3/25/2021 Troubleshooting - Part II

Elliott Sound Products Troubleshooting - Part II

Fault Finding Opamp Based Small Signal Audio Circuits
© 2006, Rod Elliott (ESP)
Page Updated 13 Jan 2007

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Contents

Troubleshooting - Part 1 (Power Amps)

Introduction
1.0 - Initial Tests
2.0 - Circuit Tests
2.1 - Signal Tracing
3.0 - Shorted Rails
4.0 - Main Points
5.0 - Replacing Parts
Conclusion

Introduction

Provided that your preamp (etc.) was once working, troubleshooting is usually fairly
simple. If it has just been built and doesn't work, then you have made a mistake
somewhere. All ESP circuits are known to work, and those that have a PCB have
some history - many people before you will have built one, and I test each new board
to make sure there are no mistakes. Although I use the term 'preamp' in this article,
the device could be a mixer, crossover, subsonic filter, or any other linear (audio
processing) circuit. Some other circuits are not linear, so many of the points will not
apply. This article does not cover non-linear circuits!

As with power amps, nearly all faults from new are the result of a wiring mistake.
Transistors, diodes or opamps may have been inserted backwards, or there will be one
or more dry solder joints or solder bridges. Other common problems include incorrect
resistor and/or capacitor values in one or more locations.

Another very common problem is failure to connect the power supply earth (ground).
There are normally three connections from the power supply to the preamp, crossover
or other line level circuit. A few may use a single supply, in which case there are two
connections - +ve supply and earth.

For testing, you need a multimeter at the very least. An oscilloscope is very useful if
you have one, and you must also have a signal source. The latter can be a CD player,
FM radio, pink noise generator or an audio oscillator. You usually cannot find a fault
with no signal source, because you have no way to trace the signal through the circuit.
A signal tracer (described below) is a good alternative to an oscilloscope.

Make sure you also read Troubleshooting - Part 1 (Power Amps), as this also has
some information that is relevant to preamp circuits. This is especially true when
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describing noises - to obtain assistance from anyone, you must know how to describe
a noise correctly. Sounds silly really, but people tend to get very annoyed when they
answer a bunch of questions based on the description of a noise, only to find that the
description was wrong.

As a matter of course, I recommend that you use an oscilloscope for fault finding.
Software that uses the PC sound card are usable, but only just. There are many
external oscilloscope interfaces, but in the long term, there is no substitute for the real
thing. I've used oscilloscopes since I first started in electronics, and there is no better
way to troubleshoot problems in anything - power supplies, preamps, power amps,
etc. They aren't expensive, and the extra capabilities they give you are worth the cost
many times over.

1.0 - Initial Tests

The first test - always - is to check the supply voltages. First, measure the output
voltage from the output pins on the power supply itself. Assuming a dual supply, the
two should be equal, and will typically be ±15V for most ESP projects. The exact
voltage doesn't matter - even a volt or so difference between the supplies is usually
perfectly alright.

For any supply that has adjustment pots, set the outputs to the recommended voltage.
Most regulators are fixed, and cannot be adjusted. If one supply is radically different
from the other, you must repair the power supply before continuing. Some power
supplies (such as that used for the P27B guitar preamp) use zener diodes and power
resistors from the main supply. This still needs to be tested - dry solder joints or faulty
zeners can still bring you undone.

Once the power supply is verified as being correct, you may now continue to the circuit
that you need to check. Failure to test the supply first is very common, and can result
in great frustration - especially if it turns out that the supply was at fault from the
beginning.

2.0 - Circuit Tests

Connect the black meter probe to a suitable earth point on the PCB (an input, output or
supply ground pin can be used). Check the positive and negative supplies - they
should be close to +/-15V (or whatever the power supply is meant to provide). If the
supply ground isn't connected, you may find that the supplies are not equal. You could
even get a situation where the positive supply (for example) is only 2 volts, and the
negative supply measures 28V. This is a sure sign that you have a disconnected
supply ground, or the supply itself is faulty. Check the supply (again). If it measures
the correct voltages and the preamp doesn't, then the ground is missing or broken.

Once you are sure that the supplies are correct, make sure that no opamps get hot.
Once you are satisfied that there are no power problems, an oscilloscope and audio
generator are your very best friends. Fault-finding can be done just with a meter, but is
a lot more time-consuming.

NOTE: It is assumed at this point that all initial tests were performed with safety
resistors installed between the supply and the preamp, and that circuits are powered
from ±15V supplies. If a different supply voltage is used, most points still apply, but if
the circuit uses a single supply, the reference to "earth" (or "ground" does not apply.

Next, verify that all opamp output pins are at close to zero volts. Although most circuits
will still work with even a few volts at the output pin(s), this is not normal and the cause
must be found. Any outputs that are not close to zero indicate a fault in the stage you

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are measuring, or one before. Work back from the output to the input until you find a
stage where the voltage is normal.

