:

 IP2X       No contact can be made with a probe 12mm in diameter and 80 mm

long – in other words, the dimensions of a human finger.
 IP4X       No contact can be made with a rod of diameter of 1mm.

8.         Insulation of non-conducting floors and walls (Regulation 413-04, 417-10 and
713-08): This is an uncommon situation but brief details are given in case such an installation
applies on one of your contracts.

Where protection against indirect contact is provided by a non-conducting location, the following
requirements apply:
  There must be no protective conductors
 If socket outlets are used they must not have an earthing contact
 It should be impossible for a person to touch two exposed conductive parts at the
same time
 Floors and walls must be insulating

To test this last point and so make sure that the floors and walls are non-conducting their
insulation has to be tested.

The requirements are shown below:

The electrodes used for making contact with floors and walls are a special type which are pressed
onto the surfaces with a force of not less than 750 Newtons (77kg) for floors and 250 Newtons (26
kg) for walls.  The resultant insulation resistance of not less than three points on each surface,
one of which must be between 1m and 1.2 m from any extraneous conductive part (if there is any)
measured at 500 volts, must not be less than 0.5 MΩ.  Attention to the natural reduction in the
insulation resistance of a surface as humidity increases.  When insulation is applied to an
extraneous conductive part to provide a non-conducting location, this insulation must be tested
with an alternating voltage of 2kV.  In normal use the leakage current should not exceed 1mA.

It may be that the opposite is required and there is a need for a conducting floor – for example in
an operating theatre – and the same test is used but, obviously, a low resistance is required.

   Polarity Tests (Regulation 713-09): If a single pole switch or fuse is connected in the neutral
rather than in the phase a dangerous situation may result since the user of the equipment may
think that the equipment is safe when there is still a voltage present.  It is great importance that
single-pole switches, fuses and circuit breakers are connected in the phase (non-earthed)
conductor and verifying this is the purpose of the polarity tests.  Also of importance is to test that
the outer (screw) connection of ES (Edison Screw) lampholders are connected to the neutral
(earthed) conductor as well as the outer contact of single contact BC (Bayonet Cap) lampholders.
This test may be carried out by using a wandering lead connected to the phase conductor at the
distribution board and to a terminal of an ohmmeter or a continuity tester on its lowest resistance
scale.  The other ohmmeter lead is connected in turn to switches, centre lampholder contacts,
phase connection of socket outlets and so on.  A very low resistance reading indicates correct
polarity.  (In our illustration there would be no reading on the ohmmeter as the leads are on the
phase and neutral conductor)

In some occasions it would not be convenient to use a wandering lead as shown and a temporary
connection between the phase and protective system may be made at the distribution board.  A
simple resistance test between the phase and protective conductor at each outlet should then
verify polarity.  Remember that the temporary lead has to be removed!

Earth fault loop impedance: In simple terms the impedance of the phase-to-earth loop is
measured by connecting a resistor (typically 10Ω) from the phase to the protective conductor.
A fault current – usually something over 20 Amps, circulates in the fault loop and the impedance
of the loop is calculated within the instrument by dividing the supply voltage by the value of this
current.  The resistance of the added resistor must be subtracted from this calculated value before
the result is displayed.

An other method is to measure the supply voltage both before and after and whilst the loop
current is flowing.  The difference is the volt drop due to the current and the loop impedance is
calculated from this voltage difference divided by the current.

Since the loop current is very high its duration must be short and it is usually limited to two cycles
or 40ms for a 50Hz supply.  The current is usually switched by a triac or thyristor and the firing
time is controlled by an electronic timing circuit.

It is very important to have already checked the continuity of the protective system before
carrying out this test.  A break in the protective system, or a high resistance within it, could result
in the whole of the protective system being directly connected to the phase conductor for the
duration of the test.  Commercial Earth-Fault Loop Impedance Testers are usually fitted with
indicator lamps to confirm correct connection or to warn of reversed polarity.

12.        Earth electrode resistance (Regulation 713-11): The earth electrode, where used, is
a means of making contact with the general mass of earth.  Thus it must be tested to ensure that
good contact is made.  A major consideration here is to ensure that the electrode resistance is not
so high that the voltage from earthed metalwork to earth exceeds 50 volts.  Where an Residual
Current Device (RCD) is used this means that the result of multiplying the RCD operating current
(in amperes) by the electrode resistance (in ohms) does not exceed 50 (volts). 

