MA129

NAME :Kshitij Jha

SUBJECT :Mathematics
INDEX NO. :038
 CERTIFICATE

This project work entered has been

satisfactorily performed by
Master/Miss Kshitij Jha studying in N.
L. Dalmia High School, Mira Road
(East), during the academic year
2020-2021.

CLASS: XII DIV: A

INDEX NO. : 038
PROJECT 1: AREA OF PARALLELOGRAM AND
TRIANGLE USING VECTOR ALGEBRA
Introduction
A vector can be defined as a geometrical object in 3D space which has
both magnitude and a direction. Further any quantity with direction
cannot qualify as a vector as every vector has the property of following
the triangle law of addition and quantities which don’t satisfy the triangle
law cannot qualify as vector.
Vector finds its use in many places in todays world:
 Physics makes extensive use of vectors
 Vectors help in the understanding both 3D and 2D geometry with
ease
 In analysis of AC circuits in the form of phasor diagrams
 Used in quantum mechanics
 Used in fluid mechanics and aerodynamics

The concept of vector, as we know it today, evolved gradually over a

period of more than 200 years. About a dozen people made significant
contributions to its development.
In 1835, Giusto Bellavitis abstracted the basic idea when he established
the concept of equipollence. Working in a Euclidean plane, he made
equipollent any pair of line segments of the same length and orientation.
Essentially, he realized an equivalence relation on the pairs of points
(bipoints) in the plane, and thus erected the first space of vectors in the
plane.
The term vector was introduced by William Rowan Hamilton as part of a
quaternion, which is a sum q = s + v of a Real number s (also called scalar)
and a 3-dimensional vector. Like Bellavitis, Hamilton viewed vectors as
representative of classes of equipollent directed segments. As complex
numbers use an imaginary unit to complement the real line, Hamilton
considered the vector v to be the imaginary part of a quaternion:
The algebraically imaginary part, being geometrically constructed by a
straight line, or radius vector, which has, in general, for each determined
quaternion, a determined length and determined direction in space, may
be called the vector part, or simply the vector of the quaternion. Several
other mathematicians developed vector-like systems in the middle of the
nineteenth century, including Augustin Cauchy, Hermann Grassmann,
August Möbius, Comte de Saint-Venant, and Matthew O'Brien.
Grassmann's 1840 work Theorie der Ebbe und Flut (Theory of the Ebb
and Flow) was the first system of spatial analysis that is similar to today's
system, and had ideas corresponding to the cross product, scalar product
and vector differentiation. Grassmann's work was largely neglected until
the 1870s.
Peter Guthrie Tait carried the quaternion standard after Hamilton. His
1867 Elementary Treatise of Quaternions included extensive treatment
of the nabla or del operator ∇.
In 1878, Elements of Dynamic was published by William Kingdon Clifford.
Clifford simplified the quaternion study by isolating the dot product and
cross product of two vectors from the complete quaternion product. This
approach made vector calculations available to engineers—and others
working in three dimensions and skeptical of the fourth.
Josiah Willard Gibbs, who was exposed to quaternions through James
Clerk Maxwell's Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, separated off
their vector part for independent treatment. The first half of Gibbs's
Elements of Vector Analysis, published in 1881, presents what is
essentially the modern system of vector analysis.
Aims and objectives
 To understand basic meaning and application of vectors
 To state the types of vectors
 To understand the meaning of component of a vector.
 To be acquainted with vector addition.
 To learn to add vectors through components, parallelogram law and
triangle law.
 To be familiar with Dot Product and Cross Product
 To derive the formula for Area of Parallelogram
 To proof that area of a triangle is half the area of a parallelogram
formed by joining two congruent triangles in a particular fashion
and using this fact to derive the formula for area of a triangle using
vectors.
 Verifying the validity of this formula through numerous examples.
Basics of Vectors
A vector quantity is a quantity whose expression requires complete
knowledge of its direction magnitude and its
unit. A vector is drawn as line with an
arrowhead .When drawn on a graph paper
or when plotted in 3D space using
graphical simulation programs, the length
of a vector corresponds to its magnitude
and the direction in which the arrowhead
points tells about the direction of the
vector. The arrowhead is called the head of

the vector and the rear part is called the tail of the
vector.
Types of Vectors:
Vectors have many types these are as follows:
1. Null Vector: A vector whose magnitude is 0 and
whose tail and head coincide is called a null
vector
2. Equal vectors: Two vectors are called equal vectors if both their
magnitudes and direction are same.
3. Parallel Vector: Two vectors whose direction are same are called parallel
vectors
4. Anti-parallel vectors: Vectors whose directions are exactly opposite to
each other are called anti-parallel vectors
5. Unit Vector: A vector whose magnitude is 1 is called a unit vector. Unit
vectors are represented with a hat (^)over them. Unit vectors along x, y
and z are respectively represented as
6. Co initial Vectors: Two vectors having the their tales at the same point in
space are called co initial vectors
7. Negative Vector: A vector becomes its negative when its direction is
reversed.
Triangle Law of Addition of vectors
Triangle law of vector addition states that the sum of two vectors is the third
vector which is the third side of the vector triangle formed by joining the two
initial vectors head to tail. This concept
can be more clearly visualized using the
diagram beside.

