Lab Manual:

Measurements and Instrumentation

Using the Measurements Part Kit for NI ELVIS III

Lab 2: Signal Conditioning

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2
Lab 2: Signal Conditioning
In this lab, you are going to expand your knowledge of sensors and explore how analog
signals are prepared to be digitized. 

You will explore a variety of sensors and investigate methods to optimize what is
measured from each. Many applications involve environmental or structural
measurements, such as temperature and vibration, from sensors. These sensors, in
turn, require signal conditioning before a data acquisition device can effectively and
accurately measure the signal.

Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to complete the following activities: 

1. Discuss the types of signal conditioning and their applications for different
sensors and measurement types
2. Discuss ways to optimize a measurement system to produce a higher quality
signal and increase the signal-to-noise ratio
3. Design and implement an appropriate signal conditioning configuration given a
measurement scenario and a chosen sensor

3
Required Tools and Technology

4
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
http://www.ni.com/en-
 Use the NI ELVIS III instruments as us/support/model.ni-elvis-iii.html
needed  View Tutorials:
https://www.youtube.com/playlist
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and ?
Accessories Kit (purchased separately) is list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSxv0
required for using the instruments.  gwtshBA2dh_M
 Install Soft Front Panel support:
http://www.ni.com/documentation
/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-
started/installing-the-soft-front-
panel/

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/54749/en

Hardware: Measurements Parts Kit Components used in this lab:

 NTC 10 kΩ Thermistor
 C2A-13-125LW-350 Strain Gauge
 Various discrete components to
complete signal conditioning
circuits

Software: LabVIEW  Before downloading and installing

software, refer to your professor or
Version 18.0 or Later lab manager for information on
your lab’s software licenses and
Toolkits and Modules: infrastructure
 Download & Install for NI ELVIS III:
 LabVIEW Real-Time Module http://www.ni.com/academic/downl
 NI ELVIS III Toolkit oad
 View Tutorials:
http://www.ni.com/academic/stude
nts/learn-labview/

5
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Calculations of voltage and resistance

 Data from simulated measurement scenarios
 Observations of temperature and strain

Your instructor may expect you complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

6
1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-1 Video Screenshot. View the video here: https://youtu.be/HSHJXXFigz8

Video Summary

 Signal conditioning is the manipulation of a signal in a way that prepared it for the
next stage of processing.
 Common signal conditioning types include amplification, attenuation, filtering,
exciting, linearization, bridge completion, isolation and cold junction
compensation.
 There are many different types of sensors, some measure voltage or current,
while others measure resistance or capacitance.

7
What is Signal Conditioning?

Signal conditioning is the manipulation of a signal in a way that prepares it for the next
stage of processing. Signal conditioning is one of the most important components of a
data acquisition system because without optimizing real-world signals for the digitizer in
use, you cannot rely on the accuracy of the measurement. In a nutshell, signal
conditioning takes a signal for your DAQ device to measure, and makes it easier to
measure. It is important to note that signal conditioning is not always required, as it
depends on the signal being measured. 

Examples of outputs you may measure and which may require signal conditioning to
read include: 

 Voltage
 Current
 Resistance
 Capacitance 

You can learn more about voltage and current measurement by reading the articles
found at: http://www.ni.com/tutorial/7113/en/ and http://www.ni.com/tutorial/7114/en/. 

Additionally, you can explore resistance and capacitance further by reading the articles
found at http://www.ni.com/tutorial/3981/en/ and http://www.ni.com/white-
paper/3078/en/. 

Types of Signal Conditioning

Most signals require some form of preparation before they can be digitized. The
following list offers common signal conditioning types, their functionalities, and
examples of when you need them to help you assess your signal conditioning options.

Amplification

Amplifiers increase voltage level to better match the analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
range, thus increasing the measurement resolution and sensitivity. In addition, locating
external signal conditioners closer to the signal source, or transducer, improves the
measurement signal-to-noise ratio by magnifying the voltage level before it is affected
by environmental noise. Typical sensors that require amplification are thermocouples
and strain gages.

8
Attenuation

Attenuation, the opposite of amplification, is necessary when voltages to be digitized are

beyond the ADC range. This form of signal conditioning decreases the input signal
amplitude so that the conditioned signal is within the ADC range. Attenuation is typically
necessary when measuring voltages that are more than 10 V.

