1.

0 INTRODUCTION

Man machine interface has been one of the growing fields of research and
Development in recent years. Most of the effort has been dedicated to the design of
user- Friendly or ergonomic systems by means of innovative interfaces such as
voice recognition, virtual reality. A direct brain-computer interface would add a
new dimension to man-machine interaction.

A brain-computer interface, sometimes called a direct neural interface or a brain

machine interface, is a direct communication pathway between a human or animal
brain (or brain cell culture) and an external device. In one BCIs, computers either
accept commands from the brain or send signals to it but not both. Two way BCIs
will allow brains and external devices to exchange information in both directions
but have yet to be successfully implanted in animals or humans.

Brain-Computer interface is a staple of science fiction writing. In its earliest

incarnations no mechanism was thought necessary, as the technology seemed so
far fetched that no explanation was likely. As more became known about the brain
however, the possibility has become more real and the science fiction more
technically sophisticated. Recently, the cyberpunk movement has adopted the idea
of 'jacking in', sliding 'biosoft' chips into slots implanted in the skull(Gibson,
W.1984).Although such biosofts are still science fiction, there have been several
recent steps toward interfacing the brain and computers.

In this definition, the word brain means the brain or nervous system of an organic
life form rather than the mind. Computer means any processing or computational
device, from simple circuits to silicon chips (including hypothetical future
technologies like quantum computing).

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Research on BCIs has been going on for more than 30 years but from the mid
1990’s there has been dramatic increase working experimental implants. The
common thread throughout the research is the remarkable cortical-plasticity of the
brain, which often adapts to BCIs treating prostheses controlled by implants and
natural limbs. With Recent advances in technology and knowledge, pioneering
researches could now conceivably attempt to produce BCIs that augment human
functions rather than simply restoring them, previously only the realm of science
fiction.

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2.0 CONCISE LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Working Architecture

Before moving to real implications of BCI and its application let us first discuss
the three types of BCI. These types are decided on the basis of the technique used
for the interface. Each of these techniques has some advantages as well as some
disadvantages. The three types of BCI are as follows with there features:

A. Invasive BCI

Invasive BCI are directly implanted into the grey matter of the brain during
neurosurgery. They produce the highest quality signals of BCI devices. Invasive
BCIs has targeted repairing damaged sight and providing new functionality to
paralyzed people. But these BCIs are prone to building up of scar-tissue which
causes the signal to become weaker and even lost as body reacts to a foreign object
in the brain.

In vision science, direct brain implants have been used to treat non-congenital i.e.
acquired blindness. One of the first scientists to come up with a working brain
interface to restore sight as private researcher, William Dobelle.

Dobelle’s first prototype was implanted into Jerry, a man blinded in adulthood,
in1978. A single-array BCI containing 68 electrodes was implanted onto Jerry’s
visual cortex and succeeded in producing phosphenes, the sensation of seeing light.
The system included TV cameras mounted on glasses to send signals to the
implant. Initially the implant allowed Jerry to see shades of grey in a limited field
of vision and at a low frame-rate also requiring him to be hooked up to a two-ton
mainframe. Shrinking electronics and faster computers made his artificial eye more
portable and allowed him to perform simple tasks unassisted.

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In 2002, Jens Neumann, also blinded in adulthood, became the first in a series of
16 paying patients to receive Dobelle’s second generation implant, marking one of
the earliest commercial uses of BCIs. The second generation device used a more
sophisticated implant enabling better mapping of phosphenes into coherent vision.
Phosphenes are spread out across the visual field in what researchers call the
starry-night effect. Immediately after his implant, Jens was able to use imperfectly
restored vision to drive slowly around the parking area of the research institute.

BCIs focusing on motor Neuroprosthetics aim to either restore movement in

paralyzed individuals or provide devices to assist them, such as interfaces with
computers or robot arms.

Researchers at Emory University in Atlanta led by Philip Kennedy and Roy Bakay
were first to install a brain implant in a human that produced signals of high
enough quality to stimulate movement. Their patient, Johnny Ray, suffered from
‘locked-in syndrome’ after suffering a brain-stem stroke. Ray’s implant was
installed in 1998 and he lived long enough to start working with the implant,
eventually learning to control a computer cursor.

Tetraplegic Matt Nagle became the first person to control an artificial hand using a
BCI in 2005 as part of the nine-month human trail of cyber kinetics
Neurotechnology’s Brain gate chip-implant. Implanted in Nagle’s right precentral

gyrus(area of the motor cortex for arm movement), the 96 electrode Brain gate
implant allowed Nagle to control a robotic arm by thinking about moving his hand
as well as a computer cursor, lights and TV.

