SRI

KRISHNA COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY
(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)

KUNIAMUTHUR, COIMBATORE 641008

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

17EC328

MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

LABORATORY

LABORATORY RECORD
 Submitted by

Name : ……….JAYARAMNAVEEN E………………

Register No : …………………17EUEC053………………….

SRI KRISHNA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY, COIMBATORE-641 008
(An Autonomous Institution)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

17EC328

MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL COMMUNICATION LABORATORY

LABORATORY RECORD

Name : …JAYARAMNAVEEN E…… Reg. No: …17EUEC053….

Class : …IV ECE A ……………… Branch: ……ECE………

Certified that this bonafide record of work done by Mr... JAYARAMNAVEEN E…….

…………..............during the academic year 2020-21.

Faculty -In Charge

PLACE: COIMBATORE.
DATE:1/12/2020.

Submitted for Sri Krishna College of Engineering and Technology Autonomous

Practical Examination held on …………..................................
 INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

SRI KRISHNA

INSTITUTIONS

SRI KRISHNA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Name of Lab Course MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL

COMMUNICATION LABORATORY
Semester & Year VII& & IV
Name of the student JAYARAMNAVEEN E
Class IV ECE A
Name of the Evaluator

Marks scored out of 100

RUBRIC ASSESSMENT FOR LAB COURSES

Needs
Excellent Good Satisfactory
Items Improvement
12-15 9-11 6-8 1-5
The aim and Able to define The aim and Unable to
purpose of the aim and purpose of the explain the aim
the experiment are and purpose of
purpose of the experiment
clearly defined. the experiment.
Preliminary experiment but defined and not
not clearly. clear. Few Preliminary
Objective questions are to be
(15) Preliminary preliminary questions are
answered.
questions questions are unanswered.
 are unanswered.
answered but
not in detail.
16-20 11-15 6-10 1-5
Circuit / Able to provide Sketches of Sketches of the Not able to
Block clear sketches of the experimental identify and
Diagram & the experimental experimental setup are given draw the
Design (20) setup. setup are wrongly. circuit/block
Detailed provided with
description minor mistakes.

of experimental Description Description not diagram and

setup is provided enough. Some design part.
and steps are is mistakes in
numbered with provided, formula.
complete sentences. but steps
Formulas required are
are written and not
used fully in numbered and /or
computation. are not
in
complete
sentences.
Formulas required
are written.
30-35 20- 10-19 1-9
29
The components The The Poorly tuned
are identified and components components are experimental
established the are identified and identified but setup and the
Interactive Tools various connecting the the method adopted
and Simulators links. Tuned the experimental is not relevant
(25) experimental setup experimental setup is not to the stated
successfully. setup is tuned correctly. objective.
Readings are taken tuned The
and tabulated. correctly.
The method measured
adopted is values
relevant but the are
measurements deviated.
made are partial.
9-10 6-8 3-5 2-1
Quiz (10) Student Student is at ease Student is Student does
demonstrates full with expected uncomfortable not have grasp
knowledge by answer to with of information;
answering question question, with information and student cannot
with explanation elaboration but is able to answer
and elaboration, reading from answer the question about
 without referring to notes question, subject.
notes without
elaboration and
without
referring to
notes
16-20 11- 6-10 1-5
15
Readings/measure Almost all of the Some mistakes Experimental
ments are utilized results have been in tables and measurements
to draw necessary correctly graph. are incorrect
Result (20) charts/ graphs. The recorded and Conclusions and wrongly
results are summarized; drawn from interpreted.
interpreted and only the results are Not able to
compared with not clear. take
desired values minor measurement
successfully. improvements and proceed
are needed in further.
post lab
discussion.
9-10 6-8 3-5 2-1
The aim, Able to present Not able to give Incomplete
Documentation procedure, block the aim, the content and work and Poor
(10) diagram and procedure, block organize writing
experiment diagram properly. presentation.
details are well
documented. and experiment
details to some
extent.

Signature of Evaluator

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Experiment No. Date Experiment Name Marks

1 Attenuation and Power Measurement
2 VSWR Measurement
3 Calculation of Directivity and coupling
coefficient in Directional Coupler
4 Characterization of E-Plane Tee, H-
Plane Tee
5 Measurements of bending loss in
Optical Fiber
6 Determination of Numerical Aperture
for Fibers
7 Analysis of Fiber optic analog and
digital link
 8 Radiation pattern of an Antenna
9 DC Characteristics of LED
Study Experiments
10 Characteristics of Gunn diode

11 Mode characteristics of reflex Klystron

Additional Experiments
12 BER and Eye Pattern Measurement

AVERAGE:

FACULTY INCHARGE

S. No. : 1 VSWR
Date: 03/11/2020 MEASUREMENT

AIM

• To determine the reflection coefficient (Γ) of various transmission lines

• To determine the voltage standing-wave ratio.

REQUIREMENT

To install a LabVIEW Run time Engine on your computer to run the exe file in
order to perform the experiment. The Run Time Engine can be downloaded from
the following link: http://joule.ni.com/nidu/cds/view/p/id/1101/lang/en

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Transmission Line
One Port Network

THEORY

Any mismatched load leads to reflected waves resulting in standing waves along the
length of the line. The ratio of maximum to minimum voltage gives the VSWR. Hence
minimum value of S is unity. If S<10 then VSWR is called low VSWR. If S>10 then
VSWR is called high VSWR. The
VSWRvaluesmorethan10areveryeasilymeasuredwiththissetup.Itcanbereadoffdirectlyonth
e VSWR meter calibrated. The measurement involves simply adjusting the attenuator to
give an adequate reading on the meter which is a D.C. mill volt meter. The probe on the
slotted wave guideis moved t get maximum reading on the meter. The attenuation is now
adjusted to get full scale reading. Next the probe on the slotted line is adjusted to get
minimum, reading on the meter. The ratio of first reading to the second gives the VSWR.
The meter itself can be calibrated in terms ofVSWR.
 Double minimum method is used to measure VSWR greater than10.In this method,
the probe is inserted to a depth where the minimum can be read without difficulty. The
probe is then moved to a point where the power is twice the minimum.

Transmission Lines:
The transmission lines are used as wave-guiding structures for transferring power and
information from one point to another. Transmission line is often schematically represented as a
two wire line, since transmission lines always have at least two conductors. A maximum transfer
of power from a given voltage source occurs under "matched conditions". A line is matched
when the load impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance of the line.

For a finite transmission line having a characteristic impedance Z o terminated by a load

impedance of ZL, and the length of line is "l". A sinusoidal voltage source V g with an internal
impedance Zg is connected to the line at z=0. In such a case, total voltage on the line can be
written as the sum of incident and reflected waves
V(z)= V o+e-jβz + Vo-ejβz

Similarly, the total current on the line is described as:

I(z) = (Vo+ / Zo)e-jβz - (Vo- / Zo)ejβz

The total voltage and current at the load are related by the load impedance, so at z=0 we must
have
ZL = V(0) / I(0) = [(Vo+ + Vo-) / (Vo+ - Vo-)]*Zo
Solving for Vo- gives
Vo- = [(ZL - Zo) / (ZL + Zo)]*Vo+
The amplitude of the reflected voltage wave normalized to the amplitude of the incident voltage
wave is defined as the voltage reflection coefficient, Γ :
Γ = Vo- / Vo+ = (ZL - Zo) / (ZL + Zo)
From the above relation, we can see that only when Γ = 0, there is no reflected wave.
Coaxial Transmission Lines:
This consists of an inner conductor and a coaxial outer conducting sheath separated by a
dielectric medium. This structure has an important advantage of confining the electric and
magnetic fields entirely within the dielectric region. No stray fields are generated by a coaxial
transmission line, and little external interference is coupled into the line. Examples are telephone
and TV cables and the input cables to high - frequency precision measuring instruments.

Characteristic Impedance, Z0 can be given as:

 Zo = (1/2π)*√(µ/ε)ln(D/d) = (138/√εr)log10(D/d)
Advantages:
• It supports TEM mode.
• chief advantage is its ability to minimize radiation losses as in a coaxial line no electric
or magnetic fields extend outside of the outer conductor.
Disadvantages:
• It is expensive to construct.
• Very bulky in nature.
• It must be kept dry to prevent excessive leakage between the two conductors.
Parallel Plate Transmission Lines:
This type of transmission line consists of two parallel conducting plates separated by a dielectric
slab of a uniform thickness. It is the simplest type of the transmission lines.

For a parallel plate transmission line with perfectly conducting plates of width 'w' and separated
by a lossless dielectric slab of thickness d, the characteristic impedance Z o is d/w times the
intrinsic impedance η of the dielectric medium.
Characteristic Impedance, Zo of the parallel plate transmission line can be obtained from the
relation:
Z0 = (d/w)*√(µ/εr) = (d/w)*η
Advantage:
• Simple to construct.
Disadvantage:
 • High radiation losses by the changing fields created by the changing current in each
conductor
• Electrical noise.
Strip Lines:
This is a planar type of transmission line that lends itself well to microwave integrated circuitry
and photolithographic fabrication. A thin conducting strip of width 'W' is centered between two
wide conducting ground planes of separation 'H', thickness of strip is 'T' and the entire region
between the ground planes is filled with dielectric, εr . Since stripline has two conductors and a
homogeneous dielectric, it can support a TEM wave, and this is the usual mode of operation.

The phase velocity of a TEM mode is given by,

vp = c/√εr where c is the speed of light in vaccuum
The characteristic impedance is given by :
Zo = (30π/√εr)*[b/(We + 0.441b)];
where We is the effective width of the center conductor given by,
We/b = W/b - 0 for W/b > 0.35
  = W/b - (0.35 - W/b)2 for W/b < 0.35.

“it is difficult to mount discrete and active components like transistors, diodes, circulators, chip
resistors, chip capacitors etc.”