Filtering

Filters reject unwanted noise within a certain frequency range. Often, lowpass filters are
used to block out noise in electrical measurements, such as 50/60 Hz power. Another
common use for filtering is to prevent aliasing from high-frequency signals. This can be
done by using an anti-aliasing filter to attenuate signals above the Nyquist frequency.
Anti-alias filters are a form of lowpass filter characterized by a flat passband and fast
roll-off. Because accelerometer and microphone measurements are commonly
analyzed in the frequency domain, anti-aliasing filters are ideal for sound and vibration
applications.

Isolation

Voltage signals far outside the range of the digitizer can damage the measurement
system and harm the operator. For that reason, isolation is usually required in
conjunction with attenuation to protect the system and the user from dangerous
voltages or voltage spikes. Isolation might also be needed when the sensor is on a
different ground plane from the measurement sensor, such as a thermocouple mounted
on an engine.

Excitation

Excitation is required for many types of transducers. For example, strain gages,
accelerometers, thermistors, and RTDs require external voltage or current excitation.
RTD and thermistor measurements are made with a current source that converts the
variation in resistance to a measurable voltage. Accelerometers often have an
integrated amplifier, which requires current excitation provided by the measurement
device. Strain gages, which are very-low-resistance devices, are typically used in a
Wheatstone bridge configuration with a voltage excitation source.

Linearization

Linearization is necessary when sensors produce voltage signals that are not linearly
related to the physical measurement. Linearization, the process of interpreting the
signal from the sensor, can be implemented either with signal conditioning or through
software. A thermocouple is the classic example of a sensor that requires linearization.

9
Cold-Junction Compensation

Cold-junction compensation (CJC) is required for accurate thermocouple

measurements. Thermocouples measure temperature as the difference in voltage
between two dissimilar metals. Based on this concept, another voltage is generated at
the connection between the thermocouple and terminal of a data acquisition device.
CJC improves measurement accuracy by providing the temperature at this junction and
applying the appropriate correction.

Bridge Completion

Bridge completion is needed for quarter- and half-bridge sensors to form a four-resistor
Wheatstone bridge. Strain gage signal conditioners typically provide half-bridge
completion networks consisting of high-precision resistors. The completion resistors
offer a fixed reference for detecting small voltage changes across the active sensor(s).

Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so far. You
can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the end of the lab.

1-1 Given a passive, resistive sensor, which of the following types of signal conditioning
would most likely be used?

A. Excitation
B. Attenuation
C. Cold-Junction Compensation
D. Isolation

1-2 In your own words, describe why bridges are required.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

10
Sensor Types

There are many different types of sensors. As you have learned, some sensors
measure voltage or current, while others may measure resistance or capacitance. To
achieve the best measurements, understanding the signal conditioning needs for each
measurement type is paramount. Based on the sensors you require to perform an
application, you need to consider certain types of signal conditioning to ensure the best
measurements possible.

For instance, the most common sensors used to measure temperature are
thermocouples, RTDs, and thermistors. These sensors typically emit a low-output
voltage measured in the millivolt range. The output of these sensors is too small for
measurement devices with a large input range to measure accurately. For example, a
typical signal range for a thermocouple is ± 80 mV. If you have a 16-bit digitizer with a
range of ±10 V, you can use only 0.8 percent of the range of the ADC. To solve this
problem, use amplification to increase the size of your output signal to match the range
of the ADC.

Thermocouples have specific signal conditioning requirements. Because cold junctions

are formed by the connection of the thermocouple to wires or terminals of the data
acquisition device, they generate voltages that add to your net measurement.

Piezoelectric sensors are another type of sensor and are used to measure changes
when measuring pressure, acceleration, strain, or force. A piezoelectric sensor then
converts those changes into an electrical charge. Piezoelectric sensors can even be
used to measure both resonance and capacitance. 

Bridge-based pressure sensors are by far the most common pressure sensors. You
need to consider several signal conditioning elements to make an effective bridge-
based pressure measurement system. You may need one or more of the following:

 Excitation to power the Wheatstone bridge circuitry

 Remote sensing to compensate for errors in excitation voltage from long lead
wires
 Amplification to increase measurement resolution and improve signal-to-noise
ratio
 Filtering to remove external, high-frequency noise
 Offset nulling to balance the bridge to output 0 V when no strain is applied
 Shunt calibration to verify the output of the bridge to a known, expected value

11
1-3 What type of sensor is most commonly associated with using bridges?

