PROJECT REPORT

ON

CULTIVATION
OF
OYSTER MUSHROOM
(P.djamor)
USING CROP RESIDUES
AS
SUBSTRATES

SUBMITTED BY:- SUBMITTED TO:-

DISHIKA MRS.ANUPAMA
285056
AKASH MEHTA
285051

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 Contents
S.NO. PARTICULATES PAGE NO.

• ABSTRACT 3
1. • INTRODUCTION 4
2. • REVIEW OF LITERATURE 6
3. • MUSHROOM CULTIVATION :BOTH A SCIENCE OR 8
A ART
4. • MUSHROOM 9
4.1 • MORPHOLOGY OF MUSHROOM 9
5. • HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 11
6. • BIOLOGY OF MUSHROOM 12
6.1 • FUNGI 12
6.2 • SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF MUSHROOMS 12
6.3 • FUNGUS ECOLOGY 13
6.4 • LIFE CYCLE OF FUNGI 13
7. • TYPES OF MUSHROOM 18
7.1 • CULTIVATED TYPES 19
7.2 • WILD TYPES 20
8. • USES OF MUSHROOM 21
9. • MUSHROOM CULTIVATION IN INDIA 22
10. • MUSHROOM NUTRITIONAL & MEDICINAL 22
PROPERTIES
11. • MUSHROOM PRODUCTION 24
12. • CULTIVATION OF OYESTER MUSHROOM 26
12.1 • MATERIAL USED 26
12.2 • SPAWN 27
12.3 • CULTURE MAINTENANCE 27
12.4 • PREPARTION OF SUBSTRATE 28
12.5 • MIXING OF SUBSTRATE 29
12.6 • FILLING OF BAGS 30
12.7 • SPAWNING SUBSTRATE 34
12.8 • SPAWN RUN 36
12.9 • FRUITING/CROPPING 37
12.10 • FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS 41
12.11 • HARVESTING 42
13. • RESULTS 44
14. • COMMON PROBLEMS 45

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15. • SIGNIFICANCE OF MUSHROOM CULTIVATION 47
16. • REFERENCES 48-49
ABSTRACT

Mushrooms are very nutritious products that can be generated

from lignocellulosic waste materials; and are in rich in crude fibre
and protein. In fact, mushrooms also contain low fat, low calories
and good vitamins. In addition, many mushrooms possess
multi-functional medicinal properties.Mushroom cultivation
technology is friendly to the environment. The production of edible
and medicinal mushrooms utilising, for example, paddy straw,
cotton wastes, coffee waste, water hyacinth, tree saw dust, sugar
cane bagasse, wild grasses and various categories of refuse and
lignocellulosic wastes.The spent substrate left after harvesting the
mushrooms, which is entangled with innumerable mushroom
threads (collectively referred to as mycelia) will have been
biochemically modified by the mushroom enzymes into a simpler
and more readily digestible form, which is thus more palatable to
livestock, when used as a livestock feed supplement.
Mushroom mycelia can produce a group of complex extracellular
enzymes which can degrade and utilize the lignocellulosic wastes
in order to reduce pollution. It has been revealed recently that
mushroom mycelia can play a significant role in the restoration
of damaged environments. Saprotrophic, endophytic,
mycorrhizal, and even parasitic fungi/mushrooms can be used
in mycorestoration, which can be performed in four different
ways: mycofiltration (using mycelia to filter water), mycoforestry
(using mycelia to restore forests), mycoremediation (using mycelia
to eliminate toxic waste), and mycopesticides (using mycelia
to control insect pests). These methods represent the potential
to create a clean ecosystem, where no damage will be left after
fungal implementation. The potential of mushroom farming in
generating new employment opportunities is another positive
element emanating from mushroom farming ventures, which

3
can be labour intensive. Phase one of this project will aim at
providing initial skills for cottage level mushroom production.
1. INTRODUCTION

Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of macrofungi. They

include both edible/medicinal and poisonous species. However,
originally, the word “mushroom” was used for the edible members
of macrofungi and “toadstools” for poisonous ones of the “gill”
macrofungi. Scientifically the term “toadstool” has no meaning
at all and it has been proposed that the term is dropped
altogether in order to avoid confusion and the terms edible,
medicinal and poisonous mushrooms are used.
Edible mushrooms once called the “food of the gods” and still
treated as a garnish or delicacy can be taken regularly as part of
the human diet or be treated as healthy food or as functional food.
The extractable products from medicinal mushrooms, designed to
supplement the human diet not as regular food, but as the
enhancement of health and fitness, can be classified into the
category of dietary supplements/mushroom nutriceuticals (Chang
and Buswell, 1996). Dietary supplements are ingredients
extracted from foods, herbs, mushrooms and other plants that
are taken without further modification for their presumed health-
enhancing benefits.There is an old Chinese saying which states
that “MEDICINES AND FOODS HAVE A COMMON
ORIGIN”. Mushrooms constitute a most rapidly growing new
food category which the current health-oriented public is
increasingly enjoying. Since mushrooms lack chlorophyll they can
not, like green plants, get their energy from the sun through
photosynthesis. Instead, during their vegetative growth stage,
mushroom mycelia secrete enzymes that break down compounds
such as cellulose and lignin present in the substrate. The
degraded compounds are then absorbed by the hyphae and
the mycelium enlarges-usually laterally, and in some cases
growing several meters in diameter with the substrate.Partially
understood environmental factors (temperature and light are

4
known to be critical) stimulate the second or reproductive growth
stage. Cells of one mycelial strain fuse with cells of the opposite
type to form a mycelium that contains both types of nuclei.
The new mycelium continues to grow and eventually develops
into a mature fruiting body, the gills of which are lined with
spore bearing cells called basidia. Various mechanisms trigger the
dispersal of spores, which in turn lodge in a substrate, become
hyphae and begin the cycle a new. Mushroom cultivation has great
scope in China, India and in some of other developing countries
because of the cheap and easily available raw materials
needed for this activity, coupled with faster means of
communication and marketing (as a fresh commodity), and
better purchasing power of the people. Using China as for
example, in 1978, the production of edible mushrooms was only
60,000 tonnes. In 2006, China’s mushroom production was over
14 million tonnes. Now there are more than 30 million people
directly or indirectly engaged in mushroom production and
businesses, and now China has become a leading mushroom
producer and consumer in the world. It is hoped that the
avocation of mushroom farming will become a very important
cottage industry activity in the integrated rural development
programme, which will lead to the economic betterment of not
only small farmers but also of landless labourers and other weak
sections of communities.