Microstrip Lines:
The microstrip line is one of the most popular types of planar transmission lines, because it can
be fabricated by photolithographic processes and is easily integrated with other passive and
active microwave devices. The geometry of a microstrip line is shown in the figure below. A
conductor of width 'W' is printed on a thin, grounded dielectric substrate of thickness 'h' and
relative permittivity εr.
The presence of the dielectric, and particularly the fact that the dielectric does not fill the air
region above the strip, complicates the behavior of microstrip line. The microstrip has some
(usually most) of its field lines in the dielectric region, concentrated between the strip conductor
and the ground plane, and some fraction in the air region above the substrate. For this reason the
microstrip line cannot support a pure TEM wave, since the phase velocity of TEM fields in the
dielectric region would be c/√εr, but the phase velocity of TEM fields in the air region would be
c. Thus , a phase mismatch occurs at the dielectric- air interface.
Microstrip lines support quasi-TEM mode. Since some of the field lines are in dielectric region
and some are in air, the effective dielectric constant satisfies the relation :
1 < εe < εr
and is dependent on the substrate thickness, h, and the conductor width, W. The effective
dielectric constant of a microstrip line is given approximately by,
εe = (εr + 1)/2 + [(εr - 1)/2]*[1/√(1 + 12h/W)]
For given dimensions of the microstrip line, the characteristic impedance can be calculated as:
Zo = (60/√εe)ln(8h/W + W/4h) for W/h ≥ 1
  = 120π/√εe[W/h +1.393 + 0.667ln(W/h + 1.444)] for W/h ≤ 1
For given characteristic impedance Zo and dielectric constant εr, the W/h ratio can be found as:
W/h = 8eA/(e2A - 2) for W/h ≤ 2
= (2/π)[B - 1 - ln(2B - 1) + (ε r - 1)/2εr {ln(B - 1) + 0.39 -
  for W/h ≥ 2
0.61/εr}]
where A = (Zo/60)√(εr + 1)/2 + {(εr - 1)/(εr + 1)}*(0.23 + 0.11/εr) and B = 377π / (2Zo√εr)

PROCEDURE
• VSWR from reflection coefficient of different types of Transmission Lines
Please download the files shown on the left to perform the actual experiment. The exe file is the
LabView file that will run on Lab VIEW Run time Engine.
• Step 1: Set the maximum frequency range between 5-10 GHz.
• Step 2: Select the type of transmission line from the drop down menu.
• Step 3: Now select the sample material for which you wish to find the change in
characteristic impedance and reflection coefficient of the transmission line.
• Step 4: Run the VI to see the characteristic impedance (Z o), the |Γ| vs. frequency
curve and the reflection coefficient phase angle vs. frequency curve .
• Step 5: In case, you wish to see the characteristic impedance (Z o), the |Γ| vs.
frequency curve and the reflection coefficient phase angle vs. frequency curve for
other sample materials, then click stop and repeat steps 1,2 and 3 before running the
exe file again.

You may see the the following example for your reference, where appropriate buttons are
selected in order to measure the dielectric properties of Arlon AR600 material :
Select the maximum frequency between 5-20 GHz

Select the type of transmission line

Select the sample material

Now you can see the Characteristic impedance (Z o), Input Impedance at 5GHz, Reflection
coefficient magnitude (|Γ|) and the phase variation with the frequency.

• VSWR for one port Network

Please download the file shown on the left to perform the actual experiment. The exe file is the
LabVIEW file that will run on Lab VIEW Run time Engine. The file is the combination of
multi-program files. You cannot close any window by clicking the cross available in the top-
right corner of the window because that option has been disabled. To close any window other
than the first window that appears while running the program,click the stop button this will close
the window.
From the first window select the type of network you want to see its scattering parameter.
Step 1: Set the maximum frequency range between 5-10 GHz.
One-port Network:
One-port network can be considered as a transmission line with one end either open-circuited,
short-circuited, terminated with matched load or terminated with an arbitrary load.
 • Step 1: Enter the characteristic impedance of the transmission line and the operating
frequency in Giga Hertz.
• Step 2: Select the load impedance. For the arbitrary impedance when selected there
appears an input terminal, enter the impedance.
• Step 3: See the output.
• Step 4: To go back to the previous menu click STOP. Clicking the STOP button will
close the terminal.

OBSERVATION

Amplitude vs Frequency of Reflection Coefficient

Phase vs Frequency of Reflection Coefficient

TABULATION
• VSWR from reflection coefficient of different transmission lines
Input Parameters Output Parameters
Maximum Type of Sample Characteristic Reflection
frequency(GHz) Transmission Material Impedence Zo Coefficient Γ
Line Magnitude Phase
12.00 Strip Lines Taconic 45.3748 0.0839093 -2.62027
10.00 Parallel plate Teflon 34.4956 0.312434 -2.64669
transmission
line
9.00 Microstrip Lines Polyimide 40.1751 0.187592 -2.62824
7.00 Coaxial Resin 28.3966 0.458919 -2.68129
transmission
line
5.00 Microstrip Air 67.4849 0.25491 0.504605
Lines

GRAPH

1.

2.
3.

4.

5.
 • VSWR of one port network
Input Parameters Output Parameters
Input Characterist Operatin Load Scattering Reflection VSW
Impedanc ic g Impedanc Parameter S11 Co-efficient R
e Impedance Frequenc e Type at load
y
Magnitud Phase Magnitud Phase
e e
0 -48.02 i 49 0.25 Arbitary 1 - 1 88.84 Infinit
Impedenc 91.158 3 y
e
47 +0 i 47 1.25 Matched 0 0 0 0 1
Impedenc
e
0 -5.162 i 51 3.25 Open 1 - 0 1 Infinit
circuited 168.44 y
1
0 54 8.25 Short 1 11.559 1 180 Infinit
+533.508 i Circuited y

MODEL CALCULATION

• VSWR from reflection coefficient of different transmission lines

VSWR=(1+Γ)/(1−Γ)

Reflection Coefficient Γ VSWR

0.0839093 1.1832
0.312434 1.9088
0.187592 1.4618
0.458919 2.6963
0.25491 1.6842
RESULT

Thus, reflection coefficient and standing wave ratio were determined for different types of
transmission lines and one port network.

Ex.No-2 ATTENUATION AND POWER MEASUREMENT

DATE:3/11/2020

Aim
To study the characteristics of two port network (T-network, π-network, Transmission
lines) and to measure the values of attenuation and power gain.
Requirement
To install a LabVIEW Run time Engine on your computer to run the exe file in order
to perform the experiment. The Run Time Engine can be downloaded from the following
link: http://joule.ni.com/nidu/cds/view/p/id/1101/lang/en

Knowledge Required for the Experiment

• Z-matrix and Y-matrix for two port networks.
• Scattering matrix.

Circuit Diagram

T network

π network

Transmission Line

Theory
 A two-port network is an electrical circuit or device with two pairs of
terminals connected together internally by an electrical network. Two
terminals constitute a port if they satisfy the essential requirement known
as the port condition (the same current must enter and leave a port).
A two-port network makes possible the isolation of either a
complete circuit or part of it and replacing it by its characteristic
parameters. Once this is done, the isolated part of the circuit becomes a
“black box” with a set of distinctive properties, enabling us to abstract
away its specific physical buildup, thus simplifying analysis. Any linear
circuit with four terminals can be transformed into a two-port network
provided that it does not contain an independent source and satisfies the
port conditions.

Procedure

Evaluation of Scattering Parameters for the two-port network

The idea of incident, reflected and transmitted wave is given by the scattering
matrix.
The scattering matrix provides a complete description of the network as seen at
its N ports.
The scattering matrix relates the voltage waves incident on the ports to those
reflected from the ports.

From some components and circuits, the scattering parameters can be

calculated using the network analysis technique.
Scattering parameters are defined in terms of incident and reflected voltage
waves as,

Select the specific element of S-matrix of two port network

The two-port network has a characteristics impedance of Zo and its port

impedance is Zo.

(S11 is found by driving port 1 with an incident wave of V1+, and measuring the
reflected wave amplitude, V1-, coming out of port 1.

The incident wave on port 2 is set to zero, which means that port 2 should be
terminated in matched load to the port impedance to avoid reflection from the
port.)

Step 1: For the evaluation of scattering parameter of two-port network

select the “two-port network” option from the main menu of the exe file.
Clicking the two-port network will open a new window.
 Step 2: Select any of the given S-parameter option. This will show you the
port matched and the selected parameter in terms of incident and
reflected voltage.

Step 3: For the two-port network some examples are given, click on any
example to evaluate S-parameter for the network. Or click stop to return to
the previous menu.

If an example is selected
Step 4: Enter the value of Z1, Z2, Z3 and characteristic impedance Z0.

Step 5: Selecting the desired S-parameter will show the corresponding

port matched and will give the formula to evaluate the parameter and
finally the result is displayed in terms of magnitude and phase of S-
parameter.

Observations

T-network
π network
Transmission Line

Tabulation

Input Parameters Output Parameters

Network Z1 Z2 Z3 Z S11 S12 S21 S22
Type 0 Magnit Phas Magnit Phas Magnit Phas Magnit Phas
ude e ude e ude e ude e
T 8.5 8.5 141 5 0 0 0.708 0.708 0 0
Network 6 6 .8 0 0 0
 +0 +0 +0 i +
i i 0
i
Pi- 13 12 12+ 5 0.361 0.285 0.285 0.383 0
Network +0 +0 0 i 0 180 0 0
i i
Transmiss Characteristic 0 0 1 1 0 0
ion Line impedance=50 -180 -180
Port
impedance=50+0i

Calculations:

T Network: = 2.9992
= -1
Pi- Network: =10.296
= -1
Transmission
Line :=0
= -1

Model Graph
Result
Thus, the characteristics of two port networks (T network, π network, Transmission lines)
was studied and the attenuation and power calculations are determined using the
scattering parameters.

Ex.no – 3 Determination of Numerical Aperture of Optical Fibers

Date : 06/11/20

AIM

To find the numerical aperture of a given optic fiber and

hence to find its acceptance angle.

REQUIREMENT

Mozilla Firefox Browser with Adobe Flash Player.