If an opamp is found with an abnormal output voltage, check the inputs as well.
Opamps happily amplify DC just as well as AC, so an output fault may simply be the
result of DC getting into an input. In a working linear opamp circuit, the two inputs will
show the same voltage, but a high resistance circuit can trick you very easily.

Figure 1 - Open Circuit Opamp Input

Figure 1 shows an example of the equivalent circuit of an opamp with the input resistor
not connected because of a bad solder joint. The only reference for the non-inverting
input is the leakage of the PCB itself, and the resistance will be very high - this is
shown as Rp1, Rp2 (resistance, parasitic). When you measure the output, for this
example you see 10.4V DC. You will also measure 945mV on pin 2. Next, you
measure pin 3, which should be at the same voltage as pin 2 because this is a linear
circuit.

The problem is that as soon as the meter is connected, the input now has a ground
return, and the output will settle at the normal zero volts level. But you don't see that
happen, because the meter is no longer connected to the output, so the +ve input
reads normal, but the output shows some voltage (which may vary with time). When
the lead is connected to the input pin, the input cap charges (or discharges), and that
will make the stage appear to be fine for a while. If you get this problem, it will usually
show itself as a DC voltage at the output that slowly swings positive or negative,
depending on the opamp type.

There is actually very little that can go wrong in an opamp based circuit. Opamps
usually work or they don't - intermittent states can occur, but are very uncommon. It
might be assumed that opamps can be faulty from new, and while this is certainly
possible it is extremely rare. Over the years, I have built hundreds of opamp circuits,
and in all that time I've only seen a couple of new devices faulty from the beginning.

Almost all faults with a newly built opamp based circuit will be the result of wiring
mistakes. It is easy to make mistakes using prototype board, but a great deal harder
with a PCB. However, incorrect placement of resistors or capacitors can have very
unexpected results.

2.1 - Signal Tracing

The technique of signal tracing is perfect for opamps circuits, especially where there
are several stages. The ideal signal tracer is an oscilloscope, but may hobbyists can't
justify the expense. This may not be a great as imagined though - one local
electronics supplier in Australia used to sell a basic CRO (cathode ray oscilloscope,
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aka 'scope') for less than AU$130. Similar prices should be available where you live -
it's always worth checking. The scope is such a useful tool that you'll quickly wonder
how you ever survived without one.

Assuming that an oscilloscope is not available, you need a small power amplifier with a
suitable speaker - something around a couple of Watts at the most. I don't recommend
headphones, as you may probe a point with a high signal level and risk hearing
damage.

The tracer amplifier needs lots of gain, and a gain (or volume) control is essential. It
also needs to have high input impedance so it doesn't load the circuit under test.
Nothing fancy is needed though - a high impedance buffered input followed by small
power amp IC is ideal. The following circuit is based on that shown in Project 164, so
look at the project page for more info.

Figure 2 - Signal Tracer Amplifier

A suitable circuit is shown above. This replaces the one that was shown originally, and
it's easier to build and probably cheaper. The JFET input buffer provides high input
impedance, and the LM386 amplifier IC can be used to drive a small speaker or
headphones. If you can't get the suggested JFET, most others will work, but you may
need to change the value of R3 (2k2) to obtain a sensible voltage on the source pin.
Around 4V is ideal, but anything greater than 1.5V will usually be alright.

The circuit will drive an 8 ohm speaker quite effectively. Don't imagine that the circuit
as shown is any use for low power hi-fi though - the LM386 is not a high performance
amp. Feel free to use a 'real' power amp (either discrete or integrated) if it makes you
feel any better, but you generally never need more than around 100 milliwatts.

The maximum gain is fairly high. The first stage has no gain, but the LM386 can be
switched between a gain of 20 and 200. The circuit will be noisy, will pick up hum, and
is generally fairly awful, but is perfect for the simple task of signal tracing. At maximum
gain, frequency response is fairly limited as well, but it doesn't matter. All it is for is to
allow you to trace the signal through the circuit, and you can listen to whatever you can
pick up at each point along the way.

C1 can use a lower voltage cap if the tracer will never be used with valve (tube)
amplifiers. The purpose of R1, D1 & D2 is to ensure that transient signals cannot
damage the opamp input if the tracer is connected to a high voltage point. Even if you
never work with valves, I recommend that these diodes be included. At some stage,
you may wish to listen to the power supply ripple of a power amp (for example). It you
intend to probe around valve amps, I suggest that you use an oscilloscope x10
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attenuator probe at the input. In fact, using a switchable oscilloscope probe (x1 - x10)
is ideal, and the input connector will ideally be a BNC type.