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2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

- Alang-alang grass, Imperata cylindrica - abundant herb in Asia,

especially in Indonesia, used for Pleurotus(Poppe et al., 1997).
- Artichoke waste, useful after drying for different mushroom
substrates (Stamets, 1993)
- Azolla, a fast growing fern in Asia, close to tropical rivers used
for Agaricus, Pleurotus and Collybia (Poppe,1995).
- Banana leaves, dried 1.45% N, very productive in bulk for
Pleurotus or in combination for Volvariella. (Chang-Ho 1979;
Bhavani et al., 1989) (author).
- Banana pseudostems, chopped, gave better results for Pleurotus
compared to sawdust or rice straw. (Jandaik et al., 1976). Jandaik
was the first mycologist to use this substrate for Pleurotus sajor-
caju.
- Barley straw, Hordeum vulgare, has a biological efficiency of
96% for Pleurotus (Martinez-Carrera, 1989), Chang & Miles
(1989): 0.64% N,0.19% P, 1.07% K, 47% C, C/N = 72. According
to Delmas (1989) :1% protein, 14% lignin, 36% hemicellulose,
43% cellulose, suitable for Agaricus, Pleurotus, Volvariella, and
Stropharia.
- Bean pods, a substrate component or in bulk for Pleurotus (Poppe
et al.,1995).
- Bean straw, different genera, for Agaricus and as a substrate
component,for Pleurotus, it can also be used as a basic
substrate(Poppe et al.,1995).
- Brassica-haulms, for Pleurotus (Sohi et al., 1989), straw of
Brassica napus, rape, contains 22.7% lignin, C/N = 70, used for
Agrocybe aegerita (Zadrazil, 1989). On Brassica crop residues like
rape and mustard, in India, the highest yields were obtained with
50% Brassica + 50% rice straw for Pleurotus sajor-caju (Pani et
al., 1998).
- Buckwheat straw, Polygonum fagopyrum, for Pleurotus (author).

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- Cactus, Agave and Yucca : dry-resistant plants useful as a
component of mushroom substrates (Stamets, 1993).
- Cardamon pulp, Elettaria cardamomum, has a biological
efficiency of 113% for Pleurotus (Martinez-Carrera, 1989).
- Cinnamon leaves, Cinnamon zeylanicum, biological efficiency of
82% for Pleurotus (Martinez-Carrera, 1989).
- Citrus fruit peels, Citrus unshiu, dried, reasonable Pleurotus
production (Yoshikawa et al., 1979; Khan et al.,1981).
- Coconut fiber pith and coir : can be composted and then used for
cultivation of Pleurotus or Volvariella in India (Theradi Mani,
1992).
- Coconut husks, used for Pleurotus cystidiosus in India (Beig et
al., 1989), used also for Volvariella in India (Bhavani, 1989;
Gurjar et al., 1995).
- Coffee parchment, parche de café, suitable with or without
pasteurization for Pleurotus (Poppe, 1995).
- Coffee pulp, sundried, stored, later rehydrated for Pleurotus
(Martinez-Carrera 1989). Good production in Mexico for
Auricularia when mixed with sugarcane pulp and corn-cobs
(Sanchez et al., 1995).
- Coffee sawdust: efficient for Pleurotus when mixed with ipil-ipil
powder (Sanchez et al., 1995).
- Coleseed, Brassica napus, in combination with straw or hay, it is
a useful substrate for different mushrooms(Steineck, 1981).
Contents: 2% protein, 11% lignin, 28% hemicellulose, 47%
cellulose.
- Corn fiber: In Japan, this waste product of cornstarch
manufacture increased the yield very noticeably when added to
sawdust + rice bran, for Pleurotus ostreatus, Pleurotus sajor-caju,
Pholiota nameko and Hypsizygus marmoreus(Terashita et al.,
1997).
- Corncobs, hammer milled or crushed, tested first in Hungary in
1956, gave variable results for Agaricus. Generally used for
Pleurotus and shiitake.Contains 40% cellulose, 15% lignin, 0.4%

7
total N, 0.1% P2O5, 0.25% K2O,0.5% SiO2, pH 7, C/N 129
(Heltay 1957; Heltay et al., 1960) (At least 40 author references).

3. MUSHROOM CULTIVATION: BOTH A SCIENCE

& AN ART

The cultivation of mushrooms can be both a relatively

primitive farming activity, and a high technology industry. In
each case, however, continuous production of successful crops
requires both practical experience and scientific knowledge.
Mushroom cultivation is both a science and an art. The science is
developed through research; the art is perfected through
curiosity and practical experience.
Mushroom growth dynamics involve some technological elements,
which are in consonance with those exhibited by our common
agricultural crop plants. For example, there is a vegetative
growth phase, when the mycelia grow profusely; and a
reproductive (fruiting) growth phase, when the umbrella-like
body that we call mushroom develops. In the agricultural
plants, e.g., sunflowers, when the plants switch from the
vegetative growth to the reproductive growths, retarded tips for
further growth (elongation) is an obvious phenomenon of mature.
It is the same principle in mushroom production. After the
vegetative (mycelial) phase has reached maturity, what the
mushroom farmer needs next is the induction of fruiting. This is
the time the mycelia growth tips should be retarded by regulating
the environmental factors. These factors generally called “triggers”
or “environmental shocks”, such as, switching on the light,
providing fresh air, and lowering temperatures, can trigger fruiting.
Mushrooms are earliest known fungal organisms used as food for
their taste and aroma.

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4. MUSHROOM

• In Latin it means to ‘flourish’ and in Greek ‘sponge’.

• Mushrooms belong to Basidiomycotina and Ascomycotina.

4.1. MORPHOLOGY OF MUSHROOM

• It is the fruiting body of fleshy mushrooms. Its vegetative

mycelium is usually in the soil.
• It is produced either aerially or in the soil.
• It has a stalk known as Stipe and a broadly expanded structure
known as Pileus.
• On the undersurface of the pileus many membranous structures
known as gills are present.
• Each gill has a fertile layer at the periphery known as hymenium.
It has basidia with basidiospores and sterile structures known as
paraphyses.
• In younger mushrooms the pileus and stipe are connected by a
membranous structure known as veil or veilum. It is broken at
maturity.
• In younger stages, the fruiting body of Agaricus resembles a
button. Hence this stage is referred as Button stage. Usually its
basidiocarps are harvested at this button stage.
• The other fleshy fungus of Ascomycotina known as Morchella
produces spores inside a sac like structure.

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10
5. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Mushroom has got a place in all religious books. According to

Greek or roman myth “Mushroom sprang from a stroke of
lightening”. Hindu believed it as a sexual product of lightening and
the earth. Some also considered it as a flower of Ishwar.
Mushroom is a dish of Jannat for Islamic people. There are
different opinions regarding the coining of the term
“Mushroom”. In Greek, the term “Mushroom” was derived from
the word “Sphonggos” which referred to the sponge like
structure of some of the species. It is also thought to be derived
from French word “mousseron”. In India mushroom is known by
various names like khumbhi, gobarchatta, bhumiphor etc. The
Hindi term khumbhi has been originated from Sanskrit word
“ksumpa”. The local name “gobarchatta” is assigned due to its
habitat and chatra like structure.Since some of its species come out
by breaking the soil layer so it is also known as ‘Bhumiphor’.
Mushroom farming in India is hardly four decades old.
However the possibilities of mushroom industry in India by
cultivation was visualized by Dr. S.R. Bose (1921), Dr. Bose
was successful in culturing two agarics on a sterilized dung
medium. The paddy straw mushroom was introduced in Tamil
Nadu by the end of 1943 by Dr.Thomas team. The first serious
attempt on cultivation of button mushroom was initiated in 1986
by the ICAR with its nucleus at Solan (Himachal
Pradesh).Govt. of India have established spawn production
laboratory and financing scheme for imparting training on
mushroom seed production and mushroom cultivation techniques
at Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa (Bihar). Indian Council
of Agricultural Research, the apex body for agricultural
research and education in the country, established the National
Centre for Mushroom Research and Training (NCMRT) on 8 th
June 1983 (now National Research Centre for Mushroom,
NRCM) at Solan, Himachal Pradesh, with a mandate to carry out
research, training and extension on all aspects of mushrooms in the

11
country. In the same year SOLAN was declared as “Mushroom
city of India.”