THEORY

Optical fibers are fine

transparent glass or plastic fibers which can propagate light. They work under
the principle of total internal reflection from diametrically opposite walls. In this
way light can be taken anywhere because fibers have enough flexibility. This
property makes them suitable for data communication, design of fine
endoscopes, micro sized microscopes etc. An optic fiber consists of a core that is
surrounded by a cladding which are normally made of silica glass or plastic. The
core transmits an optical signal while the cladding guides the light within the
core. Since light is guided through the fiber it is sometimes called an optical wave
guide. The basic construction of an optic fiber is shown in figure (1).
 In order to understand the propagation of light through an optical fibre,
consider the figure (2). Consider a light ray (i) entering the core at a point A ,
travelling through the core until it reaches the core cladding boundary at point
B. As long as the light ray intersects the core-cladding boundary at a small
angles, the ray will be reflected back in to the core to travel on to point C where
the process of reflection is repeated .ie., total internal reflection takes place. Total
internal reflection occurs only when the angle of incidence is greater than the
critical angle. If a ray enters an optic fiber at a steep angle(ii), when this ray
intersects the core-cladding boundary, the angle of intersection is too large.
So, reflection back in to the

core does
not take place and the light ray is lost in the cladding. This means that to be
guided through an optic fiber, a light ray must enter the core with an angle less
than a particular angle called the acceptance angle of the fiber. A ray which
enters the fiber with an angle greater than the acceptance angle will be lost in
the cladding.

Consider an optical fibre

having a
core of refractive index n1
and
cladding of refractive index n2.
let
the incident light makes an
angle i
with the core axis as shown in
figure
(3). Then the light gets refracted at an angle θ and fall on the core-cladding
interface at an angle where,
 (1)
By Snell’s law at the point of entrance of light in to the optical fiber we get,

(2)

Where n0 is refractive index of medium

outside the fiber. For air n0 =1.

When light travels from core to cladding it

moves
from denser to rarer medium and so it may be
totally reflected back to the core medium
if θ'
exceeds the critical angle θ'c. The critical angle
is
that angle of incidence in denser medium (n1)
for

which angle of refraction become 90°. Using Snell’s laws

at core cladding interface,
or

(3)
 Therefore, for light to be propagated within the core of optical fiber as
guided wave, the angle of incidence at core-cladding interface should be greater
than θ'c. As i increases, θ increases and so θ' decreases. Therefore, there is
maximum value of angle of incidence
beyond which, it does not propagate rather it is refracted in to cladding medium
( fig: 3(b)). This maximum value of i say im is called maximum angle of
acceptance and n0 sin im is termed as the numerical aperture (NA).

From equation(2),

From equation (2)

Therefore,
The significance of NA is that light entering in the cone of semi vertical
i
angle m only propagate through the fiber. The higher the value of i m or NA more
is the light collected for propagation in the fiber. Numerical aperture is thus
considered as a light gathering capacity of an optical fiber.
Numerical Aperture is defined as the Sine of half of the angle of
fibre’s light acceptance cone. i.e. NA= Sin θa where θa, is called
acceptance cone angle.

Let the spot size of the beam at a distance d (distance between the fiber end and

detector) as the radius of the spot(r).

PROCEDURE
 Go to the Website: http://vlab.amrita.edu/?

sub=1&brch=189&sim=343&cnt=2 Start button: To start the

experiment.

Switch on: To switch on the Laser.

Select Fiber: To select the type of fiber used.

Select Laser: To select a different laser source.

Detector distance (Z): Use the slider to vary the distance between the
source and detector. (ie toward the fiber or away from the fiber.

Detector distance(x): Use the slider to change the detector distance i.e
towards left or right w.r.t the fiber.

Show Graph: To Displays the graph.

Reset: To resets the experimental arrangement.

Preliminary Adjustment
• Drag and drop each apparatus in to the optical table as shown in the figure

below.

• Then Click “Start” button.

• Switch On (now you can see a spot in the middle of the detector)
• After that select the Fiber and Laser for performing the
experiment from the control options.
To perform the experiment

• Set the detector distance Z (say 4mm). We referred the distance as

“d” in our calculation.
• Vary the detector distance X by an order of 0.5mm, using the screw
gauge (use up and down arrow on the screw gauge to rotate it).
• Measure the detector reading from output unit and tabulate it.
• Plot the graph between X in x-axis and output reading in y-axis. See figure 5.
• Find the radius of the spot r, which is corresponding to Imax/2.71 (See the figure 5).
• Then find the numerical aperture of the optic fiber using the equation (4).

OBSERVATION
S. Fiber Type Laser Distance X IµA Radius of
No. mm the Spot
1 Glass Glass Fiber Red 8 .25 4
2 Glass Glass Fiber Green 8 .21 4
3 Glass Glass Fiber Blue 8 .18 4
4 Plastic Glass Fiber Red 8 .16 4
5 Plastic Glass Fiber Green 8 .14 4
6 Plastic Glass Fiber Blue 8 .12 4
MODEL CALCULATION

Reading 1:
Numerical Aperture of the optic fiber, sin(θ)
=.447 Acceptance angle, θ=26.56

Reading 2:
Numerical Aperture of the optic fiber, sin(θ)
=.447 Acceptance angle, θ=26.56

Reading 3:
Numerical Aperture of the optic fiber, sin(θ)
=.447 Acceptance angle, θ=26.56

Reading 4:
Numerical Aperture of the optic fiber, sin(θ)
=.447 Acceptance angle, θ=26.56

Reading 5:
Numerical Aperture of the optic fiber, sin(θ)
=.447 Acceptance angle, θ=26.56
Reading 6:
Numerical Aperture of the optic fiber, sin(θ)
=.477 Acceptance angle, θ=26.56

MODEL GRAPH

F
i
g
.

RESULT
Thus, the Numerical aperture and Acceptance Angle of optic fiber was estimated.

Ex.NO:4 Calculation of Directivity and coupling coefficient in

Directional
Date:09/11/20 Coupler
 Objective:
To measure the coupling factor and directivity of the directional coupler.

Requirement:
Visit the site to verify the characteristics of Directional Coupler
: https://cspitec.com/directional-coupler

Knowledge required for the experiment

• Scattering matrix for four port networks
• Parameters of Directional coupler

Theory:
A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the
incident and reflected wave separately. It consists of two transmission lines the
main arm and auxiliary arm, electromagnetically coupled to each other. The
power entering, in the main- arm(port 1) gets divided between port 2 and 4, and
almost no power comes out in port (3) Power entering at port 2 is divided
between port 1 and 3. It is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Directional Coupler

The coupling factor is defined as

Coupling Factor (C) = 10 logP1=-20 log S41
4

where port 2 is terminated, Isolation (dB) is defined

by,

I 3 ൌൌ 2ͳlͲgS31 where P1 is matched.

ൌ 1ͳlͲg P
1
 With built-in termination and power entering at Port 1, the directivity of
the coupler is a measure of separation between incident wave and the reflected
wave. ell-designed

directional couplers have a directivity of only 30 to 35 dB. Directivity is

measured indirectly as follows:

Hence

Directivity (D) = 10 log P4 ൌ 2ͳlͲg S41

P3 S31

Main line VSWR is SWR measured, looking into the main-line input
terminal when the matched loads are placed at all other ports. Auxiliary live
VSWR is SWR measured in the auxiliary line looking into the output terminal
when the matched loads are placed on other terminals.

Main line insertion loss is the attenuation introduced in the transmission

line by insertion of coupler, it is defined as:

I Pu ൌ 1ͳlͲg
ntroduͲn LͲtt dB ൌ 1ͳlͲg

PͲ

ൌ 1
2ͳlͲg

Reflection loss occurs on a line which results in part of the energy

being reflected back to the source and it is given by,
 R Pu
rflrcduͲn LͲtt dB ൌ 1ͳlͲg

Pu ൌ Po

ൌ 1
1ͳlͲg

Return loss is the loss of power in the signal returned/reflected by a

discontinuity in a transmission line

Rrduon Pu ൌ 2ͳlͲg 1
LͲtt dB ൌ 1ͳlͲg

Po

ൌ 1
2ͳlͲg

Procedure:

Step 1: Enter the Coupling Factor in dB

Step 2: Enter the start

frequency and end frequency in GHz

Step 3: Click the S Parameters Tab for calculation for S Parameters

Step 4: Calculate the S Parameters for four port as input port

Observation:

Figure 2. Port 1 as an input port

Figure 3. Port 2 as an input port

 Figure 4. Port 3 as an input port

Figure 5. Port 4 as an input port

Tabulation:

S. No Input Port Coupli S Parameters Directivity Return Isolation

ng Factor (dB) Loss Loss
(in dB) (dB) (dB)
Reading 6 S11 S21 S31 S41 -93.996 60 6
1 P1 .00 .86 .50 .000
1 5 1 01
S12 S22 S32 S42 -93.996 60 6
P2 .86 .00 .00 .501
5 1 001
S13 S23 S33 S43
P3
Ni
S14 S24 S34 S44
 P4 l
Reading 8 S11 S21 S31 S41 -91.997 60 8
2 P1 .00 .91 .39 .000
1 7 8 01
S12 S22 S32 S42 -91.997 60 8
P2 .91 .00 .00 .398
7 1 001

S13 S23 S33 S43

P3
Nil
S14 S24 S34 S44
P4

d
 i

When Input Port 1:

Directivity (D) = 10 log P4 ൌ 2ͳlͲg S41

When Input Port 2:

P3
Rrduon LͲtt dB ൌ 2ͳlͲg 1

S11

I 3 ൌൌ 2ͳlͲgS31
ൌ 1ͳlͲg P
1

Directivity (D) 32
ൌ 2ͳlͲg S
S42
Rrduon LͲtt dB ൌ 2ͳlͲg 1

S22

S31

I ൌൌ 2ͳlͲgS42

Reading 2:
 When Input Port 1:

Directivity (D) = 10 log P4 ൌ 2ͳlͲg S41

When Input Port 2:

P3
Rrduon LͲtt dB ൌ 2ͳlͲg 1

S11

I 3 ൌൌ 2ͳlͲgS31
ൌ 1ͳlͲg P
1

Directivity (D) 32
ൌ 2ͳlͲg S
S42
Rrduon LͲtt dB ൌ 2ͳlͲg 1

S22
I ൌൌ 2ͳlͲgS42

S31
 RESULT:
Thus, the insertion loss, isolation loss and directivity of a directional coupler are
measured.

Ex.no: 5 Characterization of E-Plane Tee, H-Plane Tee

Date:10/11/20 and Magic Tee

AIM
• To understand the principles, usage and applications of waveguide junctions.
• To understand the working of different types of waveguide junctions.
• To analyze the characteristics of the E-plane, H-plane and magic tee.

