IVC

FIRST YEAR
Electronics Engineering Technician

CIRCUIT THEORY
AND
ELECTRONIC
COMPONENTS

STATE INSTITUTE OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

DIRECTOR OF INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION
GOVT.OF ANDHRAPRADESH
 Telugu Akademi Publication : Vocational Course -fyctec

INTERMEDIATE
VOCATIONAL COURSE
FIRST YEAR

CIRCUIT THEORY
AND
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

FOR THE COURSE OF

ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING TECHNICIAN

STATE INSTITUTE OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

DIRECTOR OF INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION
GOVT.OF ANDHRAPRADESH
2005
Intermediate Vocational Course, 1st Year : CIRCUIT THEORY AND
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS (For the Course of Electronics
Engineering Technician) : Authors : Sri Peta Subramanyam Reddy,
Editor : Sri M. Shanmukhachary, First Edition : 2005.

C
State Institute of Vocational Education
Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.

Printed and Published by

the Telugu Akademi, Hyderabad on behalf of the
State Institution of Vocational Education
Directorate of Intermediate Education
Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.

First Edition : 2005

Copies :

All rights whatsoever in this book are strictly reserved and no

portion of it may be reproduced by any process for any purpose
without the written permission of the copyright owners.

Prise : Rs. /-

Printed in India
Laser Typeset Reformatted by Chinmai D.T.P. Works, Chittoor.
Text Printed at ..................................................................
Andhra Pradesh.
 AUTHOR
Peta Subramanyam Reddy AMIE
J.L. in EET
Govt. Junior College, Irala.
Chittoor Dist.

EDITOR
M. Shanmukha Chary
B.Sc., AMIE (I), I.E.T.E. (I)
J.L. in EET
Govt. Jr. College,
Malkajigiri, Secunderabad.
 INDEX
S.No. Topic Page. No.

1. Resistors ... 1 - 17
2. Inductors and Transformers ... 18 -32
3. Capacitors ... 33 -43
4. A.C. Circuits ... 44 - 70
5. Filters ... 71 -83
6. Micro Phones & Loudspeakers ... 84 -99
7. Switches, Ralays, PCB ... 100 -115
8. Batteries ... 116 - 121
9. Model Question Paper ... 122
 CHAPTER
1
RESISTORS
1.1. Introduction
In many electronic circuit applications the resistance forms the basic part of
the circuit. It is defined as “ The property of a substance due to which it opposes
the flow of electricity through it”.
Metals, Acids and salt solutions are good conductors of electricity. Amongst
pure metals Gold, Silver, Copper and Aluminum are very good conductors in
the given order. This is due to the presence of a large number of free or loosely
attached electrons in their atoms. These free electrons assume a directed motion
on the application of an electric potential difference. These electrons while flowing
passes through the molecules or the atoms of the conductor, collide with other
atoms and electrons, there by producing heat. Thus substances which offer
relatively greater difficulty or hindrance to the passage of these electrons are said
to be relatively poor conductors. Ex : Bakelite, Mica, Glass, Rubber, PVC,
Dry wood etc. Thus the Resistance or electrical friction is similar to Friction in
Mechanics. Its symbol is shown in the below fig. 1.1
The unit of resistance is ‘Ohm’. It is denoted by the letter ‘Ω’. For
measurement of higher values we can use multiples and submultiples. These are
shown in the below table 1-1.
Table – 1.1 Multiples and Submultiples of OHM

Prefix Meaning Abbreviation Equal to

Mega One Million MΩ 106 Ω
Kilo One Thousand KΩ 103 Ω
Milli One Thousandth mΩ 10-3 Ω
Micro One Millionth µΩ 10-6 Ω

Fig : 1 .1
The Symbol of resistance
2 Electronic Components and Circuit Theory

1.2. Types Resistors

The Component which offers a specific value of resistance is called
“Resistor”. Basically these are two types. 1. Fixed Resistors, 2. Variable
Resistors.
Fixed Resistors are further classified according to the Manufacturing
and applications as follows :
1. Carbon Composition Resistors
2. Carbon film Resistors.
3. Metal film Resistors
4. Wire Wound Resistors
5. Thermistors
6. NTC’s & PTC’s
7. Varisitors
8. LDR’s
9. Fusable Resistors.
Variable Resistors are classified as follows
1. Carbon potentiometers (Both log and linear potentiometers)
2. Wire Wound Potentiometers.
3. Rheostats.
4. Decade Resistance Boxes.
5. Presets
1.3. Specifications
The different characteristic values of a Resistor or its different ratings are
known as “Specifications” of a Resistor.
Generally while purchasing these are very useful. If a person knows the
ratings and where it is used he can easily purchase a resistor from the vendor by
asking different ratings according to his requirement. For example if a person
wants to purchase a control for varying the volume in tape recorder, first he can
ask the vendor about the type of resistor( i.e. carbon potentiometer) next he can
ask the rating (i.e. resistance value and wattage) like that by asking different
Resistors 3
ratings according to one’s application and requirement one can purchase Resistors
from a shop. Such type of ratings or specifications of a Resistor are as follows.
1. Resistance value in ohms or ohmic value, size and shape.
2. Power or wattage rating in watts.
3. Tolerance
4. Voltage rating or maximum operating voltage
5. Temperature coefficient
6. Noise
7. Reliability
Among these ohmic value, wattage rating and tolerance are important ratings of
carbon resistors.