6. BIOLOGY OF MUSHROOM

6.1. FUNGI

Mushrooms belong to the kingdom of Fungi, a group very distinct

from plants, animals and bacteria. Fungi lack the most important
feature of plants: the ability to use energy from the sun directly
through chlorophyll. Thus, fungi depend on other organisms for
food, absorbing nutrients from the organic material in which they
live. The living body of the fungus is mycelium made out of a tiny
web of threads (or filaments) called hyphae. Under specific
conditions, sexually compatible hyphae will fuse and start to form
spores. The larger sporeproducing structures (bigger than about 1
mm) are called mushrooms. In nature this is the most striking part
of the organism, but in fact it is just the fruiting body and the major
part of the living organism is found under the ground or inside the
wood.

6.2. SCIENTIFIC & COLLOQUIAL NAMES OF

MUSHROOMS

The scientific names of mushrooms are often used , as they give

rise to less confusion than colloquial names. For example, the
name oyster mushroom applies to more than 20 different species of
mushroom, each with its own cultivation characteristics such as
optimal temperature range, colour and growth rate. For mushroom
growers, the most practical approach to the subject of taxonomy is
to rely on taxonomists. It is best to order strains from renowned
spawn producers or culture collections.

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6.3. FUNGUS ECOLOGY

Fungi depend on other organisms for their food. Three modes of

living can be recognised:
• Saprophytes: degrading already dead material
• Symbionts: living together with other organisms (especially
trees) in a close, mutually beneficial relationship
• Parasites: living at the expense of other organisms.
The mode of living has nothing to do with edibility: both edible
and poisonous mushrooms can be found in all three groups.

6.3.1. SAPROPHYTES

Saprophytic fungi need organic matter to decompose. In nature

they will grow on fallen leaves, animal droppings, or stumps of
dead wood. Some are specialised in breaking down the hairs of
mammals, while others may decompose birds' feathers.
Saprophytes decompose the complex organic structures left behind
by plants and animals. And in the natural run of things, plants or
animals regain access to minerals and other nutrients present in the
substrate. Oyster mushrooms de-grade dead wood in nature. They
can be cultivated on a wide range of ligno-cellulose waste
materials.

6.4. LIFE CYCLE OF FUNGI

Fungi multiply by producing millions and millions of spores.

When a spore settles in a suitable environment, it can germinate
and branch to form a mycelium. When two sexually compatible
mycelia meet, they may fuse to form a so-called secondary
mycelium, which is capable of forming fruiting bodies.

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6.4.1. MYCELIAL GROWTH AND SPAWN

In the practice of edible mushroom cultivation no use is made of

spores. Their small size makes them difficult to handle and their
genetic characteristics may differ from those of their parent.
Moreover, it takes some time for mushroom spores to germinate,
whereas other fungi such as green moulds germinate and spread
much faster. The desired mushroom must be able to colonise the
substrate before other fungi or bacteria do so. To achieve this, pre-
grown mycelium (free of any contaminants) of the mushroom is
inoculated on a sterile substrate. This material is referred to as
spawn. Using spawn will give the cultivated mushroom an
advantage in growth over other fungi.

6.4.2. SPAWN RUN

The mycelium will colonise the substrate and use the available
nutrients. This is commonly referred to as the spawn run. When
some nutrients run out, or when the weather changes, the

14
mycelium will reach a different phase:the reproductive stage. A
temperature of about 25 °C is optimal for the spawn run of most
species. The environment can also enhance the growth of the
desired mycelium: a high CO2 concentration is favourable for
mycelial growth (but not for cropping).

After having colonised the substrate, the mycelium is capable of

producing fruiting bodies. The number and quality of the fruiting
bodies will depend on the environment.
Key factors to induce fruiting bodies are:
• changing temperature
• high humidity

15
 • deficiency of a nutrient
• CO2 concentration in the air
• light
• physical shock

These factors differ from mushroom to mushroom. Most of the

changes that stimulate fruiting have a negative effect on the
vegetative growth of the mycelium. Changes should therefore only
be made when the mycelium has completely grown through the
substrate. It is actually the less favourable condition for vegetative
growth that will stimulate the mycelium to fruit.
Two examples to induce fruiting in different mushrooms:
• Some oyster mushrooms (for example Pleurotus ostreatus
strains) will fruit reliably when, after mycelial growth, they
experience a cold shock (a difference of 5 °C to 10 °C). The
CO2 concentration has to be lowered as well. Mycelial
growth can take place in the dark, but light is essential for
fruiting.
• Fully-grown shiitake (Lentinula edodes) mycelium in
substrate bags are soaked in water for one or two days and
receive a physical shock to stimulate fruiting. The shock will
remove captured CO2.
Small primordia (initial fruiting bodies) will be formed at the
beginning of the reproductive phase. Under the right conditions,
these primordia will develop into fruiting bodies. Nutrients are
transported from the mycelium to the fruiting bodies by a steady
moisture flow. Water has to evaporate on the surface of the
mushrooms in order to allow the flow to continue. This explains
why spraying water on maturing mushrooms or a too high relative
humidity of the air can spoil the crop.

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6.5. MUSHROOM GROWING AREA

Certain factors should be kept in mind when selecting a site for a

mushroom farm:
• distance to the market
• availability of good quality substrate material
• transportation of both product and substrate material
• ready availability of clean water

6.5.1. FLOORS

On a low investment level, mushroom houses are just built on

arable land. On a higher investment level, cemented floors are
used. Slightly inclined cemented floors provide a smooth surface
that can easily be cleaned and allow excess water to drain. A
screened basket could be used to collect the coarse debris from the
drained water. The drainage system of the different rooms should
not be connected to prevent a disease in one growing room from
easily spreading to other rooms. The floors should also be smooth
to facilitate handling and transport of materials.

6.5.2. DOORS,WINDOWS AND OTHER OPENINGS

Doors and walls should close properly to prevent insects from

entering the growing rooms. A double door, with a wire mesh for
the second entrance, can help to keep insects out. The same rules
apply for windows. The openings through which air is either blown
in or out of the rooms should have at least a simple filter or cloth
as barrier. The smell of mushroom mycelium is very attractive to
mushroom flies.