REQUIREMENT
 To install a LabVIEW Run time Engine on your computer to run the exe
file in order to perform the experiment. The Run Time Engine can be downloaded
from the following link: http://joule.ni.com/nidu/cds/view/p/id/1101/lang/en

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

THEORY
Scattering Matrix:
Like the impedance or admittance matrix for an N-port network, the
scattering matrix provides a complete description of the network as
seen at its N ports. While the impedance and admittance matrices
relate the total voltages and currents at the ports, the scattering matrix
relates the voltage waves incident on the ports to those reflected from
the ports. For some components and circuits, the scattering parameters
can be calculated using network analysis techniques. Otherwise, the
scattering parameters can be measured directly with a vector network
analyzer.

Network Analyzer

Consider the N-port network shown in figure where V n+ is the

amplitude of the voltage wave incident on port n and V n- is the
amplitude of the voltage wave reflected from port n. The scattering
matrix or [S] matrix, is defined in relation to these incident and
reflected voltage waves as

A specific element of the S-matrix can be determined as,

In words the equation says that Sijis found by driving port j with an
incident wave of voltage Vj+, and measuring the reflected wave
amplitude, Vi coming out of port i. The incident waves on all ports
except the jth port are set to zero, which means that all ports should be
terminated in matched loads to avoid reflections. Thus, Sii is the
reflection coefficient seen looking into port i when all other ports are
terminated in matched loads, and S ij is the transmission coefficient
from port j to port i when all other ports are terminated in matched
loads.
Matched Networks:
A matched network is one in which all of the ports are matched to the
same impedance (Z0). Looking at the scattering matrix, this means that
the diagonal elements from top left to bottom right are all zero. If a
network is matched to fifty ohms, its reflection coefficients have
magnitude zero. This means we are at the center of the Smith chart,
right at Z0. If we look at the expression for reflection coefficient:

For Z=Z0 reflection coefficient becomes zero.

Reciprocal Networks:
For a two-port network it is said to be reciprocal if the voltage
appearing at port 2 due to a current applied at port 1 is the same as the
voltage appearing at port 1 when the same current is applied to port 2.
Exchanging voltage and current results in an equivalent definition of
reciprocity. In general, a network will be reciprocal if it consists
entirely of linear passive components i.e. resistors, capacitors and
inductors. In general, it will not be reciprocal if it contains active
components such as generators.
Symmetrical Networks:
A network is symmetrical if its input impedance is equal to its output
impedance. Most often, but not necessarily, symmetrical networks are
also physically symmetrical. Sometimes also antimetrical networks
are of interest. These are networks where the input and output
impedances are the duals of each other.
Lossless Networks:
A lossy passive network is one in which the sum of the incident
powers at all ports is greater than the sum of the reflected powers at
all ports. It therefore dissipates power. As we know that the
impedance and admittance matrices are symmetric for reciprocal
networks, and purely imaginary for lossless networks. Similarly, the
scattering matrix for a reciprocal network is symmetric, and that the S
matrix for a lossless network is unitary.

Waveguide junctions are used when power in a waveguide needs to be

split or some extracted. There are a number of different types of
waveguide junction that can be use, each type having different
properties - the different types of waveguide junction affect the energy
contained within the waveguide in different ways. There are a number
of different types of waveguide junction. The major types are listed
below:

H-type T Junction:This type of waveguide junction gains its name

because top of the "T" in the T junction is parallel to the plane of the
magnetic field, H lines in the waveguide.

E-Type T Junction:This form of waveguide junction gains its name

as an E- type T junction because the tope of the "T" extends from the
main waveguide in the same plane as the electric field in the
waveguide.

Magic T waveguide junction:The magic T waveguide junction is

effectively a combination of the E-type and H-type waveguide
junctions.
PROCEDURE

Please download the file shown on the left to perform the actual experiment. The
exe file is the LabVIEW file that will run on Lab VIEW Run time Engine. The file
is the combination of multi-program files. You cannot close any window by
clicking the cross available in the top-right corner of the window because that
option has been disabled. To close any window other than the first window that
appears while running the program,click the stop button this will close the
window.
From the first window select the type of network you want to see its scattering
parameter.

Step 1: Set the maximum frequency range between 5-10 GHz.

Three-port Network:
Power dividers and directional couplers are some 3-port passive microwave
components used for power division or power combining. A 3-port network will
have 9 elements in its scattering matrix written as,

Three port network is shown in the figure, with incident and reflected voltage
wave
An interesting property of 3-port networks, however, is that they cannot be
simultaneously reciprocal, loss-less, and perfectly matched.
Scattering parameters are defined in terms of incident and reflected voltage waves

TABULATION

Matched Ports Reciprocal/ Lossless/ S Matrix Network

Non Lossy
Reciprocal
 010
Two port Reciprocal Lossless 100
matched(Port 001
1 and Port 2)

Two port Reciprocal Lossless 100

matched(Port 001
2 and Port 3) 010

Two port
matched(Port Reciprocal Lossless 001
3 and Port 1) 010
100

Two port Non- Lossy 0 S12 S13

matched(Port Reciprocal S21 0 S23
1 and Port 2) S31 S32 S33

Two port Non-

matched(Port Reciprocal Lossy
2 and Port 3)
Two port Non-
matched(Port Reciprocal Lossy
3 and Port 1)

Two port
matched(Port Reciprocal Lossy
3 and Port 1)

All ports Reciprocal Lossless

matched

All ports Non- 010

matched Reciprocal Lossless 101
000

All ports Reciprocal Lossy

matched
 All ports Non- Lossy
matched Reciprocal

Two port Reciprocal Lossy

matched(Port
1 and Port 2)

OBSERVATION

MODEL CALCULATION
E Plane S Matrix
Refer:
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/microwave_engineering/microwave_engineering_e
plane_tee.htm
H Plane S Matrix
Refer:
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/microwave_engineering/microwave_engineering_h
plane_tee.htm
Magic Tee S Matrix
Refer:
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/microwave_engineering/microwave_engineering_e
h_plane_tee.htm

RESULT
Thus the characteristics of E-plane, H-plane and magic tee has been studied.
Ex.no-6 MEASUREMENTS OF BENDING AND COUPLING LOSSES
DATE:16.11.2020

Aim
• To Investigate the Bending losses in multi-mode optical Fiber.
• To Investigate the Transmission (Attenuation) Characteristics of Optical Fiber.

Requirements
Mozilla Firefox Browser with Adobe Flash Player.

Theory-Attenuation Characteristics of Optical Fiber

The attenuation or transmission loss of optical fibers has proved to be one of
the most important factors in bringing about their wide acceptance in
telecommunications. As channel attenuation largely determined the maximum
transmission distance prior to signal restoration, optical fiber communications became
especially attractive when the transmission losses of fibers were reduced below those
of the competing metallic conductors (less than 5 dB/ km).
Signal attenuation within optical fibers, as with metallic conductors, is usually
expressed in the logarithmic unit of the decibel.
The decibel, which is used for comparing two power levels, may be defined for
a particular optical wavelength as the ratio of the input (transmitted) optical power Pi
into a fiber to the output (received) optical power Po from the fiber as:

Conversion of dB to numerical values can be obtained using the relationship:

In optical fiber communications the attenuation is usually expressed in decibels per unit
length (i.e. dB /km) following:

Where αdB is the signal attenuation per unit length in decibels which is also referred to as
the fiber loss parameter and L is the fiber length.
A number of mechanisms are responsible for the signal attenuation within optical fibers.
They may be categorized as,
• Material absorption: Atomic Defects, Intrinsic Absorption and Extrinsic
Absorption

• Material scattering (Rayleigh & Mie scattering),

• Bending Losses (Micro bending & Macro bending Losses)

• Mode coupling radiation losses and

• Losses due to leaky modes

Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to the material composition and

the fabrication process for the fiber, which results in the dissipation of some of the
transmitted optical power as heat in the waveguide. These losses are categorized in to
three categories, they are: Atomic Defects, Intrinsic absorption and Extrinsic Absorption.

Intrinsic Absorption:

• Intrinsic loss is defined as that absorption, when the material is in a perfect

state with no density variations, impurities or material inhomogeneities.

• It Puts fundamental lower limit on absorption.

• Electronic absorption band (UV region) & atomic bond vibration band (IR
region) in basic SiO2. The electronic absorption bands are associated with
the band gap of the amorphous glass materials.

• Peak absorption level is at 0.8 um.

• In near infrared region, interaction between vibrating bond and optical

signal results in transfer of energy from field to bond.

Rayleigh scattering:

 It is the dominant intrinsic loss mechanism in the low-absorption window

between the ultraviolet and infrared absorption tails.
  It results from inhomogeneities of a random nature occurring on a small
scale compared with the wavelength of the light.
 These inhomogeneities manifest themselves as refractive index
fluctuations and arise from density and compositional variations which are frozen
into the glass lattice on cooling.
 The scattering due to the density fluctuations, which is in almost all
directions, produces an attenuation proportional to 1/λ4 following the Rayleigh
scattering formula. For a single-component glass this is given by:

Where is the Rayleigh scattering coefficient, λ is the optical wavelength, n is the

refractive index of the medium, p is the average photoelastic coefficient, βc is the
isothermal compressibility at a fictive temperature Tf , and K is Boltzmann’s constant.

The Rayleigh scattering coefficient is related to the transmission loss factor

(transmissivity) of the fiber following the relation.

All parameters are mathematically expressed as follows; note all depend upon
wavelength of transmitted signal.

• Infrared Absorption

• Ultraviolet Absorption, x is mole of fraction of GeO2 = 0.0175

• Rayleigh Scattering
 The attenuation due to various phenomenon in Fiber vs Wavelength.

Theory-Bending Loss in Multi-Mode Optical Fiber

Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their paths. There
are two types of bends in optical fibers.
(a) Macroscopic bending loss (having a larger radius than that of the fiber diameter)
(b) Microscopic bending loss (random microscopic bends of the fiber axis)
Macroscopic bending loss: This is due to the energy in the evanescent field at
the bend exceeding the velocity of light in the cladding and hence the guidance
mechanism is inhibited, which causes light energy to be radiated from the fiber. An
illustration of this situation is shown in Figure.
 The part of the mode which is on the outside of the bend is required to
travel faster than that on the inside so that a wave front perpendicular to the
direction of propagation is maintained. Hence, part of the mode in the cladding
needs to travel faster than the velocity of light in that medium. As this is not
possible, the energy associated with this part of the mode is lost through
radiation.