1.3.1. Power or wattage rating

Power rating determines the maximum current that a resistor can with
stand without being destroyed. Power dissipation means the power that is wasted
as I2R loss. This is expressed in watts. Carbon resistors are available from 1/8
watt to 2 watts wattage ratings where as wire wound resistor are available at
high power ratings in the order of hundreds of watts.

1.3.2. Colour Code

The carbon resistors are small in size due to this reason these are colour
coded to indicate their resistance value in ohms. The dark colours represent the
lower value and the lighter colours represents higher values. Each resistor will
have four colour bands printed on it as shown in below fig. 1.2 . These colours
are shown in the table 1.2. The colour bands are Printed at one end of the
resistor and are read from left to right. The first two bands close to the edge
indicates the significant values. These two are the first and second digits of the
resistance value. The third colour band indicates the multiplier. This is the
multiplying value followed by the two digits or this gives the number of zeros
followed by the first two digits. The fourth band indicates the Tolerance Value
i.e. it indicates how accurate the resistance is.
4 Electronic Components and Circuit Theory

For example a resistor will have yellow, violet, orange and gold bands.
then the value of the resistor is decoded as follows. The significant value (first
two bands) of the resistor is 47 (yellow : 4, violet : 7) followed by multiplier
value orange i.e. number of zeros. Then the resistance value becomes 47000
ohms or 47kΩ Thus first three colour bands shows the resistance value of the
resistor. Fourth colour indicates tolerance in this case gold indicates ±5%. Thus
the decoded value of the resistor is 47KΩ± 5%

Table 1.2 : Colour Code Table

Name of the First Second Third

S.No.
Colour Band Band Band
1. Black 0 0 x 100
2. Brown 1 1 x 101
3. Red 2 2 x 102
4. Orange 3 3 x 103
5. Yellow 4 4 x 104
6. Green 5 5 x 105
7. Blue 6 6 x 106
8. Violet 7 7 x 107
9. Grey 8 8 x 108
10. White 9 9 x 109
11. Gold - - x 10-1
12. Silver - - x 10-2
13. No colour - - -

Fig. 1.2
Decoding of Resistor Colour Code
Resistors 5
1.3.3. Tolerance
Tolerance is the amount by which the actual resistance can vary from
the colour coded value. It is usually specified in percentage. Generally gold,
Silver and No colour are used as tolerance. The percentage of these colours are
as follows. Gold : ± 5 %, Silver : ± 10 %, No Colour : ± 20 %.
For example if a resistor’s colour coded value is 10KΩ and its tolerance
is 10%. It means this resistor’s actual resistance can vary 10KΩ± 10 % (i.e. it
varies in between 9 KΩ to 11 KΩ). Due to this reason we can use this resistor
for any value which lies between 9 KΩ to 11 KΩ

1.4 Preferred Values

To cater the needs of unlimited variety of electronic circuits and to
reduce the manufacturing problem, the values of resistors to be manufactured
are standardized. For uniformity of production and easy of replacement, resistors
are manufactured only in fixed denominations depending upon the tolerance.
These fixed values are known as preffered values. For different tolerance these
preffered values are as follows.
For 5% tolerance 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 30, 33,
36, 39, 43, 47, 51, 62, 68, 75, 83, 91, 100, and their multiples. For 10%
Tolerance 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82 and their multiples.
1.5 Comparison of wire wound, metal film and carbon resistors
The differences between the above three types of Resistors are shown in the
table 1.3
Table 1.3
Carbon Resistors Metal film Resistors Wire would Resistors
1 These are 1 These are manufactured 1 These are manufactured
manufactured using by depositing a film of using Nichrome wires.
the carbon granuals metal alloys on a
mixed with resin, ceramic or glass body.
binder and flux
2 These are available 2 These are available in 2 These are available in
in high resistance low resistance values the resistance values
values ranging from 0.1 Ω to 150KΩ.
from 1 Ω to 10MΩ
6 Electronic Components and Circuit Theory