B. Partially Invasive BCI

Partially invasive BCI devices are implanted inside the skull but rest outside the
brain rather than amidst the grey matter. They produce better resolution signals
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than non-invasive BCIs where the bone tissue of the cranium deflects and deforms
signals and have a lower risk of forming scar-tissue in the brain than fully-invasive
BCIs.

Electrocardiography (ECoG) uses the same technology as non-invasive

electroencephalography, but the electrodes are embedded in a thin plastic pad that
is placed above the cortex, beneath the Dura mater. ECoG technologies were first
traled in humans in 2004 by Eric Leuthardt and Daniel Moran from Washington
University in St Louis. In a later trial, the researchers enabled a teenage boy to play
Space Invaders using his ECoG implant. This research indicates that it is difficult
to produce kinematics BCI devices with more than one dimension of control using
ECoG.

Light Reactive Imaging BCI devices are still in the realm of theory. These would
involve implanting laser inside the skull. The laser would be trained on a single
neuron and the neuron’s reflectance measured by a separate sensor. When neuron
fires, The laser light pattern and wavelengths it reflects would change slightly. This
would allow researchers to monitor single neurons but require less contact with
tissue and reduce the risk of scar-tissue build up.

C. Non-Invasive BCI

As well as invasive experiments, there have also been experiments in humans

using non-invasive neuroimaging technologies as interfaces. Signals recorded in
this way have been used to power muscle implants and restore partial movement in
an experimental volunteer. Although they are easy to wear, non-invasive implants
produce poor signal resolution because the skull dampens signals, dispersing and
blurring the electromagnetic waves created by the neurons. Although the waves

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can still be detected it is more difficult to determine the area of the brain that
created them or the actions of individual neurons.

Electroencephalography (EEG) is the most studied potential non-invasive

interface, mainly due to its fine temporal resolutions, ease of use, portability and
low set-up cost. But as well as the technology's susceptibility to noise, another
substantial barrier to using EEG as a brain-computer interface is the extensive
training required before users can work the technology. For example, in
experiments beginning in the mid-1990s, Niels Birbaumer of the University of
Tübingen in Germany used EEG recordings of slow cortical potential to give
paralysed patients limited control over a computer cursor.(Birbaumer had earlier
trained epileptics to prevent impending fits by controlling this low voltage wave.)
The experiment saw ten patients trained to move a computer cursor by controlling
their brainwaves. The process was slow, requiring more than an hour for patients to
write 100 characters with the cursor, while training often took many months.

Another research parameter is the type of waves measured. Birbaumer's later

research with Jonathan Wolpaw at New York State University has focused on
developing technology that would allow users to choose the brain signals they
found easiest to operate a BCI, including mu and beta waves.

A further parameter is the method of feedback used and this is shown in studies of
P300 signals. Patterns of P300 waves are generated involuntarily (stimulus-
feedback) when people see something they recognizes and may allow BCIs to
decode categories of thoughts without training patients first. By contrast, the
biofeedback methods described above require learning to control brainwaves so the
resulting brain activity can be detected. In 2000, for example, research by Jessica
Bayliss at the University of Rochester showed that volunteers wearing virtual

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reality helmets could control elements in a virtual world using their P300 EEG
readings, including turning lights on and off and bringing a mock-up car to a stop.

Magneto encephalography (MEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging

(fMRI) have both been used successfully as non-invasive BCIs. In a widely
reported experiment, fMRI allowed two users being scanned to play Pong in real-
time by altering their homodynamic response or brain blood flow through
biofeedback techniques. fMRI measurements of homodynamic responses in real
time have also been used to control robot arms with a seven second delay between
thought and movement.

D. Cell-culture BCIs

Researchers have also built devices to interface with neural cells and entire neural
networks in cultures outside animals. As well as furthering research on animal
implantable devices, experiments on cultured neural tissue have focused on
building problem-solving networks, constructing basic computers and
manipulating robotic devices. Research into techniques for stimulating and
recording from individual neurons grown on semiconductor chips is sometimes
referred to as neuroelectronics or neurochips.

Development of the first working neurochip was claimed by a Caltech team led by
Jerome Pine and Michael Maher in 1997. The Caltech chip had room for 16
neurons.

In 2003, a team led by Theodore Berger at the University of Southern California

started work on a neurochip designed to function as an artificial or prosthetic
hippocampus. The neurochip was designed to function in rat brains and is intended
as a prototype for the eventual development of higher-brain prosthesis. The
hippocampus was chosen because it is thought to be the most ordered and

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structured part of the brain and is the most studied area. Its function is to encode
experiences for storage as long-term memories elsewhere in the brain.