The loss can generally be represented by a radiation attenuation coefficient

which has the form

where R is the radius of curvature of the fiber bend and c1, c2 are constants
which are independent of R. Furthermore, large bending losses tend to occur in
multimode fibers at a critical radius of curvature Rc which may be estimated from

It may be observed from the expression given in above Eq. that potential
macro bending losses may be reduced by: (a) designing fibers with large relative
refractive index differences; (b) operating at the shortest wavelength possible

As the radius of curvature decreases, the loss increases exponentially

until at a certain critical radius of curvature loss becomes observable. If the bend
radius is made a bit smaller once this threshold point has been reached, the
losses suddenly become extremely large.

Micro bending Loss: Another form of radiation loss in optical waveguide results
from mode coupling caused by random micro bends of the optical fiber. Micro
bends are repetitive small-scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the fiber
axis. They are caused either by non-uniformities in the manufacturing of the fiber
or by non-uniform lateral pressures created during the cabling of the fiber. An
increase in attenuation results from micro bending because the fiber curvature
causes repetitive coupling of energy between the guided modes and the leaky or
non-guided modes in the fiber.

Micro bending losses can be minimized by placing a compressible jacket

over the fiber. When external forces are applied to this configuration, the jacket
will be deformed but the fiber will tend to stay relatively straight.

Procedure-Attenuation Characteristics of Optical Fiber

Part A: (To study Attenuation in Optical Fiber due to various Mechanisms)

In this experiment we are observing the effect of wavelength of input signal

on attenuation in Fiber.

• Vary the wavelength (in μm) from 0.4μm to 2μm with incremental steps of
0.1μm with the help of the wavelength slider to obtain the attenuation for
the mechanisms.

• Select one wavelength and then click the calculate button Calculate in
order to calculate the values and the value is obtained as one of the row
as output in the table given.

• After calculating all the values for the given input wavelengths, click on the
plot button Plot to plot the graphs.

• Observe the variation of attenuation with wavelength for a particular

mechanism.

• Write down the Result and Conclusion observed, in the area given below.
 Part B: (To study effect of change in Length on Output Power of Optical
Fiber)

In this experiment we are observing the effect of length of propagation on

attenuation in Fiber.
• In this experiment, the input power is selected as 1mw.
• First select the length of Fiber (in km) from 0.5km to 10km with incremental
steps of 500m with the help of the slider given.
• After Selecting one value from the slider click on the calculate button
Calculate in order to calculate the output Power and that value is added in
a row of the table.
• After varying all the length values click on the plot button Plot to plot the
graphs.
• Observe the variation of attenuation with length.
• Write down the Result and Conclusion observed, in the area given below.

Procedure-Bending Loss in Multi-Mode Optical Fiber:

Part A: Bending Radius v/s Bending Loss
• Once you are on the experiment Simulator Page, Select the Bending Radius
from the slider by moving it towards right.
NOTE: The Range for the slider is kept from 0mm to 15mm.
• The Simulator page consists of 3 parts: Input, Output Table and Output Graphs.
• You can click calculate Calculate after selecting the desired radius to get the
corresponding Bending Loss.
NOTE: The page will allow you to calculate only 16 entries .
• After calculating the bending loss you can click on Plot button Plot to plot the
graphs.
• Observe Graph and Output Tx Graph to see the change in width of input pulse
and output pulse every time the Bending Radius increases.
• Note your observations
• Write down the Result and Conclusion observed, in the area given below.

Part B: Number of Turns v/s Bending Loss

• Once you are on the experiment Simulator Page, Select the Number of turns
from the slider by moving it towards right.
NOTE: The Range for the slider is kept from 1 to 10 turns.
 • The Simulator page consists of 3 parts: Input, Output Table and Output Graph.
• You can click calculate Calculate after selecting the desired Turn to get the
corresponding Bending Loss.
NOTE: The page will allow you to calculate only 10 entries.
• After calculating the bending loss, you can click on Plot button.
• Observe the Graph.
• Note your observations.
• Write down the Result and Conclusion observed, in the area given below.
Observation:
Formula:
I

Wavelength vs Absorption
S No Wavelength ( Infrared Ultraviolet Rayleigh
Absorption(db) Absorption(db) Scattering(db)
1 0.4 47.2 3.612
8.10e-42
2 0.6 3.72e-24 0.996 2.408
3 0.7 4.13e-19 0.331 2.064
4 0.9 2.21e-12 0.0761 1.606
5 1 5.00e-10 0.0455 1.445
Formula:
Length of Fiber vs Output Power
For Output Power:

S No Length (Km) Pout (W)

1 1.5 8.68e-8
2 2 7.72e-8
3 2.5 6.86e-8
4 3.5 5.42e-8
5 4 4.82e-8
Formula:
Bending Loss due to Bending Radius:

Bending Radius vs Bending Losses

S No Bending Radius Bending Loss (LR)

(R) in mm in (dB/mm)
1 1 0.01
2 2 0.02
3 3 0.03
4 5 0.05
5 6 0.06
Formula:
Bending Loss due to Number of Turns:

Number of Turns vs Bending Losses

S No Number of turns Bending Loss (LN)
(N) in (dB/turn)
1 1 42.5
2 2 25.8
3 3 15.6
4 4 9.47
5 5 5.75
6 6 3.49
RESULT
• Thus, the Investigation for the Bending losses in multi-mode optical Fiber has
been done
• Thus, the Investigation for the Transmission (Attenuation) Characteristics of
Optical Fiber has been done
Ex.no 7 Transmission characteristics of
Multimode Date:19/11/2020 fibre

Aim

To study the characteristics of a multimode fibre.

Requirement:

(note: The experiment consists of 3 parts a) study of intermodal dispersion

b)power budget analysis and c) study of rise time budget analysis)

• Virtual lab link: http://ofcvlab.vesit.ves.ac.in/2/sim.html

• Virtual lab link: http://ofcvlab.vesit.ves.ac.in/5/sim.html

 • Virtual lab link: http://ofcvlab.vesit.ves.ac.in/6/exp6.html

• Intermodal dispersion:

Theory
A pulse of light sent into a fiber broadens in time as it propagates through Fiber. This
phenomenon is called as Dispersion. 
There are two types of dispersion:
1)Intermodal dispersion
2) Intramodal dispersion
Pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion (sometimes referred to simply as modal
or mode dispersion) results from the propagation delay differences between modes
within a multimode fiber.
As the different modes which constitute a pulse in a multimode fiber travel along the
channel at different group velocities, the pulse width at the output is dependent upon the
transmission times of the slowest and fastest modes.
The multimode step index fibers exhibit a large amount of intermodal dispersion which
gives the greatest pulse broadening.
Using the ray theory model, the fastest and slowest modes propagating in the step index
fiber may be represented by the axial ray and the extreme meridional ray (which is
incident at the core–cladding interface at the critical angle c) respectively.
As both rays are traveling at the same velocity within the constant refractive index
In fiber core, then the delay difference is directly related to their respective path lengths
within the fiber.

Therefore the pulse spread δ Ts in time domain is given by,

The amount of pulse spread (broadening) is dependent upon the distance the pulse
travels within the fiber, and hence for a given optical fiber link the restriction on usable
bandwidth is dictated by the distance between regenerative repeaters distance the light
pulse travels before it is reconstituted). Thus the measurement of the dispersive
properties of a particular fiber is usually stated as the pulse broadening in time over a
unit length of the fiber (i.e. ns/ km).
Hence, the number of optical signal pulses which may be transmitted in a given period,
and therefore the information-carrying capacity of the fiber, is restricted by the amount of
pulse dispersion per unit length. In the absence of mode coupling or filtering, the pulse
broadening increases linearly with fiber length and thus the bandwidth is inversely
proportional to distance. This leads to the adoption of a more useful parameter for the
information-carrying capacity of an optical fiber which is known as the bandwidth–length
product (i.e. B . L).
For no overlapping of light pulses down on an optical fiber link for NRZ format the digital
bit rate BT must be less than the reciprocal of the broadened (through dispersion) pulse
duration δ Ts . i.e BT << 1 / 2 δ Ts

Procedure
• Once you are on the experiment simulator page , select the fibre material of
Optical Fibre from the drop-down.

• The simulator page consists of 3 parts : Input , Output Table, Output Graphs.

• For material selected from drop-down , desired parameters like CORE R.I. and
CLADDING R.I. get automatically selected in Input Panel already.
• The value of Length can be varied from 0.5km to 5km with incremental steps of
500m.

• Move the slider towards the right , step by step and press the   
button to calculate Pulse Spread after every increase in Length from the slider.

• As you slide the slider incrementally towards right and press the   
Output table starts filling values.

• Once you are done with the last value on the slider i.e. 5km press the   
button to Plot the graph between Calculated value of Pulse
Spread and Selected value for Fibre Length.

• Observe input and output pulse graphs to see the change in width of input pulse
and output pulse every time the length increases.

• You can press the   anytime to reset and start over again.

• Note your observations

Tabular column:

Length(km) n1 n2 Pulse spread(ns/KM)

0.5 1.5 1.47 0.0500

1 1.5 1.47 0.1

1.5 1.5 1.47 0.150

2 1.5 1.47 0.200

2.5 1.5 1.47 0.250

3 1.5 1.47 0.3

3.5 1.5 1.47 0.350

4 1.5 1.47 0.400

Graph:
Model Graphs:
 • Link budget (power budget) of Optical Fiber communication
link.
Theory:
The simplest transmission link is a point to point line having a transmitter at one end and
a receiver on the other.> The design of an optical fiber involves many interrelated
variables such as the fiber, optical source, and photo detector operating characteristics.
Since performance and cost constraints are very important factors in fiber optic
communication links, the designer must carefully choose the components to ensure that
the desired performance level can be maintained over the expected system life without
component characteristics.
The key system requirements needed in analyzing a link are.
• The desired (or possible transmission distance
• The data rate or channel bandwidth
• The bit error rate (BER)
To fulfill these requirements the designer has a choice of following components and their
associated characteristics:
Multimode Fiber or single mode optical fiber: core size, core refractive index profile,
bandwidth or dispersion, attenuation and numerical aperture.
Optical source: LED or Laser diode : Emission wavelength, spectral line width, output
power, Effective radiating area, emission pattern, no of emitting modes

Optical detector: Pin or Avalanche photo diode: Responsiveness, operating

wavelength, speed, sensitivity.