A. Accelerometer
B. Piezometer
C. Strain Gauge
D. Thermistor

12
Designing a System for a Cleaner Signal and Grounding 

Measurement systems can have the ability to use different grounding configurations
because signal sources can also have different grounding configurations. This capability
is essential to ensure the most accurate measurement; however, this flexibility adds
some difficulty when choosing the grounding configuration of the measurement system.
When properly grounding your system you should: 

 First, determine how your signal is grounded 

 Then, choose a grounding mode for your Measurement System

We will examine grounded and ground referenced signal sources next.

Grounded or Ground-Referenced Signal Sources

Note: It is very important to properly categorize your signal source, because how your
signal source is grounded will affect how you ground your measurement system.

A grounded signal source is when a voltage signal is referenced to a system ground,

such as an earth or building ground. The most common examples of grounded sources
are devices that plug into the building ground through three pronged wall outlets such
as signal generators and power supplies. It is important to know that the grounds of two
independently grounded signal sources are typically not at the same potential. The
difference in ground potential between two systems connected to the same building
ground can be 10 mV, 200 mV, or more.

Ungrounded or Floating Signal Sources 

An ungrounded or floating signal source is one in which the voltage signal is not
referenced to a system ground, such as an earth or building ground. Neither the positive
or the negative terminal are referenced to ground when the signal is floating. Some
examples of ungrounded sources include: 

 Batteries
 Thermocouples
 Transformers

Measuring a Grounded Signal Source

A grounded signal source is most accurately measured with a differential or non-

referenced single-ended mode (NRSE) instrument configuration because an additional
ground is not introduced into the entire system. An additional ground added to the

13
system can result in ground loops, which are common sources of noise in measurement
applications.

Ground loops occur when two connected terminals in a circuit are at different ground
potentials, causing current to flow between the two points. The ground of the signal
source can be several volts above or below the ground of the instrument. 

This additional voltage can cause error in the measurement itself and the flowing
current can also induce voltages on nearby wires causing additional measurement
error. These errors can appear as scalar or periodic signals added to the measured
signal. For example, if a ground loop is formed with a 60 Hz AC power line, the standard
power line frequency in the United States and some other countries, the unwanted
60 Hz AC signal can appear as a periodic voltage error in the measurement.

Note: To avoid ground loops ensure only one ground reference exists in the signal
source and the measurement system by using a differential or NRSE instrument
configuration or by using isolated measurement hardware.

Avoiding Noise

When noise is present in your measurements, it will alter the data making it less
accurate. It is crucial to avoid noise if at all possible when measuring. There are several
steps that can be taken to ensure you reduce or eliminate as much noise as possible.
The article Five Tips to Reduce Measurement Noise found here:
http://www.ni.com/newsletter/50262/en/ is an excellent resource for best practices used
to reduce and/or eliminate noise. 

Summary

 Measurement systems include an instrument and signal conditioning. Depending

on the instrument, signal conditioning can be a part of the instrument or external.
 Instruments can have three main measurement configurations:
o Differential: A measurement that takes two input channels and is the most
accurate configuration because it removes common-mode voltages  
o Ground referenced single-ended (GRSE) or referenced single-ended
(RSE): A measurement that uses only one channel and the instrument
ground; however, this single-ended measurement type is susceptible to
noise 
o Non-referenced single-ended (NRSE): A type of measurement that uses
only one channel and a common reference point, which is not ground;
however, this system is more susceptible to noise in comparison to
differential measurements
 Differential or NRSE instrument configurations are recommended to measure a
grounded signal source.

14
1-4 Which of the following techniques would be effective to reduce 60 Hz noise?

A. Ensure only one ground reference exists

B. Ensure more than one ground reference exists
C. Do not use a differential instrument configuration
D. Add an additional ground to the system

15
1.2 Signal Conditioning Circuits

Examples of Signal Conditioning Circuits

Most signals require some form of preparation before they can be digitized. The
following list offers common signal conditioning types, their functionalities, and
examples of when you need them to help you assess your signal conditioning options.

