N E H A N A R AYA N A N

I B P S YC H O LO GY S L
PAPER ONE



Biological Approach .......................................................................................4

1. Techniques used to study the brain in relation to behaviour ....................................4

a. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) ..................................................................4
b. fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) .................................................5
2. Localisation of function .........................................................................................5
3. Neurotransmission ...............................................................................................8
a. Synapse ..........................................................................................................8
b. Neurotransmitter ..............................................................................................8
c. Excitatory & Inhibitory Neurotransmitters ..........................................................9
A. Excitatory Neurotransmitter ..........................................................................9
B. Inhibitory Neurotransmitter .........................................................................10
d. Agonist ..........................................................................................................10
e. Antagonist .....................................................................................................11
3. Neuroplasticity ...................................................................................................11
a. Neural Networks ............................................................................................13
b. Neural pruning ..............................................................................................13
4. Hormone ...........................................................................................................14
5. Pheromone ........................................................................................................15
6. Genes ...............................................................................................................16
7. Genetic Similarity (Twin and Kinship Studies) .......................................................17
8. Evolutionary Explanation ....................................................................................17
9. Research Methods .............................................................................................18
10. Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................19
Cognitive Approach ......................................................................................21

1. Models of Memory ............................................................................................21

a. Multi-store Memory Model ..............................................................................21
b. Working memory model .................................................................................22
3. Schema Theory ..................................................................................................24
a. Cognitive Schema ..........................................................................................24
4. Thinking and decision-making .............................................................................25
a. Rational thinking & Intuitive thinking ................................................................25
5. Reconstructive memory ......................................................................................25
a. Confabulation ................................................................................................25
b. Schema processing ........................................................................................26
c. False memories ..............................................................................................27
3. Con rmation Bias ..............................................................................................27
fi

 4. Emotion on Memory Encoding ............................................................................28

5. Research Methods .............................................................................................29
6. Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................29
Sociocultural Approach ................................................................................30

1. Social Identity theory .........................................................................................30

2. Social Cognitive Theory .....................................................................................30
3. Stereotypes .......................................................................................................31
a. Origin of stereotypes ......................................................................................31
b. Effect on behaviour ........................................................................................31
4. Culture & In uence on Behaviour - Conformity .....................................................32
5. Cultural Dimensions ...........................................................................................32
a. Individualism vs collectivism ............................................................................32
6. Enculturation .....................................................................................................33
7. Acculturation - assimilation .................................................................................34
8. Research Methods .............................................................................................35
9. Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................35
fl

BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
1. TECHNIQUES USED TO STUDY THE BRAIN IN
REL ATION TO BEHAVIOUR
- With modern brain imaging technology psychologists can investigate correlations between the
brain and behaviour using a range of new technology that does not involve harming any
animals.
- Rarely are these techniques used in isolation: exploratory brain surgery follows scanning when
the images cannot give us certainty; MRI scans that identify tumours are followed by fMRI
scans that show how they are affecting brain processes and behaviou
- There are certain considerations to be taken into account when using any technique to study
the brain, such as the cost, potential harm to the patient and of course, con dentiality of the
data
a. M R I ( M A G N E T I C R E S O N A N C E I M A G I N G )
MRIs are able to identify and determine differences in brain structure that may be correlated
with changes in behaviour.
Studies that use the MRI include the procedure of asking participants to perform certain
tasks.
From their performance on the task in comparison with control groups who have healthy
undamaged brains as shown in the MRI, conclusions can be made about the role of different
parts of the brain in particular behaviours.
Strength
MRI scans are a non-invasive method of investigating the structure of the body or brain.
MRIs can be used to image soft and hard tissues of the body
The images are very detailed and can sometimes show unique information that other scans
cannot.
They are painless and can also be used on children and pregnant women as the do not use
radiation
Limitation
MRIs can only show static images of the brain.
MRI scans cannot be used on people who have most types of implants including joint
prosthetics, pacemakers, metal surgical clips or an arti cial heart valve. Morbidly obese people
also may not t in the scanner
Slight movement can affects the quality of the image given and so people must be completely
still. This can mean that small children do not do well in MRIs and may need to be sedated,
which carries its own risks
These machinery also make lots of noise and can make people feel claustrophobic
Studies that can be used for this topi
1. Vietnam Head Injury Study (Grafmen et al.
2. Iowa Card Game Study (Bechara et al.
.