Two analyses are carried out to ensure that the desired system performance can be
met. These are the link power budget and the rise time budget analysis.
• One first determines the power margin between the optical transmitter output
and the minimum receiver sensitivity needed to establish a specified BER.
• The margin then can be allocated to connector, splice plus any additional
margins required for expected component degradation or temperature effects.
• If the choice of components did not allow the desired transmission distance to
be achieved, the components might have to be changed or repeaters might
have to be incorporated into the link.
• Once the link power budget has been established, the designer can perform a
system rise time analysis to ensure that the desired overall system
performance has been met.
System considerations:
• In carrying out a link power budget, we first decide at which wavelength to
transmit and then choose components in this region. If the distance over
which the data are to be transmitted is not too far, we may decide to operate
in 800-900nm region. On the other hand, if the transmission distance is
relatively long, we may want to take advantage of the lower attenuation and
dispersion that occurs at wavelength around 1300 or 1550 nm.
• Having decided on a wavelength, we next check the system blocks
performance, they are Transmitter, Fiber and receiver. Normally designer
chooses the characteristics of two of these elements and then computes the
third to see if the system performance requirements are met or not. If the
components have been over specified or underspecified, design iteration may
be needed.
• In choosing an optical source, we have choice between the use of LED and a
Laser diode and system parameters are signal dispersion, data rate,
transmission distance and cost. The following choice of components are
available
• Peak absorption level is at 0.8 um.
• In near infrared region, interaction between vibrating bond and optical signal
results in transfer of energy from field to bond.
• Since laser diodes typically couple from 10-15 db more optical power into
a fiber than an LED, greater repeater less transmission distances are
possible with a laser. The advantage and the lower dispersion capability
of laser diodes may be offset by cost constraints. Not only the laser
diodes are expensive than an LED, but also the laser transmitter circuitry
is much more complex.
• In choosing a particular photo detector at the receiver, we mainly need to
know the minimum optical power that must fall on the photo detector to satisfy
the BER requirement at the specified data rate. In making this choice the
 designer also needs to take into account any design cost and complexity
constraints. As it is known that pin photodiode receiver is simple, more stable
with changes in temperature and less expensive than an avalanche
photodiode receiver. In addition pin photodiodes bias voltages are normally
50V, whereas those of avalanche photodiodes are several hundred volts.
However, the advantage of pin photodiodes may be overruled by the
increased sensitivity of the avalanche photodiode if very low optical power
levels are to be detected.
• For the optical fiber choice, we have single mode and multi mode fibers.
Either of each could be a step index or graded index core. The choice
depends upon the type of light source used and the amount of dispersion that
can be tolerated. LEDs are used with multimode fiber and either a single
mode or a multimode fiber can be used with a laser diode. A single mode fiber
can provide the ultimate bit rate distance product up to 30 Gbps.km. A
disadvantage of single mode fiber is that the small core size 5-16 um in
diameter, makes fiber splicing more difficult and critical than the multimode
fibers having 50um core diameter.

• Link power Budget:

• An optical power loss model for a point to point link is shown as in Figure
1. The optical power received at the photodetector depends on the amount of
light coupled in the fiber from the source and the losses occurring into the
fiber and at the connectors and splices. The link loss budget is derived from
the sequential loss contribution of each element in the link. In addition to link
losses, a link power margin is normally provided in the analysis to allow or
component aging, temperature fluctuations, and losses arising from
components that might be added in future. A link margin of 6-8 db is generally
used for this to incorporate unseen effects.
Procedure
• Once you are on the experiment simulator page , select the desired data rate you
wish to transmit data with from the dropdown.

• Enter the Total Length of your Fibre to be laid in in text box.

• Select avaliable rolls of length of fibre avaliable .

• Select Connector and Splice Loss.

• Select Input Power (Pin).

• Click on   button to calculate Output Power (Pout). The same

appears in the table for each value of Length.

• Click on   button to check if the calculated Pout value can be

received at the receiver withe detector selected

in 

• If not change the value of Receiver Sensitivity from the

dropdown   
amongst the avaliable detectors for the datarate selected at the start
• If still the value is not eligible try changing other input parameters like Pin,
Connector and Splice losses , Length of rolls etc.

• You can press the   anytime to reset and start over again.

• Note your observations

Tabular Column:

Length(km) Pout(dBm)
220 -76
 200 -71
120 -53
155 -61
170 -65

Calculations:

• Link budget (Rise Time budget) of Optical Fiber communication

Theory:
The simplest transmission link is a point to point line having a transmitter at one end and
a receiver on the other.
The design of an optical fiber involves many interrelated variables such as the fiber,
optical source, and photo detector operating characteristics.
Since performance and cost constraints are very important factors in fiber optic
communication links, the designer must carefully choose the components to ensure that
the desired performance level can be maintained over the expected system life without
component characteristics.
The key system requirements needed in analysing a link are.
1)The desired (or possible transmission distance)
2)The data rate or channel bandwidth
3)The bit error rate (BER)
To fulfill these requirements the designer has a choice of following components and their
associated characteristics:
(dB / 10)
(Pi / Po) = 10
In optical fiber communications the attenuation is usually expressed in decibels per unit
length (i.e. dB /km) following:
α dBL = 10 log10(Pi / Po)
• Multimode fiber or single mode optical fiber: Core size, Core refractive index
 profile, Bandwidth or Dispersion, Attenuation and Numerical aperture
• Optical source: LED or Laser diode: Emission wavelength, spectral line width,
output power, Effective radiating area, emission pattern, no of emitting modes
• Optical detector: Pin or Avalanche photo diode: Responsivity, operating
wavelength, speed, sensitivity.
Two analyses are carried out to ensure that the desired system performance can be
met. These are the link power budget and the rise time budget analysis
Rise time budget analysis is a convenient method for finding dispersion limitation of an
optical fiber link. This is particularly useful for dispersive systems. In this approach the
total rise time of the system tsys of the link is root sum square of the rise times from each
contributor to the pulse rise time degradation.
The four parameters that may significantly affect the system speed are transmitter rise
time, material dispersion rise time of the fiber, modal dispersion rise time of the fiber and
the receiver rise time.
The rise time of transmitter and receiver are known to designer. The transmitter rise time
is due to rise time of optical source and its drive circuitry, the receiver rise time results
from the photodiode response and its front end response.
If BR = Electrical Bandwidth of Receiver in MHz, then rise time of the detector is td = 350
/ BR If L is length of fiber, B is the bandwidth of receiver, then rise time resulting due to
modal dispersion is given by: tmod = 440*Lq / B Generally, Rise time due to material
dispersion is given, if not then following formula is used to determine the rise time due to
material dispersion.
tmat = Dmat *L *σ
where, tmat : the rise time due to material dispersion, Dmat : material dispersion of the
fiber in ns/km, L: length of the fiber and σ : the spectral width of the source. The overall
rise time of the system is given by : t sys = ( ts2 + td2 +t mat 2 + tmod2)1/2
Generally, the total transition time degradation of a link should exceed 70% of an NRZ
bit period format or 35 % bit period for Rz. One bit period is defined as reciprocal of the
data rate. Thus once we determine rise time of the system, data rate supported by the
system can be determined.

RRZ= 0.35/ tsys

RNRZ = 0.7/ tsys

Procedure
• Once you are on the experiment simulator page, select the Source Rise Time
(ts).

• Select the Bandwith of the Receiver (BW)

• Select the Length of Fibre (L)

• Click the   button, to get all timings, RZ and NRZ datarate values.
• For given Input parameters acceptable values of RZ and NRZ datarates are
displayed.
• The alert box notifies you if the RZ and NRZ values can work with your data rate
requirement.

• You can press the   anytime to reset and start over again.
• Note your observations
Tabular column:
RZ bit NRZ bitrate(ns) td(ns) T mat(ns) T modal(ns)
rate(ns) t sys(ns)
21.9 43.8 3 1.84 15 1.93

21.9 43.8 4 1.46 15 1.93

21.9 43.8 5 1.21 15 2.15

21.9 43.8 4 1.21 15 2.15

23.3 46.7 2 2.5 15 1.93

Calculations:

Result:
Thus the characteristics of multimode fiber had been analyzed.

Ex.No: 8 DC Characteristics of LED

Date 19/11/2020

Aim:

To study the VI characteristics of LED

Requirements

The experiment can be simulated from any browser through the following link.
http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp5/index.html#.
Theory

LED is the vital part in a fiber optic communication link. It forms the E-O section
of the
transmitter in any link. In LED module the injection current through an 850 nm is varied
and thereby its characteristics were studied. The injection current through the LED is
controlled using a multi-turn potentiometer, which enables the user to have a control
over it. The module external DC power supply is given to operate.

Forward and Reverse Biased characteristics of Silicon Diode:

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in
forward biasing because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion region width and
overcome the barrier potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should
be greater than the barrier potential. During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed
switch with a potential drop of nearly 0.6 V across it for a silicon diode. The forward and
reverse bias characteristics of a silicon diode. From the graph, you may notice that the
diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si
diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and
the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing,
the diode does not conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the
depletion region width; hence current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome
the barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch and there is no current flow.

Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Germanium diode

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and
the negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will
conduct in forward biasing because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion
region width and overcome the barrier potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing
voltage should be greater than the barrier potential. During forward biasing the diode
acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of nearly 0.3 V across it for a germanium
diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a germanium diode. From the
graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage
exceeds around 0.3 volts (for Ge diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and
the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing,
the diode does not conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the
depletion region width; hence current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome
the barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch and there is no current flow.

Diode Equation

In the forward-biased and reversed-biased regions, the current , and the voltage
(), of a semiconductor diode are related by the diode equation:
where,

is reverse saturation current or leakage current,

is current through the diode (forward current),

is potential difference across the diode terminals (forward voltage)

is thermal voltage, given by

and

k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10−23 J /°Kelvin,

q is the electronic charge = 1.6x10−19 joules/volt (Coulombs),

T is the absolute temperature in °Kelvin (°K = 273 + temperature in °C),

At room temperature (25 °C), the thermal voltage is about 25.7 mV,

n is an empirical constant between 0.5 and 2

The empirical constant, n, is a number that can vary according to the voltage and current
levels. It depends on electron drift, diffusion, and carrier recombination in the depletion
region. Among the quantities affecting the value of n are the diode manufacture, levels of
doping and purity of materials.