Amplification
Op-Amp Amplifier
Using the closed-loop properties of an op-amp, you can build a customizable amplifier
using an op-amp and 2 resistors. The amount of gain is defined by the ratio of the two
resistors, as seen in the formula below.

V { out }=¿( 1+ ¿{ R2 }{R1 }¿) ¿(V ±V ), non-inverting amplifier

−¿

Equation 1-1

V { out }=¿ {−R2 }{R 1 }¿(V ±V ), inverting amplifier

−¿

Equation 1-2

This is an example of an op-amp circuit.  

Figure 1-1 Op-Amp Circuit Diagram

You can find more information about op-amp applications by reading the information
found at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier#Non-inverting_amplifier. 

16
Attenuation

To attenuate a signal, one of the simplest circuit implementations is a voltage divider. In

a voltage divider, 2 resistors are placed in series to divide the supplied voltage between
them. The resulting output is defined by the ratio of resistors used, therefore, by
customizing the resistors you can customize the amount of attenuation. Additionally, a
potentiometer could be used in place of one of the resistors to create a variable
attenuator.

Note: If a higher resistor is used, this will reduce the current of the output signal. A
divider using a 1 ohm and a 2 ohm resistor will maintain a higher current in the output
signal than a divider with 1 kOhm and 2 kOhm resistors. On the other hand, resistance
of the wires and components in the measurement circuitry will provide additional
resistance which becomes more significant in low resistance dividers.

When a resistive divider is used, the following formula should be applied: 

V { out }=¿ {R 2 }{ R1+ ¿2 }¿ bullet V {∈}

¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿¿ ¿ ¿
Equation 1-2

If R1 = R2 then:

V { out } = ¿ {1 }{2} ¿ V {∈}

Equation 1-3

17
This is an example of a simple voltage divider:

Figure 1-2 Voltage Divider Circuit Diagram

To learn more about voltage dividers read:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_divider.

Filtering

High-Pass Filter

A high-pass filter passes signals of a higher frequency than the cutoff, and attenuates
signals lower than the cutoff frequency. Some of the most common uses of a high pass
filter include: 

 Blocking DC from circuits sensitive to non-zero voltages

 Blocking DC from circuits sensitive to radio frequencies

To calculate the cutoff frequency of a passive, high-pass filter for a RC circuit, the
following formula should be applied: 

fc=¿ frac {1 }{2{ ¿ ¿ }}=¿ frac {1}{2¿ R C }

Equation 1-4

18
This is an example of a passive high-pass filter within a circuit: 

Figure 1-3 High Pass Filter Circuit Diagram

To calculate the cutoff frequency of an active high-pass filter, the following formula
should be applied: 

fc=¿ frac {1 }{2{ ¿ ¿ }}=¿ frac {1}{2¿ R1 C }

Equation 1-5

This is an example of an active high-pass filter within a circuit: 

Figure 1-4 Active High Pass Filter Circuit Diagram

Because this is an active filter, frequencies that do get passed through are subject to an
amplification gain equal to -R2/R1. This means that the shown topology is an
inverting amplifier configuration, and the output signal would be 180 degrees out
of phase with the input.

Be sure to read more about high-pass filters here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-

pass_filter. 

Low-Pass Filter

19
A low-pass filter passes signals of a lower frequency than the cutoff, and
attenuates signals with a higher frequency. It is important to note that low-pass filters
are complementary to high-pass filters. Low pass filters come in many forms such as: 

 Anti-alias filters
 Digital filters
 Acoustic barriers

To calculate the cutoff frequency of a low-pass divider, the following formula should be
used: 

¿=¿ frac {1}{2{¿ ¿ }}=¿ frac {1 }{2¿ RC }

Equation 1-6

Equivalently the following formula may be used as well:

¿{ c ¿¿=¿ frac {1}{¿ } ¿ ¿ {1 }{RC }

Equation 1-7

An example of a low-pass RC filter is below: 

Figure 1-5 Low Pass Filter Circuit Diagram

To learn more, you can read about low-pass filters at the following links:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-pass_filter#Electronic_low-pass_filters and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_divider#Low-pass_RC_filter. 