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6.5.3. AREA HYGIENE

Hygiene is vital on a mushroom farm. Since chemical control of

pests and diseases is not possible in small-scale mushroom
cultivation, the only preventive measure is hygiene, and to some
extent disinfection. This goes for a spawn production unit, the site
for substrate production, the incubation rooms and production
units. Therefore checking a suitable site for a mushroom farm is
very important. The surroundings of a farm should be clean and
free from possible contamination from insects, moulds etc. This
means that building a new farm close to other mushroom farms
should be avoided. Insects and diseases from these farms could
easily spread to the new farm.If possible separate the various units
of the new farm. The spawn laboratory should be separate from the
growing site. The growing rooms ought to be separated by (plastic)
walls to keep the different stages of cultivation apart. As a matter
of fact no incubation or spawn running should take place in the
same room where the mushrooms are harvested. Debris,
contaminated bags and spent substrate must be removed
immediately from the rooms and from the farm itself, preferably to
a place far away.All these measures are necessary to avoid pests
such as flies and other insects as well as diseases spreading from
these waste dumps. If the spent substrate is to be used for
gardening soil, it should be used as soon as possible.

7. TYPES OF MUSHROOMS

Mushrooms are of invaluable help to any one capable of benefiting

from their biological properties. The benefit is derived by
mushroom collector/cultivator either by fetching money through
sale in the market or reducing the protein bill of home. There are
various types of mushroom cultivated.
• There are 200 species of edible mushrooms. Out of these only 40
are economical and only 8 are experimentally grown.

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• Chinese were first to cultivate black ear mushroom (Auricularia)
about 1000 years ago.
• Shiitake (Lentinus edodes), Paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella
volvacea), Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sojarcaju) and white
button mushroom (Agaricus bisporous) are commercially
cultivated mushrooms.
• Morels (Morchella), a very costly mushrooms belong to
Ascomycotina are collected from Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar
Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh and exported to other countries.
• Mushrooms grow either symbiotically or saprophytically. They
vary in shape, size and colour.
• Some mushrooms are mild to deadly poisonous. Poisonous
mushrooms are called as toad –stools. Poisonous mushrooms cause
ill health and some times even death.
• Deadly poisonous mushrooms belong to genus Amanita.
Amanita muscaria (Fly Agaric),Amanita virosa (Destroying angel),
and Amanita phalloides (Death cap).
• These have endotoxins such as Phallotoxins and Amatoxins.

7.1. AMONG THE CULTIVATED TYPES

1. Agaricus bisporus (Button Mushroom)-

Agaricus bisporus is one of the most common cultivated
mushrooms. It grows at a temperature of 14-18°c. Its cultivation
is more popular in temperate areas of the world. In India, this
mushroom is grown on hills all the year round and in Northen
plains during winter under seasonal growing conditions. It grows
on compost prepared from wheat paddy straw.

2. Pleurotus spp. (Oyster Mushroom )-

The cultivation technology of this type of mushroom is different
from button mushroom. In case of Oyster mushroom cultivation,
there is no need of composting of substrate. It grows directly on
various agrowaste by making them free from germs with the help

19
of physical / chemical treatments. Different types of cultivation
systems are existing at different places such as: bag
cultivation system, cylindrical block system, pressed block
system etc.

3. Calocybe indica (Milky white Mushroom ) -

Calocybe indica was reported for the first time from India in 1974.
It grows in nature on humus soil under the road side trees or in
forests. Its artificial cultivation technique has been perfected and
has been adopted by farmers in Tamil Nadu and Karnatka. It can
be cultivated on wheat/paddy straw at temperature around 35°c.

4. Lentinula edodes (Shittake Mushroom ) -

This is a medicinal mushroom being cultivated at large scale in
the country like Japan, China etc.

5. Auricularia spp. (Black ear mushroom) -

The black ear mushroom can be grown on wheat or paddy straw.
Fruiting of this mushroom occurs at 25°c and 85-95% RH.
Average yield of this mushroom is 800-1200g fresh mushroom per
kg of dry straw.

6. Volvariella spp. (Paddy straw mushroom) -

Paddy straw mushroom grows best on paddy straw. It requires a
temperature of 30-35°c and 85-95% RH for fruiting. The surface
of its cap is soft and smooth in texture. The colour of fully
grown pileus is grayish white with a reddish tinge.

7.2. AMONG THE WILD TYPES

1. Morchella spp.-
This is the most prized mushroom which is presently collected
from the wild in high hills of J&K, H.P. and Uttaranchal and sold
in the market on premium price. Most of it is exported to European

20
countries. Extensive research is going on to domesticate this
mushroom.

2. Boletus –
It has central stipe with fleshy cap whose lower surface is
composed of a vast number of pores and fine tubules & is found
in the woods. Some of these can reach a diameter of 2 ft &
weigh 3 kg and have impressive colour and texture. Most of the
Boletus spp. are edible.

3. Cantrarellus -
A very popular edible fungus which forms a funnel shaped fruit
body with distinct wrinkles or ridges on the under surface. It lacks
true gill and is found in damp, mossy woodlands, either in pine or
deciduous.

4. Tuber -
These are found in deciduous woods and have a distinctive
aromatic smell and have good commercial value.
The size may vary from the size of a walnut to that of a potato.
Most of them are edible.

8. USES OF MUSHROOM

• They have low carbohydrate and fat content. Hence

recommended as food for diabetics and persons with high
cholesterol.
• They have high protein content (19 – 35%) than conventional
protein foods.
• They are rich in amino acids such as Tryptophan and Lysine
required by adult human beings.
• They are rich in vitamins like Pantothenic acid, Vitamin B12 and
Ascorbic acid.
• A. bisporous contains high amounts of Potassium, Phosphorous,
Copper and iron but calcium percentage is very low.

21
• These are used to prevent heart attacks, diabetes, cancer and
tumours. They have substances that can cure infectious viral,
bacterial, fungal, and protozoan diseases. They are known to
decrease blood cholesterol.
• They are used in dyeing, decoration, luminosity and
hallucination.
• Mushrooms like Armillaria mellea and Fome anosus emit light
and hence used in mines for light.
• By degrading the plant organic wastes in the forests, mushrooms
act as agents to provide nutrition to forest plants.
• The spent compost is a good organic manure and better substrate
for biogass production.

9. MUSHROOM CULTIVATION IN INDIA

• These are grown in various agri-wastes and compost.

• The most commonly cultivated mushrooms in India are White
button mushroom (Agaricus bisporous), Oyster mushroom
(Pleurotus sojar-caju) and Paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella
volvacea).