A simple sinewave oscillator can be used for the test device's input, or you can use the
output from a PC sound card, CD player, etc. If you are testing a crossover network,
you need to use either broadband noise (pink noise is ideal) or a full range music
signal. If you use a single tone, you can't hear if the filters are working properly, and if
too far from the crossover frequency, you may hear nothing at all.

To use the signal tracer, simply apply your input signal to the input(s), and trace it
through the circuit from the input (right where the signal is applied) through to the
output. When you find the point where the signal disappears, you have found the
general location of the fault. After this, you know where to concentrate your efforts.

The tracer amplifier has a lot of gain, so always start with the gain pot at minimum, and
advance it until you can hear the signal. As you progress through the circuit, the signal
will get louder (for a preamp), or you will hear the effects of the filters (for crossover
networks or equalisers). You can check that volume controls are working, and that
each active stage passes the signal.

If you do have an oscilloscope, exactly the same technique is used, except you look at
the signal rather than listen to it. Because the oscilloscope makes no noise, you don't
have to worry about a high level signal making a terrible racket either.

As an alternative to either of the above methods, you can use an AC millivoltmeter or

even your digital multimeter switched to AC. These methods don't tell you very much
though - just a voltage reading, but no indication of what the signal is like. Cheap
digital multimeters also have limited frequency range, and most don't use an input
capacitor, so whatever you measure might even be DC.

Figure 3 - Tracing a Preamp Circuit (P88)

Above, you can see the general idea with a preamp - in this case, Project 88. Although
I have shown the voltage measured at each point, you won't know the actual voltage
unless you use an oscilloscope or AC millivoltmeter. There is no reason that a
millivoltmeter and tracer amplifier can't be used at the same time. A sinewave input
signal is assumed.

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Figure 4 - Tracing a Crossover (P09)

Next, we look at a Project 09 crossover. I used a sinewave again, in this case set
exactly at the crossover frequency. The level at each point is shown, but of course you
may not see (or hear) exactly the same thing because of signal frequency etc.
Because the filters are very steep rolloff, it is usually better to use a full range signal so
that you will hear (or see) something regardless of the crossover frequency. Bear in
mind the level of the low frequency signal will still be very low if the crossover
frequency is set below 50Hz unless the material has substantial deep bass (which the
tracer amplifier's speaker will be unable to reproduce well, if at all).

If you use a sinewave test, remember that the slope of the P09 is 24dB/octave, so
even a small sinewave frequency variation will cause large variations in AC levels. You
may need to sweep the frequency above and below the crossover frequency to verify
that both sections are working properly.

3.0 - Shorted Rails

If supply voltages are not right, the fault may be with the board or the power supply.
Test the supply first! You will need to know the approximate current drawn by the
(faulty?) board under normal conditions. This information may or may not be available,
and depends on the devices on the board. Some opamps, logic chips, etc., draw much
more current than others. You can often get a rough idea from the power supply. Big
heatsinks and hefty PSU components indicate high current, but TO220 devices with a
small (or no) heatsink mean the current is fairly low (probably less than 200mA). Apply
a suitable load to the supply based on the above, and make sure the voltage remains
stable.

While shorted supply rails are not common with opamp circuits, it can happen. The
problem is then to find out just which component caused the short. If the supply rails
use tantalum capacitors for bulk bypass (i.e. board level rather than chip level bypass)
this should be your first place to look. As regular readers will know by now, I really
dislike tantalums - they are one of the least reliable components ever made. Look for
small holes in the case or any other sign of distress. Do the same with the opamps - if
the supply has enough current available, you may see slight signs of distress on the
shorted device. Small bulges in the case or a cracked case are a dead giveaway, but
you won't always be so lucky.

Trying to find a short with an ohm meter is usually pointless unless you have one that
will resolve milli-Ohms or micro-Ohms. The next best thing is to use a power supply
that can dump an amp or two into a dead short without damage - you may need to use
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a current limiting resistor of around 4.7Ω, rated at 10W or more. Apply power to the
board with care - the power tracks on some boards are not rated for much current, and
you don't want to cause more damage than has already been done. Damaged tracks
can be fixed, but will never look much good.

At around 1-2 amps, the faulty part should start to get hot. The resistance of the silicon
and bonding wires is enough to generate a fair bit of heat, and you will either be able to
feel the heat with a finger (at relatively low current - perhaps 500mA or so), or at higher
current the faulty part will start to smoke. Having found the problem device, it can now
be replaced.

It is very important that the external 'brute force' power supply voltage does not exceed
the maximum voltage rating of the opamps (or other components) used. In some
cases, the smoke test will cause the faulty device to become open-circuit (internal
bond wire fusing for example), and if the external voltage is too high, other parts may
be damaged. The idea is to find and fix the original fault - not to introduce new ones.

In some cases, your final resort is to cut tracks. If the track is cut with a sharp knife,
you can isolate half the circuit at a time until the fault is located. Divide the board in
half with the first cut - one half will show a short, the other should be normal. By
dividing the shorted half in two each time, you will find the short on a PCB with 12
active devices (opamps, logic chips, etc.) in a total of 3 or 4 cuts.