Bridge Completion

Wheatstone Bridge - Quarter, Half, and Full

20
The Wheatstone bridge is the electrical equivalent of two parallel voltage divider circuits.
R1 and R2 compose one voltage divider circuit, and R4 and R3 compose the second
voltage divider circuit. The output of a Wheatstone bridge, Vo, is measured between the
middle nodes of the two voltage dividers.

The formula looks like this:

R3 R2
V 0=
[ −
R 3 + R 4 R 1+ R 2]∗V EX

Equation 1-8

Note: From this equation, you can see that when R1 /R2 = R4 /R3, the voltage
output VO is zero. Under these conditions, the bridge is said to be balanced. Any change
in resistance in any arm of the bridge results in a nonzero output voltage. Therefore, if
you replace R4 with an active strain gage, any changes in the strain gage resistance
unbalance the bridge and produce a nonzero output voltage that is a function of strain.

You can see an example of a general Wheatstone bridge in the image below: 

Figure 1-7 General Wheatstone Bridge Circuit Diagram

Note: The three types of strain gage configurations, quarter-, half-, and full-bridge, are
determined by the number of active elements in the Wheatstone bridge, the orientation
of the strain gauges, and the type of strain being measured.

21
Quarter-Bridge Strain Gauge 

A quarter-bridge strain gauge can be configured in two separate ways. 

Configuration Type I

 Measures axial or bending strain

 Requires a passive quarter-bridge completion resistor known as a dummy
resistor
 Requires half-bridge completion resistors to complete the Wheatstone bridge
 R4 is an active strain gage measuring the tensile strain (+ε)

Configuration Type I looks like this : 

Figure 1-8 Quarter Bridge Configuration I

Configuration Type II

Ideally, the resistance of the strain gauge should change only in response to applied
strain. However, strain gauge material, as well as the specimen material to which the
gauge is applied, also responds to changes in temperature. The quarter-bridge strain
gauge configuration type II helps further minimize the effect of temperature by using two
strain gages in the bridge. Typically one strain gauge (R4) is active and a second strain
gauge(R3) is mounted in close thermal contact, but not bonded to the specimen and
placed transverse to the principal axis of strain. Therefore the strain has little effect on
this dummy gauge, but any temperature changes affect both gauges in the same way.
Because the temperature changes are identical in the two strain gauges, the ratio of
their resistance does not change, the output voltage (V o) does not change, and the
effects of temperature are minimized.

22
Configuration Type II looks like this: 

Figure 1-9 Quarter Bridge Configuration II

Half-Bridge Strain Gauge

Similar to the quarter-bridge strain gauge, the half-bridge strain gauge has two types of
configurations. These bridges double the sensitivity to strain by ensuring both strain
gauges are active. 

The configurations for both type I and II are as follows: 

Configuration Type I

 Measures axial or bending strain

 Requires half-bridge completion resistors to complete the Wheatstone bridge
 R4 is an active strain gauge measuring the tensile strain (+ε)
 R3 is an active strain gauge compensating for Poisson’s effect (-νε)

Note: This configuration is commonly confused with the quarter-bridge type II

configuration, but type I has an active R3 element that is bonded to the strain specimen.

23
Configuration type I looks like this: 

Figure 1-10 Half Bridge Configuration I

Configuration Type II

 Measures bending strain only

 Requires half-bridge completion resistors to complete the Wheatstone bridge
 R4 is an active strain gauge measuring the tensile strain (+ε)
 R3 is an active strain gauge measuring the compressive strain (-ε)

Configuration type II looks like this: 

Figure 1-11 Half Bridge Configuration II

Full-Bridge Strain Gauge

A full-bridge strain gauge configuration has four active strain gauges and is available in
three different types. Types I and II measure bending strain and type III measures axial
strain. Only types II and III compensate for the Poisson effect, but all three types
minimize the effects of temperature.