3.0 MAIN BODY

3.1 BCI Applications

After we go through the various techniques of BCI the first question that comes to
our mind is, what does BCI do to us and what are its applications. So BCI in
today’s time turns useful to us in many ways. Whether it be any medical field or a
field leading to enhancement of human environment.

Some of the BCI applications are discussed below.

3.1.1 The Mental Typewriter

March 14, 2006 Scientists demonstrated a brain-computer interface that translates

brain signals into computer control signals this week at CeBIT in Berlin. The
initial project demonstrates how a paralysed patient could communicate by using a
mental typewriter alone – without touching the keyboard. In the case of serious
accident or illness, a patient’s limbs can be paralyzed, severely restricting
communication with the outside world. The interface is already showing how it can
help these patients to write texts and thus communicate with their environment.
There’s also a PONG game (computer tennis) used to demonstrate how the
interface can be used. Brain Pong involves two BBCI users playing a game of
teletennis in which the “rackets” are controlled by imagining movements and
predictably the general media has focused the majority of its attention on computer
gaming applications but BCCI could equally be used in safety technologies (e.g. in

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automobiles for monitoring cognitive driver stress), in controlling prostheses,
wheelchairs, instruments and even machinery.

On the first day of the 2006 CeBIT Computer Fair, Fraunhofer FIRST and the
Berlin Charité demonstrated how the mental typewriter could be used for this
purpose. On the other days of the CeBIT Fair, a simulated test setup using a shop-
window dummy will be on display.

Cooperation between Fraunhofer FIRST and the Charité to develop an interface

between the human brain and the computer began some years ago. The result was
the Berlin Brain-Computer Interface (BBCI which uses the electrical activity of the
brain in the form of an electroencephalogram (EEG). Electrodes attached to the
scalp measure the brain’s electrical signals. These are then amplified and
transmitted to the computer, which converts them into technical control signals.
The principle behind the BBCI is that the activity of the brain already reflects the
purely mental conception of a particular behavior, e.g. the idea of moving a hand
or foot.

The BBCI recognizes the corresponding changes in brain activity and uses them,
say, to choose between two alternatives: one involves imagining that the left hand
is moved, the other that the right hand is moved. This enables a cursor, for
example, to be moved to the left or right. The person operating the mental
typewriter uses the cursor to select a letters field. The next step reduces the choice,
and after a few more steps we arrive at the individual letters, which can be used to
write words. This process enables simple sentences to be constructed within
minutes. A first prototype of the mental typewriter is currently available. In a series
of experiments, different spelling methods are tested in terms of their usability and
are adapted to the BBCI. It will be some years, though, before the mental

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typewriter can be used in everyday applications. Further research is needed, in
particular to refine the EEG sensors.

3.1.2 BCI offers paralyzed patients improved quality of life

Tubingen, Germany. A brain–computer interface installed early enough in patients

with neuron-destroying diseases can enable them to be taught to communicate
through an electronic device and slow destruction of the nervous system.

Fundamental theories regarding consciousness, emotion and quality of life in

sufferers of paralysis from Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS, also known as
'Lou Gehrig’s disease') are being challenged based on new research on brain-
computer interaction. ALS is a progressive disease that destroys neurons affecting
movement.

The study appears in the latest issue of Psychophysiology. The article reviews the
usefulness of currently available brain-computer –interfaces (BCI), which use
brain activity to communicate through external devices, such as computers.

The research focuses on a condition called the completely locked-in state (CLIS, a
total lack of muscle control). In a CLIS situation, intentional thoughts and imagery
can rarely be acted upon physically and, therefore, are rarely followed by a
stimulus. The research suggests that as the disease progresses and the probability
for an external event to function as a link between response and consequence
becomes progressively smaller it may eventually vanish altogether.

Researchers have found that by implementing a brain-computer –interface before

the completely locked-in state occurs, a patient can be taught to communicate
through an electronic device with great regularity. The continued interaction
between thought, response and consequence is believed to slow the destruction of
the nervous system.
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The findings are also raising a number of new questions about the quality of life
amongst paralysis sufferers. Patients surveyed were found to be much healthier
mentally than psychiatrically depressed patients without any life-threatening bodily
disease. Only 9% of ALS patients showed long episodes of depression and most
were during the period following diagnosis and a period of weeks after
tracheotomy.

“Most instruments measuring depression and quality of life are invalid for
paralyzed people living in protected environments because most of the questions
do not apply to the life of a paralyzed person. Special instruments had to be
developed,” says Niels Birbaumer, PhD., Author of the study.