fi

fi
.

fi
.

 b. F M R I ( F U N C T I O N A L M A G N E T I C R E S O N A N C E I M A G I N G )
In fMRI scans, images are produced of the parts of the brain that are activated at any one
time.
An fMRI scan studies the structure and physical functions of the brain by monitoring blood-
oxygen levels.
Blood-oxygen levels in the brain increase as the active parts of the brain require more oxygen
fMRIs can record brain signals without the risks of radiation and are one of the most common
brain-mapping techniques because of the relatively wide availability of the machines
Many researchers are able to access the technology, which promotes reliability and
comparisons across studies
The machines have high spatial resolution and are considered more accurate than MRI scans.
Strengths
Unlike other scanning techniques (e.g. PET), fMRI does not rely on the use of radiation and is,
therefore, safe
Produces images with high spatial resolution, showing detail by the millimetre
Provides a clear picture of how brain activity is localised
Limitation
fMRI is expensive compared to other techniques and can only capture a clear image if the
person stays still
Poor temporal resolution because of a 5-second lag between initial neural activity and image
May not truly represent moment-to-moment brain activity
Studies that can be used for this topi
1. Testosterone (Radke et al.
2. Serotonin and Behaviour (Passamonti et al.

2. L O C A L I S A T I O N O F F U N C T I O N
- Localisation of brain functions describes the concept of different brain parts having different
functions.
- The technological advances that have allowed us to understand ever more regarding the
localisation of brain function have also developed our understanding of how medication affects
certain areas of the brain.
- fMRI scanning allows the investigation of regionally speci c brain activity associated with the
administration of medicines designed to change the activity in a certain brain area, especially
in people with diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer’s Disease or Huntington’s Disease, would
be an application of localisation of the brain
Prefrontal Cortex
The pre-frontal cortex is an area within the frontal lobe, located above the eyebrows and
beneath the forehead and probably regulates our impulsive decision making and emotions
People with pre-frontal cortex damage lack the ability to control their impulsive behaviour and
can be provoked into aggression
Aggression is the feeling of anger and hostility towards someone or something, which often
results in violent actions

fi
.

Vietnam Head Injury Study (Grafman et al.) - NATURAL EXPERIMENT

Aim : The Vietnam head injury study is a longitudinal study on over 1000 American veterans of
the Vietnam War that aims to research on the impact of brain injury on behavior
Procedure : To test this idea, the researchers compared Vietnam War veterans with those of
healthy controls by splitting them into 3 groups
1. Group 1 = Veterans with no damage at al
2. Group 2 = Veterans with damage to brain but not prefrontal corte
3. Group 3 = Veterans with damage to prefrontal corte
The researchers gathered data on a range of aggressive and violent attitudes and behaviours of
the participants using self-report forms and family observations. The questions included
1. How often do you swear or shout at people who make you angry
2. How often do you get angry
Results : The results showed that veterans who had damage to their pre-frontal cortex had
higher levels of reported violence and aggression than the controls or veterans with damage to
other parts of the brain.
Conclusion : By using MRI technology and being able to compare the three groups in the study,
the researchers were able to draw the conclusion that damage to the prefrontal cortex is more
likely to lead to aggressive behaviours than no damage or damage to other areas of the brain

Critical Thinking:
⁃ The results of the forms are triangulated using family observations to make sure that the
questionnaire is reliable.
⁃ However, family perception is also subjective to circumstances and perception, therefore
this might not be the most reliable method to measure aggression
⁃ In addition, the availability heuristic plays a key role in how we assess the past. This bias
means that we form an opinion based on what information readily comes to mind. If you are
able to more quickly recall the times when a teacher scolded students rather than praised
them, then the perception would be that the teacher was rather mean and unfair to
students. The fact the participants are veterans may act as a bias when assessing their
aggressiveness, hence triangulation of family observations may not be effective
⁃ The expectancy effect is when a participant thinks that they know what a researcher is
hoping to achieve and then tells the researcher what s/he wants to hear.
⁃ Another demand characteristic is the social desirability effect, where a participant says
what they believes will make them look good - or at least not make them look bad
⁃ Finally there is the peak-end rule. According to the peak-end rule, we judge our
experiences almost entirely on how they were at their peak and how they ended. This is
because it is not possible for us to gure out an "average of our behaviour over time." 
Daniel Kahnemann (1993) argues that people seem to perceive not the sum of an experience
but its average.