This if a 30mA RCD is used this allows a maximum electrode resistance of 1,666Ω although it is
recommended that earth electrode resistance should never be greater than 200Ω.

There are several ways of measuring the earth electrode resistance and one is illustrated below:
  Using a Dedicated Earth Resistance Tester

The instrument is connected as shown above.  Terminal C1 and P1 being connected to the
electrode under test (X).  To ensure that the resistance of the test leads does not affect the
results, separate leads should be used for these connections.  If the test lead resistance is
negligible, terminals C1 and P1 may be bridged at the instrument and connected to the earth
electrode with a single lead.

Terminals C2 and P2 are connected to temporary spikes which are driven into ground making a
straight line with the electrode under test.  It is important that the test spikes are far enough from
each other and from the electrode under test.  If their resistance areas overlap the readings will be
in error. 

Basically the instrument measures resistance by dividing a measured voltage reading by the
output current of the device.  If the resistance areas of the spikes overlap then the true earth
potential is not being measured and the calculated resistance will be in error.

Usually the distance from ‘X’ to ‘Y’ will be about 25 metres but this depends upon the resistivity of
the ground.  To prove that resistance areas do not overlap second and third tests are made with
the electrode ‘Z’ 10% of the ‘X’ to ‘Y’ distance nearer to and then 10% further from ‘X’.  If the
three readings are substantially in agreement this is the resistance of the electrode under test.   If
not, test electrodes ‘Y’ and ‘Z’ must be moved further

The other ways of testing Earth Electrodes are:

 Using a Transformer, ammeter and voltmeter

o Using an Earth-Fault Loop Impedance Tester

Prospective fault current

Modified versions of the Earth-Fault Loop Impedance Tester which effectively measures the phase
to neutral impedance and then calculates the value of the circuit current which would flow if the
supply voltage were applied to this impedance are readily available.

The Prospective Short Circuit (PSC) is the current which is likely to flow in a circuit if line and
neutral cables are shorted together.  It is the largest currant which can flow in the system and
protective devices must be capable of breaking it safely.
In most three-phase and neutral systems we are concerned with a short-circuit current from a
three-phase fault.  This is usually the most destructive since it represents the whole power of the
distribution network feeding the fault and is one which must be cleared by rapid fuse (or circuit
breaker)  operation before it upsets the stability of the electrical supply network.

What sort of short circuit currents do we expect?

Typical values quoted by the Supply Authority for a TNCS system 4 (remember T – Terra [from the
Latin for earth] N – the neutral of the supply is earthed, C – the earth-return path is one cable
combining the roles of earth and neutral, S – inside the building the earth wires are separate)

Table 1.5
Typical Declared Values of Prospective Short Circuit Current (PSCC) [Ampere] with
Power Factor (PF) and Earth-Fault Loop Impedance (EFLI) [Ohms] for TNCS (PME)
Supplies.
Service Cut-Out Secondary Substation
Rating in Ampere Rating in Ampere
100 200 400 400 600 800
Single Phase PSCC 16kA 24kA 30kA 46kA 46kA 46kA
Supply EFLI 0.35 0.20 0.1 0.06 0.034 0.034
PSCC 24kA 28kA 30kA 46kA 46kA 46kA
Three Phase
PF 0.55 0.45 0.4 0.34 0.34 0.34
Supply
EFLI 0.35 0.20 0.10 0.06 0.034 0.034

Compare these against data for a typical distribution transformer as seen in Table 1.6

Table 1.6
Transformer Impedance Data
[Values based upon GEC Distribution Transformers]
Resistance and Reactance of 11kV/415V, Class T1 Transformers
Referred to 415V Base
Resistance/Phase Full Load Per Unit
Reactance Maximum
KVA Rating when cold Current Impedance
/Phase Short Circuit
(mΩ/Phase) (Ampere) (5)
200 12.0 42.3 278 5458 5.09
315 7.1 27.0 438 8596 5.09
500 3.8 17.3 696 13552 5.14
800 2.2 11.0 1113 21394 5.20
1000 1.6 8.7 1391 27131 5.13
1500 1.0 6.8 2087 34889 5.98
2000 0.8 5.6 2782 42440 6.56

It is obvious that the two sets of figures do not co-relate.  The Supply Authorities can calculate the
existing installations but allow for any future expansion in their networks.