Note

Ideal Diode Model: Diode is a simple switch that is either closed (conducting) or
open (non-conducting). Specifically, the diode is a short circuit, like a closed switch,
when voltage is applied in the forward direction, and an open circuit, like an open switch,
when the voltage is applied in the reverse direction.

Offset Voltage Model: The offset voltage model adds the barrier potential to the ideal
switch model. When the diode is forward biased it is equivalent to a closed switch in
series with a small equivalent voltage source equal to the barrier potential (0.6 V for
Silicon, 0.2 for germanium) with the positive side towards the anode. When the diode is
reverse biased, it is equivalent to an open switch just as in the ideal model.
Complete diode Model: It is the most accurate of the diode models. The Complete diode
model of a diode consists of the barrier potential, the small forward dynamic resistance
and the ideal diode. The resistor approximates the semiconductor resistance under
forward bias. This diode model most accurately represents the true operating
characteristics of the real diode.

When a diode is reverse biased a leakage current flows through the device. This
current can be effectively ignored as long as the reverse breakdown voltage of the diode
is not exceeded. At potentials greater than the reverse breakdown voltage, charge is
pulled through the p-n junction by the strong electric fields in the device and large
reverse current flows. This usually destroys the device. There are special diodes that are
designed to operate in breakdown. Such diodes are called Zener diodes and used as
voltage regulators.

Procedure:

•Forward Bias-Si Diode

• Set DC voltage to 0.2 V.

• Select the diode.
• Set the resistor.
• Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series
with resistor.
• The positive side of battery to the P side(anode) and the negative
of battery to the N side(cathode) of the diode.
• Now vary the voltage upto 5V and note the Voltmeter and
Ammeter reading for particular DC voltage.
• Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon
diode and Ammeter reading.
• Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
• Calculate the dynamic resistance of the diode. rd=ΔV/ΔI
• Therefore, from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting
when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si
diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.
• Reverse Bias-Si Diode

• Set DC voltage to 0.2 V.

• Select the diode.
• Set the resistor.
• Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with
resistor.
• The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and
the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a
diode.
• Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter
reading for DC voltage.
• Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and
Ammeter reading.
• Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
• Forward Bias-Ge Diode

• Set DC voltage to 0.2 V.

• Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Germanium diode.
• Voltmeter is placed parallel to Germanium diode and ammeter series with
resistor.
• The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of the
diode.
• Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter
reading for particular DC voltage.
• Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Germanium diode
and Ammeter reading.
• Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
• Therefore, from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when
the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.3 volts (for Ge diode). This
voltage is called cut-in voltage.
• Reverse Bias-Ge Diode

• Set DC voltage to 0.2 V.

• Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Germanium diode.
• Voltmeter is placed parallel to Germanium diode and ammeter series with
resistor.
• The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and
the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a
diode.
• Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter
reading for DC voltage.
• Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and
Ammeter reading.
• Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
Experimentation:

Forward Bias Silicon Diode: Resistance: …169……Ω

S No Forward Voltage (V) Forward Current (mA)
1 0.576 0.591
2 0.582 1.77
3 0.594 4.73
4 0.600 7.09
5 0.625 23.6
Reverse Bias Silicon Diode: Resistance: …209……Ω

S No Reverse Voltage (V) Reverse Current (A)

1 1.70 0.100
2 3.97 0.100
3 10.4 0.100
4 20.4 0.100
5 26.6 0.100
6 30.4 59.332
Forward Bias Germanium Diode: Resistance: …1K……Ω
S No Forward Voltage (V) Forward Current (mA)
1 0.283 2.65
2 0.296 7.40
3 0.302 11.8
4 0.306 16.9
5 0.311 24.6
Reverse Bias Germanium Diode: Resistance: …1K……Ω

S No Reverse Voltage (V) Reverse Current (A)

1 2.55 0
 2 8.40 0
3 13.6 0
4 21.9 0
5 30.2 30199.999

Result:

Thus, the VI characteristics are verified and plotted for the diodes.
Exp No:9 Eye pattern and BER measurement of an electrical
link
Date:20/11/2020

Aim
To analyse Eye pattern and BER measurement of electrical link.
Requirement
Virtual lab: https://www.etti.unibw.de/labalive/experiment/qam/
Theory

Eye pattern:
A method which is often used to obtain a qualitative indication of the performance
of a regenerative repeater is the examination of the received waveform on an
oscilloscope using a sweep rate which is a fraction of the bit rate.
The display obtained over two bit intervals’ duration, which is the result of
superimposing all possible pulse sequences, is called an eye diagram or pattern.
An illustration of an eye diagram for a binary system with little distortion and no
additive noise is shown in Figure (a).
It may be observed that the diagram has the shape of a human eye which is
open and that the decision time corresponds to the center of the opening. To
regenerate the pulse sequence without error the eye must be open thereby
indicating that a decision area exists, and the decision crosshair (provided by the
decision time and the decision threshold) must be within this open area. The
effect of practical degradations on the pulses (i.e. intersymbol interference and
noise) is to reduce the size of, or close, the eye, as shown in Figure (b). Hence
for reliable transmission it is essential that the eye is kept open, the margin
against an error occurring being the minimum distance between the decision
crosshair and the edge of the eye.

Block Diagram: QAM for AWGN Channel.

Procedure:
Launch the experiment QAM BER for AWGN channel.

• Go to simulation setup, select the modulation scheme (eg: 16 QAM) and

click on.
•
2. Observe the constellation diagram, eye pattern and BER for different modulation
schemes.
Hint: 1.To get the plots, right click the wires in the transmitter side and receiver side.
2. Click on the complex scope oscilloscope to view the eye pattern both at transmitter
and receiver.

3. Click the probability density function , and the observations can be made.
Note: Click on the arrows to see input and output waveforms

Model graphs:
Constellation diagram: transmitter and receiver
Input wave form:

Output waveform:
Eye pattern at the transmitter:

Eye pattern at the receiver:

BER:

Observations:
Input waveform Output Waveform

Constellation Pattern
Eye pattern :
At Transmitter: At Reciever:

BER output

BER- Probability density

At Transmitter At Reciever
Result:

Thus, the BER and eye pattern of the electrical signal had been
analysed.

EXP NO :10
DATE:20/11/20 Radiation pattern of an Antenna
Aim:

To plot the radiation pattern of an antenna

Tools Required:
Matlab version R2018a (or) GNU Octave
Theory:

The energy radiated by an antenna is represented by the Radiation pattern of the

antenna. Radiation Patterns are diagrammatical representations of the distribution of
radiated energy into space, as a function of direction.
Let us look at the pattern of energy radiation.
The figure given above shows radiation pattern of a dipole antenna. The energy being
radiated is represented by the patterns drawn in a particular direction. The arrows
represent directions of radiation.
The radiation patterns can be field patterns or power patterns.
• The field patterns are plotted as a function of electric and magnetic fields. They
are plotted on logarithmic scale.
• The power patterns are plotted as a function of square of the magnitude of
electric and magnetic fields. They are plotted on logarithmic or commonly on dB
scale.

Radiation Pattern in 3D
• The radiation pattern is a three-dimensional figure and represented in spherical
coordinates (r, θ, Φ) assuming its origin at the center of spherical coordinate
 system. It looks like the following figure −

• The given figure is a three dimensional radiation pattern for an Omni directional
pattern. This clearly indicates the three co-ordinates (x, y, z).

Radiation Pattern in 2D
• Two-dimensional pattern can be obtained from three-dimensional pattern by
dividing it into horizontal and vertical planes. These resultant patterns are known
as Horizontal pattern and Vertical pattern respectively.
 • The figures show the Omni directional radiation pattern in H and V planes as
explained above. H-plane represents the Horizontal pattern, whereas V-plane
represents the Vertical pattern.

Lobe Formation

In the representation of radiation pattern, we often come across different shapes, which
indicate the major and minor radiation areas, by which the radiation efficiency of the
antenna is known.
To have a better understanding, consider the following figure, which represents the
radiation pattern of a dipole antenna.
Here, the radiation pattern has main lobe, side lobes and back lobe.
• The major part of the radiated field, which covers a larger area, is the main
lobe or major lobe. This is the portion where maximum radiated energy exists.
The direction of this lobe indicates the directivity of the antenna.
• The other parts of the pattern where the radiation is distributed side wards are
known as side lobes or minor lobes. These are the areas where the power is
wasted.
• There is other lobe, which is exactly opposite to the direction of main lobe. It is
known as back lobe, which is also a minor lobe. A considerable amount of
energy is wasted even here.

Example
If the antennas used in radar systems produce side lobes, target tracing becomes very
difficult. This is because, false targets are indicated by these side lobes. It is messy to
trace out the real ones and to identify the fake ones. Hence, elimination of these side
lobes is must, in order to improve the performance and save the energy.

Remedy

The radiated energy, which is being wasted in such forms needs to be utilized. If these
minor lobes are eliminated and this energy is diverted into one direction (that is towards
the major lobe), then the directivity of the antenna gets increased which leads to
antenna’s better performance.

