STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL : Introduction

In this modern era of constraints on resources and costs of manufacturing products and
rendering services, it becomes increasingly significant to make decisions based on facts and
not just opinion. Consequently, data must be collected and analyzed. This is the role of
Statistical Process Control Tools (SPC Tools). For more than eight decades, industries have
been continuously gathering the fruit of success the application of these tools have given
them. SPC Tools aim to reduce the variability in aspects of the business concerned such as
processes, products and services. These tools helped them in collecting data needed to be
improved, analysis of how the data affects the processes, products and services, what are the
causes of variations in the key input and output variables and improve those in order to attain
controllability and sustain stability.

Businesses have two major objectives for their existence, to gain profit and to grow. By
continually gaining maximized profit is the only way to translate growth in a progressive
manner. Quality plays a significant role in attaining these two objectives. Quality is the
realization of entitlement of value in terms of utility (form, fit and function), access (volume,
location and timing) and worth (economic, emotional and intellectual). Therefore, whenever
the quality of the process, products and/or services utilized and offered by the business are
high, it is expected that potential to gain more and to continuously grow are high too.

Statistical Process Control (SPC) techniques, when applied to measurement data, can be
used to highlight areas that would benefit from further investigation. These techniques
enable the user to identify variation within their process. Understanding this variation
is the first step towards quality improvement.

There are many different SPC techniques that can be applied to data. The simplest SPC
techniques to implement are the run and control charts. The purpose of these techniques is to
identify when the process is displaying unusual behaviour.

History of SPC

1928 saw the introduction of the first Statistical Process Control (SPC) Charts.
Commissioned by Bell Laboratories to improve the quality of telephones manufactured,
Walter Shewhart developed a simple graphical method – the first of a growing range of SPC
Charts.

Understanding the causes of variation within an industrial process proved indispensable as

actions could be taken to improve process and output. In the 1950’s, with the effective use of
SPC, Deming converted post war Japan into the world leader of manufacturing excellence.
SPC Charts also offer alternative methods of displaying data.

Understanding Variation

Types of Variation

Variation exists in all processes around us. For example:

 Every person is different

 No two snowflakes are identical

 Each fingerprint is unique

The two types of variation that we are interested in are ‘common cause’ and ‘special cause’
variation.

Common Cause: All processes have random variation - known as ‘common cause variation’.
A process is said to be ‘in control’ if it exhibits only common cause variation i.e. the process
is completely stable and predictable.

Special Cause: Unexpected events/unplanned situations can result in ‘special cause

variation’. A process is said to be ‘out of control’ if it exhibits special cause variation i.e. the
process is unstable.

SPC charts are a good way to identify between these types of variation,

SPC charts can be applied to both dynamic processes and static processes.

Dynamic Processes : A process that is observed across time is known as a dynamic process.
An SPC chart for a dynamic process is often referred to as a ‘time-series’ or a ‘longitudinal’
SPC chart.
Static Processes: A process that is observed at a particular point in time is known as a static
process. An SPC chart for a static process is often referred to as a ‘cross- sectional’ SPC
chart.

Sources of Variation

Variation in a process can occur through a number of different sources. For example:

 People

 Materials

 Methods

 Measurement

 Environment

Causes of Variation

W. A. Shewhart recognised that a process can contain two types of variation. Variation
contributable to Random (COMMON) causes and/or to Assignable (SPECIAL) causes.

 W. E. Deming later derived the expressions ‘common cause variation’ (variation due
to random causes) and ‘special cause variation’ (variation due to assignable causes).
 Common cause variation is an inherent part of every process. Generally, the effect of
this type of variation is minimal and results from the regular rhythm of the process.
 Special cause variation is not an inherent part of the process. This type of variation
highlights something unusual occurring within the process and is created by factors
that were not part of the process’ design. However, these causes are assignable and in
most cases can be eliminated.
 If common cause is the only type of variation that exists in the process then the
process is said to be ‘in control’ and stable. It is also predictable within set limits
i.e. the probability of any future outcome falling within the limits can be stated
approximately. Conversely, if special cause variation exists within the process
then the process is described as being ‘out of control’ and unstable.
 Tools for Identifying Process Variation

Now we know that variation exists in all processes we can proceed to identify which type of
variation is present. One method of identifying the type of variation present is by using SPC
charts.