10. MUSHROOM NUTRITIONAL & MEDICINAL

PROPERTIES

Edible mushrooms provide high quality of protein that can be

produced with greater biological efficiency than animal protein.
They are rich in fiber, minerals and vitamins, and have low crude
fat content, with a high proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(72 to 85 %) relative to total Content of fatty acids. These
properties are major contributing factors to the traditional
recognition of mushrooms as “healthy” foods.
A large number of mushroom species are not only edible and
nutritious but also possess tonic and medicinal qualities. However,

22
some mushrooms are lethally poisonous, and one should eat
mushrooms only if one knows their names and their properties
with considerable precision. In the present era, high-pressure work
demands are causing greater stress to the human body, and
resulting in the weakening of the human immune system. A variety
of proprietary products based on mushroom nutriceuticals and
mushroom pharmaceuticals have already been produced and
marketed. This trend is expected to increase with wider consumer
satisfaction and acceptability.

10.1. Nutritional Value of Mushrooms

The moisture content of fresh mushrooms varies within the range

of 70 - 95% depending upon the harvest time and environmental
conditions, whereas it is about 10 - 13% in dried mushrooms. The
protein content of the cultivated species ranges from 1.75 to 5.9 %
of their fresh weight. It has been estimated that an average
value of 3.5 to 4.0 % would be more representative. This
means that the protein content of edible mushrooms is about twice
that of onion (1.4 %) and cabbage (1.4%), and four times and 12
times those of oranges (1.0 %) and apples (0.3 %), respectively.
On a dry weight basis, mushrooms normally contain 19 -35 %
protein, as compared to 7.3 % in rice, 12.7 % in wheat. Mushroom
protein contains all the nine essential amino acids required by man.
Mushrooms are a relatively good source of the following
individual nutrients: fat, phosphorus, iron, and vitamins including
thiamine, riboflavin, ascorbic Acid, registering and niacin. They
are low in calories, carbohydrates and calcium. It has also been
reported that a total lipid content varying between 0.6 and 3.1 % of
the dry weight, is found in the commonly cultivated mushrooms.
The mushrooms increasingly absorbed selenium according to
the amount in the compost, so that it is possible to grow
mushrooms containing a desired concentration. Selenium is an
essential micronutrient that has generated much recent interest in
nutritional and medical research within the food industry.

23
Mushrooms have some unique color, taste, aroma and texture
characteristics, which attract their consumption by humans.

10.2. Medicinal Properties of Mushrooms

Mushrooms produce several biologically active compounds that

are usually associated with the cell wall contribute to their
immune enhancing and tumor retarding effects.Anti-tumour and
anti-cancer effects of the polysaccharides are based on the
enhancement of the body’s immune systems, including activated
macrophages, natural killer cells, cytotoxic T cells, and their
secretory products, such as the tumour necrosis factor, reactive
nitrogen and oxygen intermediates, and interleukins, rather than
direct cytocidal effects Another group of medicinal compounds
found in Ganoderma spp. are triterpenoids, steroid-like
compounds, which contribute cytotoxic, hepatoprotective, and
hypolipidmic influence on platelet aggregation, inhibition of
angiotensine-converting enzyme, and inhibition of histamine
release. Lectins, another group of mushroom bioactive 31
compounds, are proteins or glycoproteins with specific binding
sites for sugars, which are not antibodies or enzymes. Some
lectins have been shown to have anti-tumour and
immunomodulatory activities lectins may be used to inhibit the
growth of malignant cells.

11. MUSHROOM PRODUCTION

Mushroom farming is being practiced in more that 100 countries

and its production is increasing at the rate of 7 per cent per annum.
Production of mushroom has already crossed 5 million metric tons
annually in the world and is expected to reach around 7 million
metric ton in next ten years. India had been known world over for
its exotic mushrooms. Total mushroom production in India was
48,000.00 tones in 2005. Punjab alone produces 20-25 per cent
mushrooms out of the total production in India.There are around

24
38,000 mushroom varieties known to exist but only 100 of these
are considered to be edible. The variety which had been exported
in dried form i.e. Moral or Black mushrooms (Morchella Spp)
commonly known as ‘Guchhi’ is collected as wild growth from
coniferous forests of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and
Uttar Pradesh. Most acceptable varieties among cultivated type are
Agaricus Bisporus., Auricularia spp., Flemulina Velutipes.,
Lentinus edodes., Tramella spp., Volvariella spp., Plerotus spp.
The Food and Agriculture Organization have recognized
mushrooms as food contributing protein nutrition to the countries
depending largely on cereals. In addition folic acid and vitamin
B12, which are absent in most of the vegetables, are also present in
mushrooms. Mushrooms are praised and priced for its
characteristic meaty biting texture and flavour. Mushroom
cultivation is now a big industry in the industrialized countries of
the west. There is a very considerable export potential for
mushrooms and climatic conditions in various states offer
congenial environment for cultivation, if modern technology is
adopted. It is also realized that merely producing mushroom is of
no use unless these are properly preserved, keeping in view the
export objectives and for internal market. Mushroom production
has increased many folds during the recent past. Mushrooms have
found a definite place in the food consumption habits of common
masses and there is a constant demand for it throughout the year.
Freshly harvested mushrooms are highly perishable because of
high moisture content, metabolism and susceptibility to enzymatic
browning. Its quality starts declining soon after harvesting,
rendering the produce unsaleable.Hence, the development of
appropriate storage and processing technology in order to extend
their marketability and availability to the consumers in fresh or
processed form is of great significance. Drying, canning and
freezing are initially accepted methods of mushroom
preservation. Drying being cheaper can be employed on
commercial scale. Food processing in India is not only far behind
the developed countries of the world but is much less than

25
developing countries like Philippines and China where value
addition is 45 per cent and 23 per cent, respectively as compared
with 7 per cent in India. Linked with the issue of fostering
relationship between processor and farmer is the need to develop
varieties that are suitable for processing. The food-processing
sector has tremendous potential to promote direct and indirect
employment.

12. CULTIVATION OF OYSTER MUSHROOM

12.1. MATERIAL USED

1. Wheat Straw
2. Wheat Straw + Calcium Carbonate
3. Wheat Straw + Wheat Bran + Calcium Carbonate
4. Sugarcane Bagasses
5. Sunflower Stalks
6. Rice straw

26
12.2. SPAWN

Oyster mushrooms are grown from mycelium(threadlike filaments

that become interwoven)propagated on a base of steam-sterilized
cereal grain (usually rye or millet). This cereal grain/mycelium
mixture is called spawn and is used to seed mushroom substrate.
Most spawn is made with mycelium from a stored culture, rather
than mycelium whose parent was a spore. This is because spores
are likely to yield a new strain and performance would be
unpredictable. Spawn-making is a rather complex task and not
feasible for the common mushroom grower. Spawn of various
oyster mushroom species may be purchased from commercial
spawn makers who usually provide instructions for its use. Spawn
frequently is shipped from the manufacturer to growers in the same
aseptic containers used for spawn production. Inoculum for spawn
production is frequently produced in polyethylene bags containing
a microporous breather strip for gas exchange. Most commercial
spawn production companies produce spawn only from inoculum
that has met strict quality control standards. These standards
include verification of inoculum production performance before it
is used to produce spawn and insurance of the spawn’s biological
purity and vigor.