To repair the tracks is quite easy - simply smooth the cut edges with a small
screwdriver or similar, and solder across the cut. This is as reliable as the original
track if done carefully. If the PCB has solder resist, this should be removed around the
cut by scraping gently with a razor blade. A dab of nail polish or similar can be used
after the track repair is complete if desired.

4.0 - The Main Points

The idea of this article is to provide pointers to assist you to locate the fault. Because
building errors are so diverse, it is impossible to demonstrate each type. Once you
understand the principles though, you should have no difficulty working through any
similar circuit.

If you follow these pointers, you should have no difficulty finding out what's wrong with
almost any circuit. Some won't make sense for a while, until you get used to knowing
what to look for and what you expect to find.

1. Always remember to measure the supplies first. Even experienced technicians

have been caught trying to find why a circuit doesn't work as it should, only to
(eventually) find that the supply voltages are wrong, or one is missing altogether.

2. Verify that bad or missing supply voltages are caused by the PCB or the power
supply. If the supply is alright with no PCB and with a suitable load resistor, but
the supply voltage disappears when the board is connected, then the board is
faulty.

3. Apply a signal to the input, and trace it through the circuit, one stage at a time.
Make sure that volume pots (etc.) are set at maximum. Make sure that your
signal is suitable for what you are testing - using a phono cartridge to fault-find a
crossover is pointless (for example).

4. Use the circuit diagram, and follow the signal logically. Don't poke about
randomly, as you will only ever get random answers that don't mean anything.

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Once you have used the technique a few times, you will get used to the process, and
will develop a "feel" for what you should expect. Don't wait until you have a fault - use
the techniques described on known working circuits.

Never forget that if a circuit has two channels and one is working, that you have a
perfect way to compare voltages and signal levels. This can make the whole process
almost completely painless .

5.0 - Replacing Parts

Removing parts from a PCB can be difficult, and unless you are experienced and have
a good solder-sucker, you risk damaging the board. In general, once you are
reasonably certain that a component is either the wrong value or is faulty, cut the
legs/pins off first. Then, use a solder sucker (or solder wick) to remove the solder from
the joint. The cut pins should fall out - do not try to pull them off the board or through
the board! This almost guarantees that the PCB will be damaged.

With many capacitors, it is usually impossible to get to the pins to cut them off, so
extreme care is needed. Use the solder sucker and solder wick as needed to ensure
that the cap can be removed without ripping the pad. You may be able to trim the lead
and solder very close to the pad itself with very sharp side cutters. This leaves almost
no lead if done carefully, and the cap should come out without damaging the PCB.

The tracks and pads can only withstand so much heat and stress before they will fall
off, so always use a temperature controlled soldering pencil. These are not cheap, but
if you get one of reasonably good quality it will last for many years. Temperature
control is essential to ensure that neither components or PCB are overheated. The
temperature should be set no higher than 325°C for normal work. If you absolutely
must use lead free solder (revolting stuff that it is), you will need to increase the
temperature to a minimum of 350°C - my condolences to all those in Europe who are
so affected.

Before soldering in the new part, make sure that it is correctly oriented (for polarity
sensitive devices). If you are using lead free solder (all you will be able to get in
Europe), make sure that the component leads are clean and shiny - lead free solder is
fairly useless stuff, and cannot adhere to even a slightly oxidised surface. Clean the
leads with fine steel wool if they are tarnished, but make sure that no strands of steel
wool get onto the PCB to cause further problems.

Conclusion

The key to fault finding is practice. The more circuits you test (working or not), the
more knowledge you gain about the way opamps work in audio circuits. As you
continue to practice and test everything that you can, you will rapidly learn about gain
structures, what individual stages do and (along with the schematic and description)
how they do it.

The worst approach is to get flustered and start removing components at random (or
semi-random). You learn nothing that way, and will usually end up ruining the PCB.
The tracks and pads on any circuit board can only take so much heat and movement
before the adhesive breaks down and the track lifts or the pad just breaks off.

By adopting a disciplined and logical approach, you get more done with less damage -
both to the PCB and your self-esteem.

Troubleshooting - Part 1 (Power Amps)

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Copyright Notice. This article, including but not limited to all text and diagrams, is the intellectual
property of Rod Elliott, and is Copyright © 2006. Reproduction or re-publication by any means
whatsoever, whether electronic, mechanical or electro- mechanical, is strictly prohibited under
International Copyright laws. The author (Rod Elliott) grants the reader the right to use this information
for personal use only, and further allows that one (1) copy may be made for reference. Commercial use
is prohibited without express written authorisation from Rod Elliott.
Page created and copyright © 23 Dec 2006./ Published 06 Jan 2007

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