SPC Charts – Dynamic Processes

Statistical Process Control (SPC) Charts are essentially:

 Simple graphical tools that enable process performance monitoring

 Designed to identify which type of variation exists within the process
 Designed to highlight areas that may require further investigation
 Easy to construct and interpret

Two of the most popular SPC tools in use today are the run chart and the control
chart. They are easy to construct, as no specialist software is required. They are easy
to interpret, as there are only a few basic rules to apply in order to identify the
variation type without the need to worry too much about the underlying statistical
theory.

Constructing a Control Chart

A time ordered sequence of data, with a centre line calculated by the mean. Control charts
bring the addition of control limits (and warning limits – optional). A control chart enables
the monitoring of the process level and identification of the type of variation in the process
over time with additional rules associated with the control (and warning) limits.
A statistical control chart is a line graph of the measurements of a product or process over
time that has statistically based control limits placed on it.
The points that are plotted on a control chart may be the actual measurements of a part
characteristic or summary statistics from samples (subgroups) of parts taken as they are
produced over time.

A control chart has control limits based upon process variation and a centreline representing
the average of all the measurements used to construct the control chart.
The statistical control limits define the boundaries of the expected variation of the process
when only common-cause variation is operating, and are placed three standard deviations
above and below the centreline.

Summary statistics often plotted include the subgroup average, subgroup range, subgroup
standard deviation, percent defective, average number of defects per unit, and so on.
Key characteristics are examples of process output that can be monitored by statistical control
charts.

All processes have and exhibit variation. Variation makes defects and poor quality possible –
not something we want. Statistical control charts monitor and display the variation in process
output and can be an important tool for product and process improvement.

Why Use a Control Chart?

 To display and manage variation in process output over time. To identify when a
process changes.

 To provide a basis for improvement.

 To identify the causes of variation and process capability.

 To distinguish special from common causes of variation (that is, when to correct
sporadic problems or when to change the process)

 To help assign causes of variation

 To identify process problems on an ongoing basis.

 To tell the operator when not to take action and just let the system run.

 To control upstream processes contributing to the production of a product.

 To reduce process variation and prevent defective output from being produced. To
eliminate waste and reduce loss.

How to Construct a Control Chart?

 Define the key characteristic or quality characteristic to be measured.

 Define where in the process the key characteristic will be measured. It should be at
the earliest possible point in the manufacturing process where the characteristic can be
measured.

 Select which control charts to use.

 Determine subgroup size and frequency of measurement.

 Take measurements.

 Plot measurements or summary statistics on the chart.

 Connect the plot points.

 After at least 20 plot points, calculate the centreline and control limits (the actual
number of plot points depends upon the circumstances).

 Identify any out-of-control points.

 Analyze for special causes of variation and remove them.

 Remove subgroup data corresponding to any out-of-control points from the

calculation of the control limits.

 Add a corresponding number of plot points and recalculate the control limits using
data from all in-control plot points.
  Extend the control limits into the future.

 Do not recalculate the control limits until significant and identifiable process changes
occur.

 Do not change the control limits continually as new data is added.

How to Select a Control Chart?

In selecting a control chart to be used, the first to do is to identify whether the data to be
collected and studied is variable (continuous data), there are measurable data like length,
weight, diameter, thickness or attribute (discrete data), these are countable data such as
number of defects or defective in a lot or average number of defects per unit.

When using variable data, both average and variability of the process must be monitored. The
control limits must be based on the natural variability of the process (not specification
limits).

It is very important to select the appropriate chart so as to bear a favorable result. With
precision and accuracy of the choice made, a better understanding of the process and the
sources of its variations can be strongly established.

How to Analyze a Control Chart?

With the use of a control charts with all data plotted on it, we can analyze the behavior of the
process and determine the current condition of it thru the use of the Sensitizing Rules for
Control Charts.

The Western Electric Handbook (1956) suggests a set of decision rules for detecting non-
random patterns on control charts. These rules are those in numbers 1 to 4 and eventually
integrated to the general Sensitizing Rules for Control Charts. Figure shows the zones used in
interpreting and analyzing a control chart. Whenever one of these rules had been evident in
the control chart being created, we can say that the process has a higher chance to
produce out of control units.

Sensitizing Rules for Control Charts

1. One or more points outside of the control limits.

2. Two of three consecutive points outside the two sigma warning limits still inside the
control limits.
3. Four of five consecutive points beyond the one sigma limits.
4. A run of eight consecutive points on one side of the centre line.
5. Six points in a row steadily increasing or decreasing.
6. Fifteen points in a row in Zone C (both above and below the centre line).
7. Fourteen points in a row alternating up and down.
8. Eight points in a row on both sides of the centre line with none in Zone C.
9. An unusual or non-random pattern in the data.
10. One or more points near a warning or control limit.