24
The configurations of types I, II, and III are as follows: 

Configuration Type I

 Highly sensitive to bending strain only

 R1 and R3 are active strain gauges measuring compressive strain (–e)
 R2 and R4 are active strain gauges measuring tensile strain (+e)

Type I looks like this: 

Figure 1-12 Full Bridge Configuration I

Configuration Type II

 Sensitive to bending strain only

 R1 is an active strain gauge measuring the compressive Poisson effect (–νe)
 R2 is an active strain gauge measuring the tensile Poisson effect (+νe)
 R3 is an active strain gauge measuring the compressive strain (–e)
 R4 is an active strain gauge measuring the tensile strain (+e)

25
Type II looks like this: 

Figure 1-13 Full Bridge Configuration II

Configuration Type III

 Measures axial strain

 R1 and R3 are active strain gauges measuring the compressive Poisson effect (–
νe)
 R2 and R4 are active strain gauges measuring the tensile strain (+e)

Type III looks like this: 

Figure 1-14 Full Bridge Configuration III

26
You can find more information about Wheatstone bridges by visiting the following links:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheatstone_bridge and
http://eln.teilam.gr/sites/default/files/Wheatstone%20bridge.pdf. 

Isolation

When an isolation amplifier is used, it isolates one section of a circuit from another. This
is important because in so doing it ensures the circuit doesn't use, draw, or waste
power. Despite it being labeled an amplifier, an isolation amplifier is designed to isolate
whichever circuit is before the amplifier from the circuit that comes after it.

To eliminate loading effects in instances where you have connected a device with
high source impedance to a device with low input impedance the following equation
should be used: 

V { out }=V {∈}

Equation 1-9

A voltage follower looks like this: 

Figure 1-15 Voltage Follower Circuit Diagram

You can find more information on isolation by visiting: http://www.ni.com/white-

paper/3546/en/ and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier_applications#Voltage_follower_(unity
_buffer_amplifier).

Excitation

For certain sensor types, an excitation or supply voltage is required. For active sensors,
this provides a source of power to the sensor. For resistive sensors, a voltage is often
required to measure what the resistance of the sensor is over time.

For resistive sensors, a common excitation circuit is a voltage divider. With a known
supply voltage and R1 resistor, by measuring the output voltage, we can calculate the
resistance of the resistive sensor.

27
The formulas for calculations using a resistive divider are: 

R1 = ¿ {R2 ¿ ¿{∈}}{V {out }} – R2 = R2 ¿ ¿( ¿{V {∈}}{V { out }}−1¿)

Equation 1-10

 and,

R2 = R1 ¿ ¿ {1 }{¿(¿ {V {∈}}{V { out }}−1 ¿)}

Equation 1-11

This is an example of a resistive divider: 

Figure 1-16 Resistive Divider Circuit Diagram

To learn more, read the information found here:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_divider.

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1.3 Simulate: Temperature

Temperature Measurement Scenario

From the previous lab, you had this measurement scenario:

 [Range] Monitor a heating chamber that has an internal temperature of 20°C at

the beginning of the test procedure, and determine if the heating chamber ever
exceeds 40°C.

 [Sensitivity] For detectability of temperature changes, a 1 degree change in

temperature near the 40°C point should result in more than a 10mV change in
voltage.

 [Linearity] Linearity of the sensor should be considered, but can be accounted for
in later activities.

Other Considerations:

 The measurement system should be able to detect changes in the air

temperature as quickly as possible. We won't specify a timing, because the heat
exchange properties of air come into effect. All else being equal, a faster
responding sensor will be better.
 The thermistor costs on the order of $1, whereas the RTD and thermocouple cost
on the order of $10.

In the previous lab, you investigated the properties of 3 temperature sensors and chose
a sensor to meet the goals of a measurement scenario. This lab assumes that you
chose the thermistor and will proceed using it. You can find the datasheet for the
thermistor: http://cf-ts.mythinkscape.com/Thermistor.pdf.

Given that a thermistor is a resistive sensor, you need a signal conditioning circuit to
convert the resistance of the sensor into something you can measure, such as voltage.
To implement this, you are going to build an excitation circuit.

By applying a voltage across the thermistor, you will generate a current. If you run that
same current through a known resistor, by building the known resistor and thermistor in
series, you will create a voltage divider.

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This is the same as the Excitation circuit in the previous step.

Figure 1-17 Resistive Divider Circuit Diagram

Let's break this down. A 5 V supplied voltage will divide across the two resistors. You
will measure the voltage across the thermistor, Vth. And you know the reference
resistance. Let's call it 10 kΩ.