3.1.3 Adaptive BCI for Augmented Cognition and Action

The goal of this project is to demonstrate improved human/computer performance

for specific tasks through detection of task-relevant cognitive events with real-time
EEG. For example, in tasks for which there is a direct tradeoff between reaction
time and error rate, (such as typing or visual search) it may be beneficial to correct
a user’s errors without interrupting the pace of the primary task. Such a user
interface is possible through the direct detection of EEG signatures associated with
the perception of a error, often referred to as Error Related Negativity. In general
such signatures may be used to dynamically adjust the behavior of human-
computer interfaces and information displays.

This project advances signal analysis techniques for high density EEG to detect
discrete events associated with cognitive processing. Corresponding real-time
adaptive interfaces with sub-second latency are being designed to evaluate this
concept of an adaptive brain-computer interface in three specific applications:

(1) Error and conflict perception:

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Error related negativity (ERN) in EEG has been linked to perceived response
errors and conflicts in decision-making. In this project we have developed single
trial ERN detection to predict task-related errors. The system can be used as an
automated real-time decision checker for time-sensitive control tasks. In the first
phase of this project we demonstrated improved human/computer performance at a
rapid forced choice discrimination task with an average 23% reduction of human
errors (results on one subject are shown in Fig. 2). This open-loop error correction
paradigm represents the first application of real-time cognitive event detection and
demonstrates the utility of real-time EEG brain monitoring within the Augmented
Cognition program. We will evaluate video game scenarios with closed-loop
feedback at latencies of less than 150 ms where detected errors are corrected or
application parameters such as speed are varied according to the measured or
"gauged" conflict perception.

(2) Working memory encoding.

Transient modulation of oscillations in the theta (4-8 Hz) and gamma (20-30 Hz)
bands, recorded using EEG and magneto encephalography (MEG), have been
implicated in the encoding and retrieval of semantic information in working
memory. In this project we will exploit these neural correlates of semantic
processing to detect problems with semantic information processing. This memory
gauge could be used to detect memory recall deficits, and repeat or enhance the
presented information and thus better prime memory recall.

(3) Rapid visual recognition:

We are exploring the signals elicited by visual target detection, which were
recently observed in rapid sequential visual presentation (RSVP) experiments. We
have demonstrated that the detection of these signals on a single trial basis can be

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used to replace the slow manual response of a human operator, thereby
significantly increasing the throughput of image search tasks (Fig 3). This
paradigm has the potential to improve the performance of Image Analysts who
need to routinely survey large volumes of aerial imagery within short periods of
time. In addition, the approach looks to measure the "bottleneck" between constant
delay perceptual processing and more variable delay cognitive processing. Thus
the detected signatures can be used to "gauge" if cognitive systems are
capable/incapable of assimilating perceptual input for fast decision making.

In the first phase of this project a fully automated real-time signal analysis system
and hardware infrastructure has been developed that can give short latency
feedback to the user within 50ms of the recorded activity. The signal processing
system adaptively learns to detect evoked responses from the real-time streaming
EEG signal. The current system, which is used for tasks 1 and 3, can be configured
for single trial detection for any number of cognitive events such ERN, rapid
visuual recognition, readiness potential, response to oddball stimulus (P300), as
well as conventional visual, auditory, or somato-sensory responses. We are in the
progress of applying this system to event detection in the Warship Commander - a
common task set proposed for integration and evaluation by the Augmented
Cognition Program.

3.2 Benefits of Brain Computer Interface

Despite BCI being in its initial stage of development, it is expected to provide

several benefits to its users in various fields. Some of the major benefits of BCI are
as follows:

1. Technology that is ‘smart’

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One of the biggest reasons why BCI is deemed as advanced technology is because
it can make previously passive devices into ‘smart’ and active ones. An example of
such devices is prosthetics. For instance, a prosthetics user can use this technology
to hold a glass of water and drink using it just like using natural hands. Likewise,
deaf and dumb people who want to communicate with each other can do so by
utilizing this technology using BCI-controlled communication devices.

2. Telepresence

Telepresence is a technology that gives the ability to someone to make their

presence felt, at a remote location, with the help of telerobotics. Telepresence, with
the incorporation of BCI, can give military personnel the ability to keep an eye on
any suspicious activity that might take place at the border. Telepresence can thus
detect any suspicious activity and help combat it.