Derivation of the law

Consider two vectors P and Q acting on
a body and represented both in magnitude and direction by sides OA and
AB respectively of a triangle OAB. Let θ be the angle between P and Q.
Let R be the resultant of vectors P and Q. Then, according to triangle law
of vector addition, side OB represents the resultant of P and Q.

So, we have

R=P+Q
Now, expand A to C and draw BC perpendicular to OC.

From triangle OCB,

In triangle ACB,
Also,

Magnitude of resultant:
Substituting value of AC and BC in (i), we get

which is the magnitude of resultant.

Direction of resultant: Let ø be the angle made by resultant R with P.

Then,
From triangle OBC,

which is the direction of resultant.

Representation of vectors
Vectors can be represented in two ways. One way is verbally mentioning
the magnitude and
inclination of the vector in
word. For example 5 units
inclined at 30o with x-axis.
Another way of representing
vectors is in the component
form of the sum of multiple
of unit vectors along the
coordinate axes. In other
words, for a vector :

If the length of the vector along

x, y and z axes are x, y and z respectively. This gives us another way to add two
vectors. Two vectors can be added by adding their respective components.
We must understand another important term magnitude of a vector.
Magnitude can be simply explained as the length of a vector. Magnitude of a
vector is simply the square root of the sum of the squares of the orthogonal
components of a vector. Mathematically,
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
Derivation of the law
Note: All the letters in bold represent vectors and normal letters represent magnitude only.

Let P and Q be two vectors acting simultaneously at a point and

represented both in magnitude and direction by two adjacent sides
OA and OD of a parallelogram OABD as shown in figure.
Let θ be the angle between P and Q and R be the resultant
vector. Then, according to parallelogram law of vector addition,
diagonal OB represents the resultant of P and Q.

So, we have
R=P+Q
Now, expand A to C and draw BC perpendicular to OC.
From triangle OCB,

In triangle ABC,

Also,
Magnitude of resultant:
Substituting value of AC and BC in (i), we get

which is the magnitude of resultant.

Direction of resultant: Let ø be the angle made
by resultant R with P. Then,
From triangle OBC,

which is the direction of resultant.

Numerical Problem
Two forces of magnitude 6N and 10N are inclined at an angle of 60°
with each other. Calculate the magnitude of resultant and the angle
made by resultant with 6N force.
Solution:
Let P and Q be two forces wih magnitude 6N and 10N respectively
and θ be angle between them. Let R be the resultant force.
So, P = 6N, Q = 10N and θ = 60°

We have,

which is the required magnitude

Let ø be the angle between P and R. Then,

which is the required angle

Multiplication of Vectors by Vectors: Dot
Product
There are two ways multiplying two vectors with each other. The dot
product and the cross product. We are going to discuss dot product in
this section. Dot product multiplies two vectors in a specific manner and
gives a scalar as the result. It depends on the angle between the two
operand vectors. Dot product is also called scalar product because it
yields a scalar.

The Dot Product is represented using a central dot:

Dot product= a · b
This means the Dot Product of a and b

We can calculate the Dot Product of two vectors this way:

a · b = |a| × |b| × cos(θ)

Where:
|a| is the magnitude (length) of vector a
|b| is the magnitude (length) of vector b
θ is the angle between a and b

So we multiply the length of a times the length of b, then multiply by the

cosine of the angle between a and b

OR we can calculate it this way:

 a · b = ax × b x + a y × b y

So we multiply the x's, multiply the y's, then add.

Both methods work!

And the result is a number (called a "scalar" so we know it is not a vector)

Multiplication of Vectors by Vectors: Cross
Product
In this section we are going to deal with cross product. It is also called
vector product. The result of cross product is a vector which is
perpendicular to both the initial vectors.