12.3. CULTURE MAINTENANCE

Before 1970, cultivars used for commercial spawn production were

maintained on various agars or cereal grains with periodic
subculturing of growing mycelium to a fresh medium. This
method, for the most part, was reliable, although spawn makers
and researchers reported cases of culture degeneration periodically.
In 1970, researchers successfully preserved and maintained
stability of spawn stocks stored in liquid nitrogen. Several research
reports on culture maintenance verified the suitability of cryogenic
preservation, fundamentally changing the way spawn makers
handled their cultures used for commercial spawn production. In

27
practice, cryogenic preservation is used to ensure use of superior
spawn-starter cultures. Many vials (perhaps as many as 200 to 300)
containing spawn or mycelium from cultures of promising spawn
lines are stored in liquid nitrogen. Following successful testing of
the spawn lines at both pilot plant and commercial testing
facilities, the spawnmaker can easily reproduce the superior lines
many times during subsequent years.

12.4. SUBSTRATE

The material on which the mycelium of the mushrooms grows is

called substrate. Agricultural waste likes wood chips/sawdust,
sugar cane bagasse and different types of straw can be used as the
main ingredients in the substrate for oyster mushrooms. The
properties of a substrate determine which mushrooms and
microbes can grow in it. The more selective it is, the better the
substrate meets the demands of a specific mushroom and the less
suitable it is for others. After mixing and adding certain
supplements, the substrate undergoes a heat treatment to give the
desired mushroom mycelium an environment with few
competitors.

12.4.1. PREPARATION OF SUBSTRATE

Oil drums and plastic bags are all you need to prepare the
substrate. A cemented floor is the preferred underground for
mixing and moistening the sawdust (or straw) and a fork for
mixing the ingredients.

Substrate preparation equipment:

• substrate mixer (optional); the mixing of the substrate
ingredients can be performed just as well manually
• a steam source or heating equipment like an oil drum

28
For the substrate:
• Raw substrate materials, like sawdust, rice bran, wheat straw,
dried banana leaves, dried elephant grass, dried grass pieces
etc.
• substrate containers (plastic bags or bottles)
• depending on the type of bags/bottles: additional plugs and
plastic rings and/or rubber bands

12.5. MIXING OF SUBSTRATE

The aim of mixing is to distribute the different ingredients,

including Water. If adding a small quantity of one component like
chalk, then it is better to mix it first with some of the substrate and
only then add it to the large heap. Otherwise its distribution will
probably remain non-uniform. Moreover, lumps might occur and
the very high concentration of nutrients at these spots will result in
contamination. Mixing is also very important for the moisture
distribution. The correct amount of water should be available
everywhere in the substrate. After mixing, the moisture content
should be 60 – 65%. Sometimes a better distribution can be
achieved if the substrate ingredients are mixed in a dry state (e.g.
in “sterilized” substrates containing sawdust and supplements); the
water is then added later. A batch of up to 8 kg can be mixed by
hand on a cemented floor. Two people are capable of manually
mixing substrate per day. However, should do filling. Sterilize the
substrate as quickly as possible after mixing in the supplements.
Storage of the mixed ingredients for a period longer than 6 hours
should be avoided to prevent fermentation of the substrate.

12.5.1 SAWDUST SUBSTRATE

The sawdust (or other bulk substrate material) has to be stacked on

a Heap and moistened. By keeping the heap moist, the sawdust

29
wills soften. This will ease the absorption of water. Usually the
sawdust is stacked for only one or two days. If only fresh sawdust
is available, like sawdust from recently felled trees, it should be
stacked for a much longer period: up to several weeks. The
sawdust substrate should be free of splinters or bigger pieces of
wood. These may damage the bags, offering contaminants easy
access after sterilisation. On the other hand, several growers feel
that a combination of fine and coarser sawdust or wood chippings
provides the best starting material. Very fine sawdust should be
avoided as it clogs the airflow when moistened.

12.5.2. STRAW SUBSTRATE

Moisten the finely chopped substrate ingredients and apply the

squeeze test to determine whether the substrate is moist enough.

12.6. FILLING THE BAGS

Fill small substrate containers (usually plastic bags) with the

substrate before sterilising.

30
12.6.1. HEAT TREATMENT

The aim of the heat treatment is to kill competing microorganisms

and to get rid of soluble nutrients. Most substrates are given a heat
treatment before spawning. It is an important measure to control
pests and diseases.
Three methods are deal with:
• pasteurisation by immersion in hot water
• pasteurisation by steam
• sterilization

12.6.1.1. IMMERSION IN HOT WATER

This method is a form of pasteurisation. The hot water will kill

contaminants. Different types of straw can be treated in this way
for the cultivation of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus).The method is
very easy: only hot water, containers and the means to keep the
water hot are required.

31
Materials and equipment required:
• Substrate material.
• Substrate containers (e.g. plastic bags or trays).
• Containers for hot water and means to keep the water hot
(fuel, solar energy, steam, etc.).
• wire mesh to let the substrate drain.

The substrate is put in wire mesh cylinders in hot water. The water
has to be kept at 70 °C for at least 15 minutes, but 30-60 minutes is
safer. Immersion in water at lower temperatures and for periods
shorter than 15 minutes is insufficient to kill all contaminants.
The size of the water containers depends on the scale of the
operation. A 40-litre container can hold about 8 kg of wet straw
substrate. The same container can be used 2-3 times a day, because
the actual immersion time is only about 30 minutes to one hour.
The same batch of water should not be used for more than two or
three batches of substrate.

Draining and cooling

Drain the heat-treated substrate and let it cool on a clean plastic

sheet on a table or on the floor inside the farm.

32
12.6.1.2. BULK PASTEURISATION BY STEAM

This method kills the unwanted organisms but keeps the favorable
ones alive. To achieve this, a temperature of 60 ºC to 70ºC has to
be sustained for at least 8 hours; after which most pests and
diseases (contaminants) will be eliminated.

Materials and equipment required:

• substrate material
• substrate containers (e.g. plastic bags)
• oil drum and burner
Put a rack in the oil drum, with a fine mesh wire to prevent straw
from falling through. Fill water below the rack to a height of 20
cm. Then add the moistened straw on top. Steam the straw for at
least 8 hours. Take care that the straw has cooled down to 30 C
before spawning. Allow the steam to escape through small
openings to prevent explosion of the drum.

12.6.1.3. STERILIZATION

This method too is used to kill unwanted organisms but here the
temperature is much higher and there is overpressure in the
container or oil drum. When simple equipment is used the reached
temperatures will not be higher than 90°C and the pressure in the
container cannot build up very high. Good results, however, have
been obtained by prolonged heating at this temperature when the
substrate should be sterile. To avoid an explosion, make sure that
tightly closed drums or containers have a safety valve in the lid.

Materials and equipment required:

• substrate material (see formulas 1-3 in appendix 2)
• substrate containers (e.g. plastic bags)
• Oil drum (re-enforced), or metal container.