Vth = (Rth / (10 kΩ + Rth)) * 5 V

Equation 1-12

After measuring Vth, you can calculate the resistance of the thermistor and then convert
that measurement into a temperature according to the table provided in the data sheet.
(In a later lab, you will implement a conversion in software).

Simulated Conditioning Circuit

Let's use NI Multisim to simulate this conditioning circuit to check if it is behaving the
way that you want before you spend time physically building the circuit.

Access the circuit here:

https://www.multisim.com/content/n6TBWDazcYshbfHKX4CW8Y/signal-conditioning-
thermistor/open

Because you do not have our thermistor in the simulation environment, you will
represent the thermistor using another device which can easily change its resistance: a
potentiometer.

According to the data sheet, thermistor model B57164K0103J000 has a nominal

resistance of 10 kΩ. You will start with this represented as a 20 kΩ potentiometer in the

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50% position. This will give you a range to move up or down, to represent the
temperature changing.

1. Change the potentiometer to 70%.

2. Run the simulation and measure the voltage across the potentiometer using the
probe.

1-5 What was the measured voltage?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-6 Using formula 1-1 above, calculate the resistance of the potentiometer.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-7 Does your calculated voltage equal the expected voltage of the potentiometer at
70%?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-8 Using table 2904 on page 9 of the datasheet, approximately what temperature
would this resistance value correspond to, estimated to an integer number of ⁰C?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

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1-9 Given the excitation circuit above, what temperature would a voltage of 1.683 V
correspond to?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-10 What is the measured voltage difference between a 40⁰C and 41⁰C measurement?
Does this sensor and conditioning circuit satisfy the measurement specification for
sensitivity?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

32
1.4 Simulate: Strain

Strain Measurement Scenario

From the previous lab, you had this measurement scenario:

Complete a measurement with the following specifications:

 [Area to Measure] A life-span test will be conducted to analyze part strain on a

manufactured part, when applying a force to a small metal rod. The force will be
applied for 1 second, then off for 1 second. This cycle will repeat for 24 hours.
The rod has a width of 1.5mm and a length of 24mm. However, the linear area
that the force is applied to is approximately 4mm.

 [Orientation to Measure] The strain will occur in only 1 linear direction. Any

twisting or shearing strain will be discounted.

Other Considerations:

 The strain measurement will occur in a relatively controlled environment, where

temperatures will be stable. For more information on the effect of temperature on
strain gauges, you can read here: http://www.ni.com/white-paper/3432/en/.

In the previous lab, you investigated the properties of 3 strain sensors and chose one to
meet the goals of a measurement scenario. This lab assumes that you chose the strain
gauge with model number C2A-13-125LW-350 and will proceed using it. You can
access the datasheet for the strain gauge here: https://cf-
ts.mythinkscape.com/ckeditor/Strain_Gauges.pdf.

Similar to the thermistor, the strain gauge is a also a resistive sensor. Whereas a
voltage divider was an adequate conditioning circuit for our temperature measurement,
it is more customary to use a bridge, such as a Wheatstone bridge, to measure the
strain gauge.

The Wheatstone bridge allows for higher sensitivity of measurement for smaller
resistance changes, which is why it's used for strain gauges, which demonstrate smaller
changes in resistance than the thermistor.

Let's investigate this through building and designing.

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Simulated Conditioning Circuit

Again, you will use Multisim, but in this instance you are going to try designing the
components yourself.

Access the circuit here:

https://www.multisim.com/content/EkfeJyDezRbYQpHuUwMZGY/signal-conditioning-
strain-gauge/open

Your strain gauge has a nominal resistance of 350 Ω, so we're starting with a
potentiometer in the R4 position, with a 700 Ω maximum that we'll set to 50%.

To effectively use a bridge, you need to build the two sides to be balanced. This means
that, no matter what change we make, you want this ratio to hold:

    R1/R2 = R3/350, where 350 is the nominal resistance of the strain gauge.

Now, let's investigate potential values for the other resistors.

1. Change the R3 value to 3500 Ω.

1-11 What must the ratio of R1/R2 be?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

2. Set R1 and R2 to 1000 Ω and 100 Ω and run the simulation.

1-12 Record the voltage across the bridge. Is it balanced?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

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3. Change the potentiometer to 51% and run the simulation.