There are three ways to obtain the PSC.

 By requesting a figure from the Supply Authority as above

 By calculation
 By measurement

By measurement:
The impedance of the supply is measured by determining its voltage regulation, that is, the
amount by which the voltage falls with an increase in current.
For example, consider an installation with a no-load terminal voltage of 240 volts.  If, when a
current of 40 Amps flows, the voltage falls to 238 volts then the volt drop will be due to the
impedance of the supply.

Thus 

Then the PSC will be (Remember Ohms Law! – The Current = The Voltage divided by the
Resistance)

This is the basis for any instrument which measures the prospective fault current, but any test
should be repeated several times to ensure consistent results.

4
 There are various earthing arrangements and this is one of the most commonly seen.  Also
known as PME (See definition in section 3.2)

 Operation of residual current devices (Regulation 713-12): The Residual Current Device

(RCD) is a circuit breaker which continually compares the current in the phase with the current in
the neutral.  The difference between the two currents is the residual current and it will be flowing
to earth because it has left the supply through the phase and has not returned to the neutral.

Essentially the device consists of an iron-cored ring or torrid with two identical operating coils –
one for the live and the other for the neutral

connections.  Current flowing in the device (in the live conductor) produces a magnetic field which
exactly balances with, and is cancelled out by, the magnetic field produced by current leaving the
device (in the neutral conductor).

When an earth leakage occurs the input current is slightly greater than the output and the residual
magnetism is detected by a search coil, the output from which is used to operate the circuit
breaker to disconnect the supply.

There is always some residual current in the resistance and capacitance to earth but in a healthy
circuit this will be low, seldom exceeding 2 mA, but the primary purpose of the RCD is to limit the
severity of the shock due to indirect contact. 

An RCD is required for socket outlets where:

 They are part of a TT system (no earth terminal provided by the Supply Authority)
 The socket outlets are installed in a bedroom which contains a shower cubicle
 The socket outlets are likely to feed portable equipment used outdoors

RCDs are provided with a built-in self test facility which is intended to be operated frequently by
the user.  The Wiring Regulations require that correct operation of this test facility be checked and
that other tests are also carried out.

RCD testers draw a precisely measured current for a carefully timed period and returns to earth,
thus tripping the device.  The test measures and displays the exact time taken for the circuit to be
opened.  This time is very short, in most cases between 10ms and 20ms although it can be longer
for the RCD may have a delayed operation.

14.        Functional tests: Where there is work to be carried out on existing installations there
may be a need to know if the existing installations are in an acceptable condition and you may
wish to ask the Client for evidence of testing which has been carried out.  In Appendix 3.3 we list
the suggested intervals between what the Wiring Regulations call ‘Periodic Inspection’.   If the
length between the tests were greater than that listed or indeed non-existent then you should be
wary of the condition of the electrical systems and alarm bells should sound!

 Certification

For the test engineer to be able to certify the electrical systems he must be in possession of the
characteristics of the system.  Whilst these may be of little interest to you managing the
commissioning of the M&E works they are given in Appendix 3.4 in case there is a need to have
them supplied by the Client on existing systems.  Obviously, on new installations the Electrical
Contractor will obtain this information.

Regulation 741-01-01 requires a Completion and Inspection Certificate to be completed for every
installation and forwarded to the Client.  These certificates should comply with the model in
Appendix 6 of the Wiring Regulations and a sample is given in Appendix 3.5.  The must be signed
by a competent person for the design, installation and the verification of the electrical installation. 
Obviously, on a ‘traditional’ contract the Electrical Contractor can only complete the installation
and verification sections and forward the certificates to the M&E Consultant for completion of the
design section.  Ideally the signature of the design engineer should be obtained before the
installation commences but in practice this never happens.  On Design & Build contracts the
Electrical Contractor will complete all sections. 

Invariably the installing Electrical Contractor also certifies his work and it could be thought that
this would lead to difficulties and that third party testing would be preferable.  In practice the
system of ‘self-certification’ has worked well for there are such bodies as the Electrical Contractors’
Association (ECA) and the National Inspection Council for Electrical Installation Contracting
(NICEIC) who police the Electrical Contractors.