WE CAN CALCULATE THE CROSS PRODUCT THIS WAY:

a × b = |a| |b| sin(θ) n

 |a| is the magnitude (length) of vector a

 |b| is the magnitude (length) of vector b
 θ is the angle between a and b
 n is the unit vector at right angles to both a and b

So the length is: the length of a times the length of b times the sine of
the angle between a and b,

Then we multiply by the vector n so it heads in the correct direction (at

right angles to both a and b).
OR WE CAN CALCULATE IT THIS WAY:

When a and b start at the origin point (0,0,0), the Cross Product will end
at:

 cx = aybz − azby
 cy = azbx − axbz
 cz = axby − aybx

An important note to make is that The magnitude

(length) of the cross product equals the area of a
parallelogram with vectors a and b for sides.
Cross Product of Two Vectors as the Area of
a Parallelogram

Area=b x h

If AD and AB are considered to be two vectors

Then h=AD x sin(angle DAB)
Therefore, the area of the parallelogram=b x h
=AB x AD x sin(angle DAB)
=|AB x AD|
Therefore, the magnitude of the cross product of two vectors is equal to
the area of the parallelogram with the two vectors as its adjacent sides.
Cross Product of Two Vectors as the Area of
a Triangle
For triangle ADB and triangle CBD,

angle DAB = angle BCD…(Opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal)

DB=BD…(Common Side)

angle DBA= angle BDC…(Alternate Pair of Angles)

Therefore, triangle ADB is congruent to triangle CBD

Therefore, Area of triangle ADB is equal to the area of triangle CBD as

area of congruent triangles are equal.

Therefore, area of triangle ADB can be considered to be half of the area

of parallelogram ABCD.

Therefore, Area of triangle ADB= ½ x |AD x AB|

Therefore, half of the magnitude of the cross product of two vectors is

equal to the area of triangle with the two vectors as its adjacent sides.
USES AND APPLICATION OF CROSS PRODUCT
AS AREA OF PARALLELOGRAM AND
TRIANGLE

Vectors is an important part while studying physics as an entire class of

physical quantities, that is those quantities which need magnitude as well
as direction to completely define them like displacement, force, velocity
and so on are represented to them.It also helps us to study three
dimensional objects in great detail.

The concepts of dot product and cross product are also very important as
it is used to find a great number of derived physical quantities like work,
electric flux and so on through dot product and force exerted by a
uniform magnetic field, magnetic field through biot-savart law and so on
through cross product.

This concept allows us a new method to find the areas of parallelogram

and triangle and helps us gain a greater understanding of the cross
product of vectors and also allows us to find the magnitude of the cross
product of two vectors through the area of parallelogram and triangle
without even knowing the complete details of the two vectors.
INFERENCE
When we all are dealing with products in vectors which are well-defined

in a three dimensional co-ordinate system, magnitude of cross products

can easily be described as the area of the parallelogram or half of the

area of the triangle which has the two vectors as its adjacent sides.
CONCLUSION

The theories of vector is an important in physics and mathematics

because it allows us to study vector physical quantities and sets a base

for study in three dimensional geometry.The correct application of the

vector methods and the interpretation of the results also require

familiarity with the most important concepts and the results of vector

theory.
PROJECT2: CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY AND
BAYE’S THEOREM
INTRODUCTION :-

Probability is an important branch of

mathematical concerning numerical
descriptions of how likely an event is to occur
or how likely it is that proposition is true.
These concepts have been given an axiomatic
mathematical formalization in probability
theory.

A great mathematician A. Nikolaevich

Kolmogorov of Russia was one of the

Developers of the Modern Probability Theory. Later he used this work to study
the motion of the planets and turbulent flow of air from a jet engine. The word
probability means the probability or
chance of occurrence of an event. It
conveys the sense that it is not certain
whether the event will take place.
However in the theory of probability
we assign a numerical value to the
degree of uncertainty.

The concept of the probability

started in the eighteenth century with
the games of chance, such as throwing
a die, tossing a coin, drawing a card from a pack of cards etc. but today it has
become a very important and useful tool of statistics. The theory of probability of
has a wide Range of applications in the field of science. From the study of
probability we will learn the possibility of outcomes for a random experiment.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES : -

1) To define experiment, outcome, events, probability and equally likely.

2) To restate the formula for finding the probability of an event.

3) To determine the outcomes and probabilities for experiments.

4) To interact with die rolls and spinners in relation to certain and impossible
events.

5) To compute the probability of certain events.

6) To review to definition of conditional probability and multiplication rule.

7) To compute the conditional probability for solving probability.

8) To connect the set theory and venn-diagrams with conditional probability.

9) To determine the total probability and derive the theorem based on it.

10) To analyze the Baye’s theorem and apply it for solving the problems.
MATHEMATICAL PROCES/ TERMINOLOGY : -

1. Random Experiment
A random experiment is define as an experiment in which all the possible
outcomes of the experiment are known in advance but the exact outcomes
of any specific performance (trail) of the experiment is unpredictable.
2. Sample space :-
The set of all possible outcomes of a certain experiment is known as a
sample space associated with the random experiment and denoted as S.
3. Event : -
An event is associated with a random experiment is defined as subset of
the sample space S.