33
 Make sure that materials used are able to withstand the
temperatures. At higher altitudes, water will cook below 100°C. In
that case also, the period of heating should be prolonged.

12.7. SPAWNING SUBSTRATE

12.7.1. SPAWNING PASTEURIZED SUBSTRATE

The substrate should have cooled down (whether pasteurized by

steam or by immersion in hot water) to 30 C. The spawn (3% to
8% of the weight of the substrate) can be mixed in with when
filling the bags. Or a layer of substrate can be topped with some
spawn, layer by layer. Different types of bags can be used to hold
the substrate. Fill to 5 kg per bag: spontaneous fermentation would
raise the temperature inside the bags to more than 30 °C, the upper
limit for mycelial growth of most oyster mushroom species. Make
holes in the bags to ensure that enough oxygen can reach the
substrate.
One type of bag used in China is made of cylindrical plastic, 20 cm
in diameter, filled up to a height of 50cm, with a perforated pipe in
the middle, right down to the bottom of the bag. The mouth of the
bag is tied around the pipe and aeration proceeds through the pipe.
The aeration pipe will also allow heat to dissipate, even if it is
formed in the core of the substrate. Spawn run: It will take the
mycelium 20 days at 25 °C to colonies the substrate. The plastic
and aeration channel can be removed entirely if a very humid
environment can be created, for example in a shed. Alternatively,
the plastic can remain around the substrate, in which case cuts have
to be made in the plastic to enable the mushrooms to grow out.

34
12.7.2. SPAWNING STERILIZED BAGS

The substrate should be spawned as soon as it has cooled below 30

°C. Relatively large amounts of spawn are used: 7 to 10%.
Spawning is performed by lifting the plugs from the bags
containing the substrate (thus opening the bags) and putting in a
small amount of spawn. This is the moment at which
contamination is most likely to occur. So ensure that the time the
bags are open is as short as possible. During the process of
spawning the following measures need to be taken to control
contamination of the substrate:
• Put on clean clothes.
• Put the hot bags in a special room with UV lights. Let the bags
cool down without ventilation, or ventilate with filtered air.
• Do the spawning on the following day (do not forget to turn off
the UV light).
• Hold both substrate and spawn containers in a horizontal
position to prevent spores falling in.
• Use a flame near the mouths of the bottles of spawn and plastic
Bags to keep the environment more or less sterile.

35
• Spawning should take place at night when there is less
contamination in the air.
• Clean with chemicals: formalin or alcohol.

Be careful not to come into contact with these chemicals. The use
of chemicals can affect both health and environment; health
measures should be considered first. Misting with H2O2 is an
environment-friendly way to obtain a clean room for spawning, as
its end products are oxygen and water.

36
12.8. SPAWN RUN

During spawn run stage the mycelium will grow through the
substrate. The spawn run time is different for each species and
depends on the size of the bag, amount of spawn, the strain used
and the temperature. Once the bags are spawned they should be
placed on shelves in the incubation rooms. Depending on the strain
and temperature the mycelium will colonies the substrate in two or
three weeks and start to form small fruiting bodies. As a
consequence either the conditions in the growing room will have to
change, or the bags need to be moved from the incubation room to
the growing room. Next, remove the cotton plugs and the plastic
and ensure that high humidity is maintained: 90 to 95%. If the
relative humidity is rather low do not cut away too much plastic to
prevent the substrate from drying out. When the pinheads have

37
grown to a size of 1 cm, the humidity should be lowered somewhat
to 85% by passing fresh air through the room.

12.9. FRUITING/CROPPING

Several techniques are used for filling the mushroom house and
making the bags ready for fruiting. A common practice is to make
bamboo or wooden frames and stack the bags on them to form a
wall of plastic bags.

38
12.9.1. OPENING BAGS

Open the bags as soon as the mycelium has covered the substrate
completely. Remove the cotton plugs and cut away the plastic top
of the bag (partially). Take care not to cut too deep or else you
would damage the mycelium. If you want to get small mushrooms,
a larger surface should be exposed to the open air. This will result

39
in the substrate drying more rapidly. It takes three to four days
after opening the bags before the primordial buttons/mushrooms
will form.

40
12.9.2. HANGING THE BAGS

Another method is to slash each bag and hang them from the
ceiling.

12.10. FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS

41
1. Temperature -
The ambient temperature has to fit the chosen mushroom strain. If
the temperature in the mushroom house is too high for the chosen
strain, it will be necessary to frequently mist the house. Opening
the doors and windows at night will also help keep the temperature
down.

2. Aeration/Ventilation -
The mushroom house needs ventilation openings that may also
provide light.

3. Light -
Oyster mushrooms are very sensitive to insufficient aeration and
light. Required light (color and intensity) depends on the strains.
Some growers adhere to the rule of thumb that light should be
sufficient to read newspaper everywhere in the growing room.
When the small mushrooms emerge, their form will reveal whether
they get sufficient light and aeration. If the stems are long and the
caps small, the aeration and light requirements were not met. In the
complete absence of light, oyster mushrooms will form no cap but
stapes (mushroom stalks) forming a coral-like structure.

4. Humidity -
Good control of the humidity during cropping is very important for
all types of mushroom. Keep the humidity high (80 - 90%) by
spraying water several times per day. However, no water should
be sprayed directly onto mushrooms that are ready for picking.
Their shelf life will decrease drastically if they become too wet.

12.11. HARVESTING

42
The mushrooms are ready for harvesting in five days (if the
temperature is between 15 and 20 °C) or two to three days (at
higher temperatures). It will take another five to nine days for the
second flush. There is so much variability among strains and
substrates used that it is difficult to give periods for fruiting.
Typically, it will take about one week before new primordia are
formed, but much depends on the local climate conditions and the
climate control in the growing rooms. Harvesting is performed by
gently pulling or twisting the mushrooms from the substrate. Only
very little substrate should be pulled out.

12.11.1. RUBBING INSTEAD OF SCRAPING

Some growers in the Philippines scrape off some of the substrate to

free it from small, undeveloped primordia. These would easily
become infected and have to be removed, but scraping the
substrate will also retard the formation of new primordia. Rubbing
the surface of the sawdust bags is a better method to remove the
small and already dead fruiting bodies without causing harm to the

43
mycelium. Harvesting can continue as long as the mycelium
remains white and firm. In total, three or four flushes can be
harvested. When the substrate becomes soft and colourless, it is
time to remove it from the house. Do not throw the spent substrate
near the mushroom houses. All waste should be removed from the
working areas immediately. Pests and diseases present in the used
substrate can too easily spread to the fresh substrate. Mushroom
yields vary according to biological factors, environmental
conditions, as well as pests and diseases present during cultivation.
The yield from commercial production is about 20% of the weight
of the wet substrate of fresh oyster mushrooms.

44
 13. RESULTS

P.djamor were grown over three crop residues-Wheat Straw,

Sugarcane Bagasses, Sunflower Stalks in spring season of
January, Febuary, March.