Types of Radiation patterns

The common types of Radiation patterns are −

• Omni-directional pattern (also called non-directional pattern): The pattern
usually has a doughnut shape in three-dimensional view. However, in two-
dimensional view, it forms a figure-of-eight pattern.
• Pencil-beam pattern − The beam has a sharp directional pencil shaped pattern.
• Fan-beam pattern − The beam has a fan-shaped pattern.
• Shaped beam pattern − The beam, which is non-uniform and patternless is
known as shaped beam.
A referential point for all these types of radiation is the isotropic radiation. It is
important to consider the isotropic radiation even though it is impractical

While measuring the Radiation Pattern of antenna the spherical coordinate system is
used in which
R represents the magnitude of the distance between the origin and the
point (always positive)
• - angle between the z-axis and the vector from the origin to the point
(ranges from 0 to 180 degrees)

• angle between the x-axis and the projection of the point onto the x-y
plane (ranges from 0 to 360 degrees)(cut angle)
Set radiation pattern type 3D to calculate full Far Field data and antenna characteristics or
one of 2D-cuts to get specific cut of the far field data:
Conic cut (sweep θ)

Principal plane cut (sweep φ)

E-plane cut (sweep θ, φ=0) or

H-plane cut (sweep φ, θ=90˚)

Procedure:
• Open Matlab version R2018a application and open a new script.
• Type the code and save the script.
• Run the script and view the three graphs obtained as output.
Source Code:
clc;
clear all
close all
%%
k = 2*pi*2.4778e9/3e8;
m = 01;
n = 00;
a = 40.785e-3;
b = 40.785e-3;
h = 1.57e-3;
L = @(theta,phi) sin(theta).*cos(phi);
M = @(theta,phi) sin(theta).*sin(phi);
g1 = @(theta,phi) (a^2.*exp(a*j*k.*L(theta,phi)).*(j*k.*L(theta,phi).*(-1)^m) - a^2*1i*k.*L(theta,phi))./(-
a^2*k^2.*(L(theta,phi)).^2 + pi^2*m^2);
g2 = @(theta,phi) (b^2.*exp(b*j*k.*M(theta,phi)).*(j*k.*M(theta,phi).*(-1)^n) - b^2*1i*k.*M(theta,phi))./
(-b^2*k^2.*(M(theta,phi)).^2 + pi^2*n^2);
G1 = @(theta,phi) (1-((-1)^n).*exp(j*k*b*M(theta,phi))).*g1(theta,phi);
G2 = @(theta,phi) (1-((-1)^m).*exp(j*k*a*L(theta,phi))).*g2(theta,phi);
F_theta = @(theta,phi) (2*h*cos(theta)).*(cos(phi).*G1(theta,phi) + sin(phi).*G2(theta,phi));
F_phi = @(theta,phi) (-2*h).*(sin(phi).*G1(theta,phi) - cos(phi).*G2(theta,phi));
theta = -pi/2:.01:pi/2;
phi = -pi/2:.01:pi/2;

Final_phi = F_phi(pi/2-eps,phi);
Final_phi = 10*abs(log10(Final_phi));
figure(1)
polar(phi,Final_phi)
view([90 -90])
ylabel('\phi pattern');
axis off
grid off
Final_theta_at0 = F_phi(theta,0.01);
Final_theta_at0 = double(Final_theta_at0);
Final_theta_at0 = 10*abs(log10(Final_theta_at0));
figure(2)
p = polar(theta,Final_theta_at0);
axis off
grid off
ylabel('\theta pattern at \phi = 0 ');
view([90 -90])

Final_theta_at90 = F_phi(theta,pi/2-eps);
Final_theta_at90 = double(Final_theta_at90);
Final_theta_at90 = 10*log10(abs(Final_theta_at90));
figure(3)
polar(theta,Final_theta_at90)

view([90 -90])
ylabel('\theta pattern at \phi = \pi/2');

Output Graphs:
OBSERVATION:
Result
Thus, the radiation pattern of the antenna is simulated using matlab or (GNU
Octave).
Ex:no: 11
Date: 1/12/2020                                   CHARACTERISTICS OF GUNN
DIODE 

AIM: 
To Study and draw the V-I Characteristics of Gunn Diode.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
Gunn Oscillator, Gunn Power Supply, Isolator, Waveguide Stand,
Termination BNC Cable.
 
YouTube Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hivs0_pXE00

THEORY:
 GUNN Diodes (Transferred Electron Devices): Gunn diodes are negative
resistance devices which are normally used as low power oscillator at
microwave frequencies in transmitter and also as local oscillator in receiver
front ends. J B Gunn (1963) discovered microwave oscillation in Gallium
arsenide (GaAs), Indium phosphide (InP) and cadmium telluride (CdTe).
These are semiconductors having a closely spaced energy valley in the
conduction band as shown in Fig. 5.1(a) for GaAs. When a dc voltage is
applied across the material, an electric field is established across it. At low E-
field in the material, most of the electrons will be located in the lower energy
central valley Γ. At higher E-field, most of the electrons will be transferred in
to the high-energy satellite L and X valleys where the effective electron mass
is larger and hence electron mobility is lower than that in the low energy Γ
valley. Since the conductivity is directly proportional to the mobility, the
conductivity and hence the current decreases with an increase in E-field or
voltage in an intermediate range, beyond a threshold value Vth as shown in
Fig. 5.1(b). This is called the transferred electron effect and the device is also
called ‘Transfer Electron Device (TED) or Gunn diode’. Thus the material
behaves as negative resistance device over a range of applied voltages and can
be used in microwave oscillators.

The basic structure of a Gunn diode is shown in Fig. 5.2 (a), which is of n-type
GaAs semiconductor with regions of high doping (n+ ). Although there is no
junction this is called a diode with reference to the positive end (anode) and
negative end (cathode) of the dc voltage applied across the device. If voltage or an
electric field at low level is applied to the GaAs, initially the current will increase
with a rise in the voltage. When the diode voltage exceeds a certain threshold
value, Vth a high electric field (3.2 KV/m for GaAs) is produced across the active
region and electrons are excited from their initial lower valley to the higher valley,
where they become virtually immobile. If the rate at which electrons are
transferred is very high, the current will decrease with increase in voltage,
resulting in equivalent negative resistance effect. Since GaAs is a poor conductor,
considerable heat is generated in the diode. The diode will be bonded into a heat
sink (Cu-stud). The electrical equivalent circuit of a Gunn diode is shown in Fig.
5.2 (b), where Cj and – Rj are the diode capacitance and resistance, respectively,
Rs includes the total resistance of lead, ohmic contacts, and bulk resistance of the
diode, Cp and Lp are the package capacitance and inductance, respectively. The
negative resistance has a value that typically lies in the range –5 to –20 ohm.

Gunn Oscillator
            In a Gunn Oscillator, the Gunn Diode is placed in a resonant cavity. In this
case the oscillation frequency is determined by cavity dimension than by the diode
itself. Although Gun Oscillator can be amplitude-modulated with the bias voltage,
we have used separate PIN modulator through PIN diode for square wave
modulation.
PROCEDURE:
• The components are set as shown in figure.
• The control knobs of GUNN power supply are kept as shown in below.
 • a) Gunn bias – Knob fully anti clock wise direction
• P/N - Knob fully anti clock wise direction
a. P/N node frequency – any position
• The micrometer of Gunn oscillator was set for required frequency of
operations.
• The Gunn power supply was switched ON.
• The Gunn bias knob was varied and the Gunn diode current corresponding
various Gunn bias voltage was measured through the digital panel meter the
bias voltage above 8V should not be exceed.

NOTE: Don`t keep Gunn bias knob position at threshold position for more
than 10-15 sec, otherwise due to excessive heating Gunn diode may burn.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

MODEEL GRAPH:
SUMMARY:
The characteristics of GUNN diode was observed and studied.

EX.No-12 MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF

REFLEX KLYSTRON
Date:1/12/2020
AIM

To study the Mode Characteristics of Reflex Klystron.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
 Klystron Power Supply, Klystron with mount, Isolator,
Frequency meter, Variable Attenuator, Slotted section with Probe
carriage, CRO, Movable Short.

You Tube Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=frY9ojmgh4o

THEORY
Klystron is a microwave vacuum tube employing velocity
modulation. These electrons move towards the repeller (ie) the electrons
leaving the cavity during the positive half cycle are accelerated while
those during negative half cycle are decelerated. The faster ones penetrate
further while slower ones penetrate lesser in the field of repeller voltage.
But, faster electrons leaving the cavity take longer time to return and
hence catch up with slower ones. In the cavity the electrons bunch and
intract with the voltage between the cavity grids.

It consists of an electron gun producing a collimated electron beam.

It bunches pass through grids at time the grid potentials is such

that electrons are decelerated they give by energy. The electrons are then
collected by positive cavity wall near cathode. To protect repeller from
damage, repeller voltage is applied before accelerating voltage.

PROCEDURE
• Assemble the components as shown in fig.
• After following the necessary precautions, the Klystron
Power Supply is switched ON.
• To obtain peak voltage, the attenuator is positioned at
it’s minimum attenuation.
• Vary the repeller voltage from it’s maximum negative
value and increase it in steps on N and record output
power and frequency.
• The frequency is measured by tuning the basic frequency
meter to have a dip in the output voltage each time.
• The frequency meter is detuned before measuring the output power
each time.
• The mode characteristics of Reflex Klystron is plotted.
(i.e. Output Voltage Vs Repeller voltage and Frequency
Vs Repeller voltage)
 BASIC PRECAUTIONS
• During operation of Klystron, repeller does not carry any
current and as such it may severely be damaged by electron
bombardment. To protect repeller from such damage, the
repeller negative voltage is always applied before anode
voltage.

• The repeller voltage should be varied in one direction to

avoid hysteresis is in klystron.

• The heater voltage should be applied first and cooling

should be provided simultaneously after some time other
voltages should be applied taking precaution(i).

• While measuring power, the frequency meter should be

detained each time because there is a dip in the output power
when the frequency is tuned.

• To avoid loading of the klystron an isolator/attenuation

should invariably be used between klystron and the rest of
the set-up.

CALCULATIONS
• Knowing mode top voltages of two adjacent modes, mode
numbers of the modes is computed from the equation,

N 2 = V1 = (n +1) + 3 / 4
N1 V2 n+3/4

where

V1 and V2 are the values of repeller voltages required to operate

the klystron in mode numbers N1 and N2.

• Knowing mode number, transit time of each mode is calculated from

t = n + ( 3 / 4) = N1

seconds
1
 01 01

f01 → frequency of microwave operation in one mode.

• ETR – Electronic tuning range i.e, the frequency band from

one end of the mode to another is calculated by

ETR = f1max – f1min

for N1 mode (GHz)

f1max – f1min → half

power frequencies

• ETS – Electronic tuning sensitivity

ETS =

f1max - f1min
V1max -V1min

(MHz/V)
f1max, f1min → half power frequency

V1max, V1min→ corresponding repeller voltages for a particular mode.

MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX KLYSTRON

MODEL GRAPH:
SUMMARY:
The mode characteristics of REFLEX Klystron was observed and studied.