3. Fewer accidents

Car-related accidents are one of the most serious causes of death worldwide. A
BCI-enabled car can thus prevent any such incident from occurring by recognizing
what is going on in the driver’s mind and by taking the decision in just a matter of
seconds. Automobile manufacturer Nissan has revealed that it is conducting
research on a BCI-enabled car control system that will allow the system to slow the
vehicle or turn the steering wheel 0.2 to 0.5 seconds faster than the driver himself.
This technological innovation can potentially be a major breakthrough in the
automobile industry.

3.3 Risks of Brain Computer Interface

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The BCI system, being directly linked to the human brain, can have a negative
impact on its users in case it is not utilized properly. Some of the potential risks
associated with BCI are as follows:

1. Inaccuracy of results

The brain is a highly complex organ. Sometimes we ourselves are unable to

understand what goes on in our minds. So it is unfair to expect man-made BCI to
correctly interpret all our brain signals. BCI can, sometimes, misinterpret the user’s
intentions. For instance, a disabled person with a prosthetic who actually wants to
raise his index finger is not correctly identified by the BCI and this might result in
lifting up of the middle finger. Hence, the inaccurate result is a huge risk that is
associated with the BCI technology.

2. Bulky nature of the system

Since the BCI system involves the connection of several wires due to the
interfacing between the brain and the computer, it can often result in an extremely
uncomfortable user experience. This bulky nature of the BCI system, thereby, acts
as one of the major cons of BCI technology since a lot of wiring involved could
possibly put a lot of mental and physical stress on the user.

3. Lack of security

Whenever you buy or subscribe to a digital product or service, you expect security
to be an essential requirement. In fact, in the case of BCI technology, the security
of your data cannot be guaranteed. Due to the computerized system, anyone may
decode what is going on in your mind and thus invade your privacy. For instance,
in the case of BCI based military application, there might be a possibility that an
attacker from a rival country be able to hack into any military personnel's mind and
can eventually leak all confidential information. Since the scientists have revealed
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that within five years attackers can potentially be able to rewrite memories in
people’s mind.

BCI, being an emerging technology, can bring about a revolutionary change in

different fields. For instance, in case of telepresence, the incorporation of BCI
could allow humans to work in conditions that would otherwise put their health
and safety in danger. This can potentially be of great help to military personnel.
Similarly, the idea of BCI-enabled cars could help promote safety in the
transportation sector. Even though there is a wide range of applications of brain
computer interfaces and a diverse range of benefits it promises, adopters and
developers of BCI should also keep in mind the risks of brain computer interfaces
and act upon them accordingly to make the technology safer to adopt.

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4.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1 Summary

Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) is a method of communication based on voluntary

neural activity generated by the brain and independent of its normal output
pathways of peripheral nerves and muscles.

The neural activity used in BCI can be recorded using invasive or noninvasive
techniques.

We can say as detection techniques and experimental designs improve, the BCI
will improve as well and would provide wealth alternatives for individuals to
interact with their environment.

4.2 Conclusion

First of all, be patient! The system tries, by using a trainable classification method,
to adapt the BCI to the user, and in this way, to simplify the learning process
required by the user. Nevertheless, as any other instrument, it requires a
considerable amount of time to use the BCI in order to get nice results.

BCI technology is still in its infancy, so little is known about which mental tasks
are better than others for BCIs. Also, the electrode placing is important. If your
electrode setting isn't appropriate, then it can happen that they even aren't
recording the cortical areas related to the mental task!

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4.3 Recommendation

Research has discovered the following changes in electrical activity during mental
tasks (this list isn't complete, I hope that the OpenEEG community will discover
some more):

 Motor Imaginary: Imagination of physical movement produces changes in

the sensory motor cortex. In example, imagination of left and right middle
finger imagination produces changes, namely (de-)synchronization on
electrode positions around C3 and C4. Good features are around 10 and 20
Hz.

 Rotation of 3D objects: Literature stated that during imagination of rotation

of 3d objects involves frontal and temporal lobe activity. They seem to
synchronize. Good features are around 10 Hz.

 Mental Letter Composition.

 Others (please report!)

Do not use too many features at the same time, 4-10 features are reasonable. If you
want to change the used features, restart the BCI with the appropriate change in the
configuration file.

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Using Electrocorticographic Signals in Humans". J Neural Eng 046028th
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Schalk, G; Miller, KJ; Anderson, NR; Wilson, JA; Smyth, MD; Ojemann, JG;
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Teenager moves video icons just by imagination, press release, Washington
University in St Louis, 9 October 2006
Yanagisawa, Takafumi (2011). "Electrocorticographic Control of Prosthetic Arm
in Paralyzed Patients". American Neurological Association.
doi:10.1002/ana.22613. ECoG- Based BCI has advantage in signal and
durability that are absolutely necessary for clinical application

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