3 These are available 3 These are available in 3 These are available at

in the low power the low power ratings high power ratings in
ratings ranging ranging from 1/8 to 2 w the order of kilowatts.
from 1/8 watt. To 2
watt.
4 Carbon resistors 4 These are also occupy 4 Wire wound resistors
occupy less space less space in circuits occupy more space in
in circuits due to due to their small in circuits due to their
their small in size size. larger
large size.
5 The value of the 5 The value of the resistor 5 The value of the resistor
resistor is coded is coded using colour is printed on it.
using colour code. code.
6 These are used at 6 These are also used for 6 These are not used at
high and low noise less operation at high frequencies due to
frequencies for high frequency. noisy operation.
their noise less
operation
7 These have low 7 These have low and 7 These have high current
current carrying medium current carrying ability.
ability. carrying ability.

1.6. Carbon and wire wound Potentiometers

The potentiometers which are made of carbon are known as carbon
potentiometers and which are made of wire wound are known as wire wound
potentiometers. These are all variable resistors. These are used as panel controls
in Radio’s, Televisions and other Consumer Electronic Circuits and equipments.

1.6.1. Carbon Potentiometer

The potentiometers which are made of carbon are known as carbon
potentiometers. It consists of a carbon track which is made with a mixture of
carbon, resin and clay on a plastic base as shown in fig1.3. This mixture is
pressed and baked in to shape shown in fig. A movable contact can slide on the
plastic base. There is a slip ring which is also contacted by the movable contact.
The two ends are soldered to lugs forming the terminals, The middle lug is
connected to the variable arm contacting the resistance element by a metal spring
wiper . As the control shaft is rotated the variable arm moves the wiper to make
contact at different points. The connecting shaft is some times made of plastic,
runs through the bush in the centre of the base at which the movable contact is
attached. The bush is generally provided with screws on the external surface so
that the unit can be locked on to the chasis with a lock and nut.
Resistors 7
Threading over the bush, the entire assembly is enclosed by a case of
sheet metal and its value marked. These are used for low power applications.

Fig.1.3 carbon potentiometer internal and external views

1.6.2. WIRE WOUND POTENTIOMETERS
In these potentiometers on a flat strip of insulating former Nichrome
wire is wound that’s why the name “ wire wound potentiometer”. Then this strip
is bent round as a cylindrical surface. Contact by means of a slider metal of
beryllium, copper spring loaded may be made on the inside periphery or the
outer edge. Contact from the slider may be through a slip ring or by a coiled
spring attached to the stationary at one end and at another to the wiper. The
winding is usually of two or three linear resistance sections to approximate ideal
taper. The formers are made of flat flexible plastics, but now a day anodized
aluminum flats are employed. The enclosure may be as in the carbon type of
potentiometers or encapsulated after fixing on ‘O’ type ring seal to the shaft and
cladding with epoxy resin enclosure. Its constructional details are shown in the
fig. 1.4 .
These are available in 1.5, 2, 3, 4, watts of power ratings. These
are used in amplifiers balance controls, small motor controls, servo motor control
circuits, Television receivers and analog computers.

Fig. 1.4
Wire Wound Potentiometer
8 Electronic Components and Circuit Theory

1.7 Applications of different types of Resistors

In many electronic circuit applications the resistance forms the basic
part of the circuit. So the specific areas or applications where these fixed, variable
resistors are used is as follows.
1. Carbon resistors are used in all electronic circuits as biasing and signal
bypassing elements and as loads.
2. Wire wound resistors are used in voltage control and current control
circuits.
3. Carbon potentiometers are used as panel controls like volume, tone,
brightness, contrast etc. in Radios, tape-recorders and Televisions.
4. Wire wound potentiometers are used as amplifier balance controls, small
motor controls, servomotor control circuits and in Television receivers.
5. Decade resistance boxes are used in laboratories.
6. Thermistors are used in time delay circuits.
7. LDR’s are used in DC chopper amplifiers as photo choppers.