WHEAT STRAW SUGARCANE BAGASSES SUNFLOWER STALKS

Morphology JAN FEB MARCH JAN FEB MARCH JAN FEB MARCH
Variation

Temperture 10-16 17-31 30-36 10-16 17-31 30-36 10-16 17-31 30-36

Spawn Run 8 9 10 11 12 14 13 9 11

Pinhead 13 17 20 15 20 22 24 13 21
Appearance

Stipe Length 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.2 1.4 1.5

Cap Diameter 4.2 4.2 4 4 4.1 4.1 3 4.2 4.2

45
14. COMMON PROBLEMS FACED BY OYSTER
MUSHROOM GROWERS

14.1. Pests

1. Bacteria-
The most common bacterial problem encountered by growers is
Pseudomonas tolaasii. This is the same bacterium that causes
bacterial blotch of A.bisporus. Symptoms of the disease include
reduced yield and orange discoloration and brittleness of the
basidiocarps. Infected mushrooms have a reduced shelf life.
Constant and high RH, insufficient air movement, overheating of
the substrate (above 35oC), excessive moisture content, and
especially a wet mushroom surface may exacerbate P. tolaasii
infection. Lowering RH to 80 to 85 percent, and sprinkling the
surface of the bags between flushes with 0.2 percent bleach
solution may help maintain control.

2. Fungi-
Most fungi encountered in oyster mushroom production grow and
develop on the substrate and are very rarely parasitic. The most
frequently encountered genera include Aspergillus, Botrytis,
Coprinus, Fusarium, Monilia, Mucor, Penicillium, Trichoderma,
and Trichothecium. Substrates that have only been pasteurized are
more susceptible to infestation than substrates that have been
pasteurized and conditioned. Fungal infestation may be more of a
problem when substrates are supplemented with nitrogen-rich
nutrients—especially if the supplements are not commercial
delayed-release nutrients. Infesting fungi may also be more of a
problem when substrate temperatures rise above 35oC. Higher
substrate temperatures may injure mushroom spawn, reduce
mycelial growth rates and leave the substrate vulnerable to
competitors such as Coprinus spp. (ink caps) and Trichoderma spp.

46
(green mold).Fungi of the genera Cladobotryum and Verticillium
known to cause disease of A. bisporus are rarely encountered in
Pleurotus spp. cultivation. These fungi, when they are encountered
in oyster mushroom production, may be found mainly on aged
basidiocarp and stipe residues.Insects infesting mushroom tissues
cause the greatest losses for growers, particularly during summer
months. The most important insect pests associated with oyster
mushroom tissue include Cecidomyiidae (Mycophila speyeri),
Scatopsidae,Sciaridae (Lycoriella solani), and Phoridae (Megaselia
halterata, M. nigra). Oyster mushroom primordia are very sensitive
to chemical vapors, so using pesticide to control insects is difficult.
Large clusters of deformed oyster mushroom tissue resembling
“cauliflower” have been observed after insecticides were applied
during primordial formation. Use of various flytraps and adherence
to strict hygiene practices, particularly during spawning and spawn
run, help keep fly populations below economic threshold levels. In
the United States,Bacillus thuringiensis var. israeliensis (Bti),
when incorporated into the substrate at spawning, has shown
excellent effectiveness against sciarid flies.

14.2. Deformed Fruit Bodies

Deformed mushrooms may result from several causes, many of

them still unknown. However, most deformed mushrooms may be
traced to insufficient ventilation, smoke, chemical
vapors,overheated substrate during spawn run, extreme low
fruiting temperature (below 10 C), and insufficient light.

14.3. Airborne Spores

1. Spore production-
A single mushroom may produce up to 4 million spores per hour.
Worker exposure to airborne spores is a concern on most farms.
Inhaled spores can cause an allergic reaction in some workers. In
the United States, masks are worn to filter out spores released from

47
the maturing mushrooms. Exposure can be minimized by
introducing higher volumes of fresh air 1 to 2 hours before
harvesting and by wearing a proper mask.

15. SIGNIFICANCE OF MUSHROOM

CULTIVATION

1. Wastes such as cereal straws are largely burnt by the farmers,

which causes air pollution. However, these raw materials can
actually be used for the cultivation of mushrooms. This kind of
bioconversion exercise can greatly reduce environmental pollution.

2. Mushroom cultivation can be a labour intensive activity.

Therefore, it will serve as means of generating employment,
particularly for rural women and youths in order to raise their
social status. It will also provide additional work for the
farmers during winter months when the farming schedule is light.

3. It will provide the people with an additional vegetable of high

quality, and enrich the diet with high quality proteins, minerals and
vitamins which can be of direct benefit to the human health and
fitness. The extractable bioactive compounds from medicinal
mushrooms would enhance human’s immune systems and
improve their quality of life.

4. Mushroom cultivation is a cash crop. The harvested fruiting

bodies can be sold in local markets for additional family
income or exported for an important source of foreign
exchange that will definitely improve the economic standards of
the people.

5. Some warm mushrooms, e.g. Volvariella volvacea (Straw

mushrooms) and Pleurotus sajor-caju (Oyster mushrooms) are
relatively fast growing organisms and can be harvested in 3 to

48
4 weeks after spawning. It is a short return agricultural business
and can be of immediate benefit to the community.

16. REFERNCES

-Manikandan, K. and Subramaniyan,V. 2010. Integrated Nutrient

Manage- ment for sustainable groundnut cultivation in the soil.
Asian J. Soil Sci., 5 (1) : 134-137.
-Wakchaure, G.C., Shirur, M., Manikandan, K. and Rana, L. 2010.
Development and evaluation of oyster mushroom value added
products. Mush. Res., 19 (1): 40-44.
-http://journeytoforever.org/farm_library/AD40.pdf
- Manikandan, K. 2010. Nutritional and Medicinal values of
Mushrooms. In: Compendium on Mushroom Cultivation
Technology, Directorate of Mushroom Research, Solan (HP),
India.
-Aneja K.R. (2004), Experiment in Microbiology Plant Pathology
& Biotechnology, 4th edition, Published by New Age International
(P) Ltd
-Bhatti K. (2008),Dinesh Cmpanion Biology, Class XI, 20th ed.
Published by S.P. Jain (B.E)
-Jha M.N. and Dayaram (2006). Mushrooming of Mushrooms,
RAU, Pusa. Published by FBS&H & National Horticulture Board,
New Delhi
-Khan, A.R. (2007). Recent advances in horticulture based
farming system for development of watershed. Proceedings of
Winter School Training Course, HARP, Ranchi; Nov 28th –Dec.
18, 2007.
-Khan, A.R., Singh, S.S., Kumar, U., Kumar, S., Sharma, J.P.
and (2008). Production Technology for Mushroom Cultivation..
I.C.A.R. Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna
Extension Bulletin: E-92/Patna -51.
-Rai, M. (2007). Vision – 2005: NRCM Perspective Plan. ICAR,
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