In addition to the basic electrical completion certificate and this should include all the parts as
shown in Appendix 3.5 there will be a need for the certification of any specialised installations. 
These may include:

 Fire Detection and Alarm Systems  (See also the section in ‘commissioning’)

The wiring of the fire alarm systems is tested under the requirements of BS 5839:Part 1 and the
Wiring Regulations.  Appendix 3.6 gives an example of a Fire Alarm Completion Certificate and
some guidance notes are given. 

Notes on the certification may be helpful:

 Premises:  The protected area should be clearly defined

 User’s Certificate:     The certificate is not complete without the owner’s signature. 
This shows that he has accepted that he recognises his responsibilities and knows
the maintenance and servicing requirements.

 Installer’s Certificate: This signed section demonstrates that the commissioning

engineer has inspected and tested the system and declares it to be compliant with
BS 5839.  It also demonstrates that the commissioning – the cause and effect that
is discussed elsewhere – has been completed.

 Deviations: The fire alarm installation may not necessarily comply with every
requirement of the British Standard but any deviation must be recorded and
logged.  It should be apparent that on the normal contract where it is a
 requirement to comply with BS 5839 there should be no deviations except as
agreed with the Client.  On Design & Build contracts the Client should be advised
of any possible deviation form the BS so that he is aware of this fact and it is not a
difficulty at the end of the project.

 Emergency Lighting

The wiring of the fire alarm systems is tested under the requirements of BS 5266:Part 1 and the
Wiring Regulations.  Appendix 3.6 gives an example of a Fire Alarm Completion Certificate.

Notes on the certification may be helpful:

 Premises: The protected area should be clearly defined

 Design: Again, the certificate is not complete until the designer has signed off his
design.  The design should be appropriate to the building and the BS gives help on
the selection of systems.  Cinemas and other places of entertainment may require
additional certification in line with the Local Authority’s requirements.

 Installation: Alongside the installer’s details should be a list of the drawings and

other required information.  The installed category should also be noted to show
agreement with the designer’s chosen design.

 Verification: To fully commission the system there must not only be the functional
tests but photometric verification is required to demonstrate compliance with the
lighting levels as detailed in the BS.  It should be obvious that these tests must be
carried out when there is no outside light.  The certificate is incomplete without the
lighting levels being shown.

 Lightning Protection

The lightning protection system should be tested as detailed in BS 665.  This requires a competent
person from the installing company to visually inspect the installation, the resistance of the earth
of the earth termination network and of each earth electrode and also the results of the visual
check of all conductors, bonds and joints or their measured electrical continuity should be recorded
in the system log book.

As a matter of interest the logbook which should be completed and left for the Client should
include the following:

 A scale drawing showing the nature, dimensions, materials and location of all
component parts
 Details of the nature of the soil and any special earthing arrangements
 The type and position of the earth electrodes
 The test conditions and results obtained
 The name of the installation company

 Petrol Filling Stations

This is outside the scope of normal building works.  There is a standard test sheet for this work
detailed in the Wiring Regulations.  You should be aware that there is particular legislation
applicable to the installation and testing of petrol filling stations and some of the documentation
and legislation covering this work would be:

 Petrol Filling Stations: Construction & Operation  HS(G)41

 Petrol (Regulations) Act 1928 and 1936
 The Health & Safety at Work Act 1974
 BS 5345
Who tests?

We have seen that there is the ‘unofficial’ testing that goes on throughout the installation.  This is
carried out by each prudent electrician to prove that terminations have been made off properly,
cables have not become disconnected or damaged etc.  This is an important part of the testing but
is not documented and may be carried out using uncalibrated instruments.

An Electrical Contractor of any size will normally have a test engineer who will be responsible for
the testing of his colleagues’ work and this individual must be a competent person.  He has
normally received specialised training in testing of electrical installations and, whilst the Wiring
Regulations do not define a competent person, the very minimum requirement must be a qualified
electrician.  The Health & Safety Executive, in another context, states that a ‘Competent Person’
is ‘a person with enough practical experience and theoretical knowledge and actual experience to
carry out a particular task safely and effectively’.   This definition should apply to all who test
electrical installations.

A competent person should, preferably, be one of the following:

 A professionally qualified electrical engineer or

 A member of the Electrical Contractors’ Association (ECA) or
 An approved Electrical Contractor of the National Inspection Council for Electrical
Installation Contracting (NICEIC)
 A qualified person working on behalf of one of the above