Types of events :
a. impossible events b. sure events, c. mutually exclusive events

d. exhaustive events. e. complementary events. f. equally likely event

4. Probability of an event.

If a random experiment results in n equally likely, mutually exclusive and

exhaustive events out of which m outcomes are favourable to the

happening of an event A, then the probability P(A) the event A is defined as

P(A) =

= = ( )

( )

5.. Conditional probability:

Let A and B be two events associated with a sample space. Then the
probability of occurrence of event A, given that B has already occurrence is called
conditional probability of occurrence of A. it is denoted by P(A/B) and defined as
P(A/B) = ( ∩ )

( )
 6) Addition Laws of probability : -

a) P ( A ∪ ) = ( ) + ( ) − ( ∩ )

b) P ( A U B ) = P(A) + P ( B) , where A and B are mutually

exclusive events

c) P ( AU BU C) = P(A) + P(B) + P( C) – P ( ∩ )− ( ∩ )
− ( ∩ )

+ P( A∩ ∩ )

6. Multiplication theorem: -
Let A and B be any two events associated
with a random experiment

Such that P(A) ≠ , ( ) ≠ ,

( ∩ ) = ( ).P(A/B) =
P(A).P(B/A)

7. Total probability theorem : -

Let S be the sample space and E1, E2, E3, E4,… ..... En be n mutually exclusive
and exhaustive events associated with a random experiment. Let A be any events
associated with S which occurs with E1, or E2 or E3 or……En, then

P(A) = P(E1).(A/E1) + P(E2).(A/E2) + P(E3).P(A/E3)+…................... + P(En).(A/En)

=∑ ( ). P( A/Ei)
=
8.BAYE’s Theorem : -
Let E1, E2, E3, ……En be the set of n mutually exclusive and exhaustive
events whose union is the random sample space S of an experiment. If A be an
arbitrary event of the sample space of the random experiment with P(A) ≠ 0,
then the probability of the event Ei, where the event A has mutually occurred is
( ∩ )
given by P( Ei / A ) = ,
( ∩ )+ ( ∩ )+ ( ∩ )……….. ( ∩ )

Where P(A ∩ ) = ( ).P(A/Ei)

( ). ( ⁄ )

∴ P( E i/A) =
( ). ( ⁄ )+ ( ). ( ⁄ )+ ( ). ( ⁄ )………….. ( ). ( ⁄ )
 [5]

USES/APPLICATIONS :
There are many examples of how probability is used throughout
society. One common measure is the probability of developing cancer.
According to the Canadian Cancer Society, 40 per cent of Canadian
women and 45 per cent of men will have a diagnosis of an incident of
cancer during their lifetimes. These probabilities are based on
calculations from 2009 cancer statistics across the country.
While this broad information can be useful for those who plan, deliver
or research health-care services, more detailed information is even
more helpful. Researchers can also determine the probability of
acquiring specific types of cancers at specific ages. They can also
consider individual factors, which are important, too. If you have family
members with breast cancer, your risk increases. If you smoke, your
probability of getting lung cancer increases (smoking is estimated to
account for between 88 and 90 per cent of lung cancer cases. The risk is
significantly lower in never-smokers: about one per cent). These types
of risk factors can be incorporated into probability calculations as well.
Another application of probability is with car insurance. Companies
base your insurance premiums on your probability of having a car
accident. To do this, they use information on the frequency of having a
car accident by gender, age, type of car and number of kilometres
driven each year to estimate an individual person’s probability (or risk)
of a motor vehicle accident.
Probability can fall anywhere from 0 to 1, where 1 means there’s 100
per cent certainty that the event will occur. Zero means it will not.
So on a day in which the probability of precipitation was forecast at 80
per cent, but skies were sunny all day, you also have to consider that
there was a 20 per cent chance that it wouldn’t rain. Still, you made a
wise decision to take an umbrella based on the probability you were
given.

INTERPRETATION :-
When we all are dealing with the experiment in probability that are random
and well-defined in a purely theoretical setting. Probability can be numerically
described by the number of desired outcomes, divided by the total number of
outcomes.

However, when it comes to practical application, there are two major

different views about the fundamental nature of probability.

1. Objectivists assign numbers to describe some objective. In this category

The most popular version of objective probability is frequentist
probability.
2. Subjectivists assign number as per subjective probability, here the
degree of belief has been interpreted. The most popular version of
subjective probability Bayesian probability.

CONCLUSION : -

Probability theory is an important in social science because it gives a

theoretical background for both sampling and data analysis. The correct
application of statistical methosds and the interpretation of the results also
require familiarity with the most important concepts and the result of
probability theory.
Bibliography
1. ISC XII mathematics S CHAND publications
2. NCERT Mathematics for class XII
3. JEE advanced mathematics by Ghanshyam Tewani , Cengage Publications