BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
SOLIDS AND MODERN MATERIALS
Modern devices like computers and cell phones are built from solids with very specific physical
properties. For example, the integrated circuit that is at the heart of many electronic devices is built from
semiconductors like silicon, metals like copper, and insulators like hafnium oxide. Hard drives, which store
information in computers and other devices, consist of a thin layer of a magnetic alloy deposited on glass
substrate. Scientists and engineers turn almost exclusively to solids for materials used in many other
technologies: alloys for magnets and airplane turbines, semiconductors for solar cells and light-emitting
diodes, polymers for packaging and biomedical applications. Chemists have contributed to the discovery and
development of new materials either by inventing new substances or by developing the means for processing
natural materials to form substances that have specific electrical, magnetic, optical, or mechanical properties.
In this chapter, we explore the structures and properties of solids. As we do so, we will examine some of the
solid materials used in modern technology.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS
Solids can be as hard as diamond or as soft as wax. Some readily conduct electricity, whereas others do
not. The shapes of some solids can easily be manipulated, while others are brittle and resistant to any change
in shape. The physical properties as well as the structures of solids are dictated by the types of bonds that hold
the atoms in place. We can classify solids according to those forces:
1. Metallic solids are held together by a delocalized “sea” of collectively shared valence electrons. This form of
bonding allows metals to conduct electricity. It is also responsible for the fact that most metals are relatively
strong without being brittle.
Figure 1
2. Ionic solids are held together by the mutual attraction between cations and anions. Differences between
ionic and metallic bonding make the electrical and mechanical properties of ionic solids very different from
those of metals.
Figure 2
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3. Covalent-network solids are held together by an extended network of covalent bonds. This type of bonding
can result in materials that are extremely hard, like diamond, and it is also responsible for the unique
properties of semiconductors.
Figure 3
4. Molecular solids are held together by the intermolecular forces.
Figure 4
STRUCTURES OF SOLIDS
Crystalline and Amorphous Solids
Solids in which atoms are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern are called crystalline solids. These
solids usually have flat surfaces, or faces, that make definite angles with one another. The orderly
arrangements of atoms that produce these faces also cause the solids to have highly regular shapes. Examples
of crystalline solids include sodium chloride, quartz, and diamond.
Amorphous solids (from the Greek words for “without form”) lack the order in crystalline solids. At the
atomic level the structures of amorphous solids are similar to the structures of liquids, but the molecules,
atoms, and/or ions lack the freedom of motion they have in liquids. Amorphous solids do not have the well-
defined faces and shapes of a crystal. Familiar amorphous solids are rubber, glass, and obsidian (volcanic
glass).
Unit Cells and Crystal Lattices
In a crystalline solid there is a relatively small repeating unit, called a unit cell, that is made up of a unique
arrangement of atoms and embodies the structure of the solid. The structure of the crystal can be built by
stacking this unit over and over in all three dimensions. Thus, the structure of a crystalline solid is defined by
(a) the size and shape of the unit cell and (b) the locations of atoms within the unit cell. The geometrical
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pattern of points on which the unit cells are arranged is called a crystal lattice. The crystal lattice is, in effect,
an abstract (that is, not real) scaffolding for the crystal structure. We can imagine forming the entire crystal
structure by first building the scaffolding and then filling in each unit cell with the same atom or group of
atoms. Before describing the structures of solids, we need to understand the properties of crystal lattices.
Figure 5
To understand real crystals, we must imagine the figures in three dimensions. In three dimensions, a lattice is
defined by three lattice vectors a, b, and c (Figure 6). These lattice vectors define a unit cell that is a
parallelepiped (a six-sided figure whose faces are all parallelograms) and is described by the lengths a, b, c of
the cell edges and the angles α, β, γ between these edges. There are seven possible shapes for a three-
dimensional unit cell.
Figure 6
If we place a lattice point at each corner of a unit cell, we get a primitive lattice. All seven lattices in
the figure 7 are primitive lattices. It is also possible to generate what are called centered lattices by placing
additional lattice points in specific locations in the unit cell. This is illustrated for a cubic lattice in the figure 8.
Figure 8
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A body-centered cubic lattice has one lattice point at the center of the unit cell in addition to the
lattice points at the eight corners. A face-centered cubic lattice has one lattice point at the center of each of
the six faces of the unit cell in addition to the lattice points at the eight corners. Centered lattices exist for
other types of unit cells as well. Examples include body-centered tetragonal and face-centered orthorhombic.
Counting all seven primitive lattices as well as the various types of centered lattices, there are a total of 14
three-dimensional lattices.
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