1-13 Record the voltage across the bridge.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-14 If you change the R1 and R2 resistors, but keep the same ratio, does the voltage
change? What does this tell you about the R1 and R2 resistors?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

4. Change the value of the R1, R2, and R3 resistors to 350 Ω.

1-15 Record the voltage across the bridge.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-16 Noticing how much more sensitive the bridge circuit is to a simulated change in
strain, what does this tell you about the importance of the ratio of R3 to R4?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

35
1.5 Implement: Temperature

Implement your Signal Conditioning Circuit

Starting with the signal conditioning circuit that you designed and tested in the
Simulation step, build the corresponding circuit with the thermistor in place of R2.

36
 1. Turn on the NI ELVIS III and from the Instruments tab of Measurements Live
open the following instruments:

 DMM

Note: For more information about accessing Measurements Live and launching
instruments, visit http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-
started/launching-soft-front-panels/.

2. Use the DMM to measure the voltage across the thermistor.

1-17 What voltage is measured?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-18 What temperature does this voltage represent?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

37
1.6 Implement: Strain

Implement your Signal Conditioning Circuit

Starting with the signal conditioning circuit that you designed and tested in the
Simulation step, build the corresponding circuit with the strain gauge in place of R4.

Also, it will be useful to replace the R3 resistor with a potentiometer. In simulation,

resistors have perfectly accurate resistances, but in practice real resistors will be slightly
different than their stated values. You will be able to adjust the potentiometer until the
bridge is as close to balanced as you can get it.

Important: When building the circuit below, replace the 0 Ω resistor with the strain
gauge.

1. From the Instruments Tab of Measurements Live, launch the Oscilloscope and
use it to measure the DC voltage across the bridge.

38
39
 2. Adjust the resistance of the potentiometer until the voltage across the bridge is
as close to 0V as possible.

1-19 What is the measured voltage after adjusting the potentiometer to balance the
bridge as much as possible?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1. Flex the strain gauge a small amount and observe the resulting voltage.
2. Flex the strain gauge by a larger amount and observe the resulting voltage.

1-20 Are these measured voltages large enough in magnitude to be easily observed
and measured? What type of signal conditioning circuit could you apply to this voltage
to increase its magnitude?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

3. Design and Implement an amplifier stage. You will need to consider how much
voltage is measured when the strain gauge is flexed to the maximum amount that
you want to consider. The gain factor shouldn’t amplify this maximum measured
voltage to anything higher than 5 V or lower than -5 V. You should design in a
safety factor, as well.
 If the strain gauge is attached to a metal beam, it will not need to have
much range of flex, and therefore strain. A higher gain can be used.
 If the strain gauge is attached to a more flexible beam, it will need to have
a higher range of flex. An amplifier with less gain can be used.

40
1-21 Given the maximum measured voltage for an appropriate range of strain, what
gain factor would you use to keep your measurement between 5 V and -5 V?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

41
1.7 Field Wiring and Noise Considerations for an Analog Circuit

Measuring Analog Signals with Noise

Measuring analog signals with a data acquisition device is not always as simple as
wiring the signal source leads to the data acquisition device. Knowledge of the nature of
the signal source, a suitable configuration of the data acquisition device, and an
appropriate cabling scheme may be required to produce accurate and noise-free
measurements. The integrity of the acquired data depends upon the entire analog
signal path. 

In this exercise you will complete the following objectives: 

 First, identify potential causes of noise in a circuit

 Then, identify ways to reduce the noise

1-22 Identify 3-5 potential causes of noise in a circuit. Be sure to explain whether the
noise is internal or external.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-23 Refer to your answer above. Explain how you can reduce the noise for each of the
noise sources you identified in the previous question. Be sure to include details
explaining any conditioning that may need to be done to the signal.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

42
1.8 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

1-24 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-25 In your own words, summarize why signal conditioning is important.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

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1-26 Describe ways you can optimize a measurement system so that both produces a
higher quality signal and increases the signal-to-noise ratio.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

44
Additional Comments

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

45
 Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1.1 A
1.2 Bridges are required so that a four-resistor Wheatstone bridge can be formed.
Bridges offer a fixed reference for detecting small voltage changes in the active
sensors.
1-3 C
1-4 A

46