1.8 OHMS LAW

George Simon Ohm a German mathematician formulated a relation between
voltage and current through a conductor known after his name as Ohms law.
This law applies to electric conduction through good conductors. This law is
applicable to D.C. circuits as well as A.C. circuits.
Ohms law states that at constant temperature the current flowing through
a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage applied between the terminals
of that conductor or Ohms law states that the ratio of potential difference between
any two points of a conductor to the current flowing between them is constant.
Provided the temperature of the conductor does not change.
According to Ohms Law VαI
or
V / I = Constant
(or) V/I = R (Where R is constant of proportionality known as Resistance)
Resistors 9
Thus keeping Resistance as constant if we can vary the voltage or current
of a circuit directly proportional to current or voltage then such a circuit is
known as linear circuit. Thus the circuit or the element which obeys Ohms Law
is known as linear circuit or linear element. In this way the relation between the
three electrical quantities viz Current ,Voltage and resistance in a circuit is known
as Ohms law. These electrical quantities are defined as follows.
1.8.1. Current
Current is defined as the flow of free electrons in a conductor (or). It is
defined as the rate of change of charge at any cross section of the conductor. It
is denoted by the letter I and is measured in Amperes and is denoted by the
letter “A” Current I = dq / dt
1.8.2. Voltage
The work done to carry an electron or unit charge from one point to another
point in a conductor is known as voltage. This is also called as potential difference
or electro motive force. It is denoted by the letter V and is measured in Volts.
1.8.3. Resistance
Resistance is the Property of a substance due to which it opposes the
flow of electrons or current through it. This is measured by the unit Ohm and is
denoted by the letter “Ω”
1.8.4. Units and Meters used for Measuring the electrical quantities
The units and meters used for measurement of resistance current and voltage
are given in the Table 1.4 Table 1.4

S. Electrical Meter used for

Unit
No. Quantity Measurement
1. Resistance Ohm Ohm meter
2. Current Ampere Ammeter
3. Voltage Volt Voltmeter
1.8.5 Multiples and Submultiples of electrical quantities
The multiples and submultiples used in measuring the above electrical
quantities are also shown in the table 1.5
10 Electronic Components and Circuit Theory

Table 1.5

1.9. Factors affecting the value of Resistance

The Resistance offered by a conductor depends on so many number of factors.
These are as follows.
1. The Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length L
2. The Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its “Area
of cross section” A.
3. The resistance of a conductor also depends on temperature and nature
S. Electrical Prefix Abbreviation Eq
of the Material. Neglecting the last
No factor for the time being we can
Quantity
say that Mega MΩ 106Ω
1. Resistance
Kilo KΩ 103Ω
R α L/A or R = ρ L/A Micro µA 10-6
2. Current
Milli
Where ‘L’ is the ‘length’, ‘A’ is the ‘area’ of cross section of the conductor mA 10-3
Micro µV 10-6
and ρ is the constant depending on the nature
3. of the material
Voltageof the conductor.
Milli mV 10-3
This is known as specific resistance or Resistivity. Kilo KV 103

1.9.1 Specific Resistance or Resistivity

The Specific resistance of a Material may be defined as the “The
resistance between the opposite faces of a meter cube of that material. This is
shown in the below figure1.5. This is denoted by
the letter ρ. From the laws of Resistance we
know that R = ρ L / A. Keeping ρ as subject we
can get Specific Resistance ρ = RA / L Unit =
Ohm x mt2 / meter = ohm meter.
fig. 1.5
Resistors 11
1.10. Resistors in series
When two or more resistances are connected in such a way that they
form a train of resistances as shown in below fig1.6. Then it is known as resistance
connected in Series. Let three resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in
series to a supply V. In series combination the sum of the Voltage drops across
each resistor is equal to the applied voltage and the current flowing through all
the resistances is same. According to these series laws.

Fig. 1.6 : Resistance Connected in Series

Applied voltage V = V1 + V2 + V3 ……………………1

According to Ohms law
V=I R ….………………… 2
V1= IR1 …………………...3
V2=IR2 ……………………4
V3= IR3……………………5
Substituting the equations 2, 3, 4, 5 in equation 1 we can get
IR = IR1+ IR2 + IR3
Thus total Resistance Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
Similarly - If N resistors are connected in series then the equation for total
resistance
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 +…………………… + Rn
If all the ‘n’ resistors are having same resistance then total resistance
Rt = R + R + R +……………………+ R
= R ( 1 + 1 + 1 +………………. + 1) = nR
Thus the equation for total resistance when ‘n’ resistors are connected is
12 Electronic Components and Circuit Theory

Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 +...............… +Rn
The equation for total resistance when ‘n’ equal value resistors are connected is
Rt = nR (Where ‘n’ is the number of resistors)
1.11 Resistors in Parallel
When two or more resistances are connected in such away that the voltage
across each resistance is equal to the applied voltage then it is known as Resistance
in parallel. Let R1, R2, R3 be connected in parallel as shown in belowfig1.7.Then
in parallel combination

Fig. 1.7 : Resistance connected in Parallel

1. Voltage a cross all resistances is same

2. current in each resistor is different and is found by ohm’s law.
3. The total current is the sum of the three separate branch currents.
According to these parallel laws.
Applied current I = I1 + I2 + I3 ……………. 1
According to Ohm’s law : I1 = V/R1 ……………. 2
I2 = V/R2 ……………. 3
I3 = V/R3 ……………. 4 and
I = V/R ………………. 5
Substituting the equations 2, 3, 4, 5 in ‘1’ we can get
V/R = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
V/R = V (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3)