fi
l

Ventromedial Pre-Frontal Cortex (vmPFC)

The prefrontal cortex allows us to exercise control over those initial responses based on
consideration of other factors
People who are able to resist emphatic and show self control have higher function in their pre-
frontal cortex
People with PFC dysfunction may have an impairment in their ability to use system two
processing and rely more on system one processing
People with lesions in the PFCs are primarily guided by immediate rewards and may not think
about long-term rewards or punishments
People with Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex dysfunction have shown an inability to learn from
previous mistakes and continue to repeat behaviours that result in negative consequences.
Other aspects of the cognitive capabilities remain normal.
Cognitive Capabilities : This refers to the ability to perform cognitive tasks.

Iowa Card Game Study (Bechara et al.) - NATURAL EXPERIMEN

Aim : To learn the effects of the proper functioning of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex
Procedure : This study compared 17 healthy controls with 8 patients who had lesions in their
ventromedial prefrontal cortex. They played the Iowa Card Game. There are 2 decks whereby
the initial money won is rather small and two decks where the money won is larger. The smaller
reward deck also has smaller penalties but the initial reward deck has bigger penalties. There is
no real strategy involved except learning to goo for low rewards. The game is designed to see
how people adjust their thinking based on learning from experience.
Results : The results showed that the healthy controls slowly learned to avoid the cards with
high rewards and high risks and opted instead for cards that low immediate reward but with
long-term gains. The patients with damage to their vmPFC chose the decks with higher
immediate rewards which had long-term punishments
Conclusion : This pattern took a few trials to emerge but generally remainder through the the
remaking trials. The patients were less able to consider the long term factors and consequences
of their impulsive decisions, unlike the healthy controls who were able to consider the long-term
factors and consequences of their impulsive decisions
.

Critical Thinking
- Localisation vs. distribution debate.
- Just as we now recognise that the nature vs. nurture binary is a false construction
and there is interaction between the two, so the localisation vs. distribution of function
binary is appearing to be the same
- It seems that it is possible to have areas of localisation joined by neural pathways
that together make a connectme – a neural network across which a certain function or
behaviour is distributed

3. N E U R O T R A N S M I S S I O N
Neurotransmission: Neurotransmission is the process by which neurons transmit information and
signals in order for certain bodily functions, either psychical or psychological to occur

a. S Y N A P S E
Synapse: Axon of a neurone approaching a dendrite or soma of another neuron

b. N E U R O T R A N S M I T T E R
Neurotransmission is the communication between this neurons begins when an action potential
travels to the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron
This electrical impulse causes vesicles to fuse with the membrane of the presynaptic neuron
and release certain molecules; neurotransmitters, which bind to the receptors on the
postsynaptic neuron to carry on this action potential to the next neuron
These neurotransmitters are then released from the receptors, and either return to the
presynaptic neuron, or are dissolved by enzymes
Example of Neurotransmitter: Dopamine and Serotonin

Effect of Serotonin - Passamonti et al.

Aim : To nd the relationship between(serotonin levels) and violent behavior by measuring the
brain activity when the participants’ serotonin levels are manipulated as they are exposed to
emotional stimuli
Procedure : Gathered healthy volunteers for an experiment where their serotonin levels were
manipulated by altering diet. A repeated measures design was used where on one day they were
given a drink that lacked tryptophan. Tryptophan is a protein that helps in secretion of serotonin.
The lack of tryptophan would reduce the amount of serotonin produced in the brain. In the
control condition they were given a placebo, which is basically a drink that contained normal
amounts of tryptophan. The participants were were shown face with emotional stimuli. The
researchers could see the activation of the brain, including the amygdala and the prefrontal
cortex
Results : The results showed that there was reduced activity in the frontal lobe during the low
serotonin conditions.The disruption only occurred during the angry faces, but not other emotional
stimuli. It’s not any stimuli that is affected by serotonin, but a threatening stimulus in particular.
.

fi

The reduced activation of the prefrontal cortex might affect violence and the inability to
regulate impulsive decisions. Additionally, it shows that there was disruption of the communication
between the amygdala and the frontal lobe
Conclusion : This evidence supports that the serotonin impacts the prefrontal cortex role in
suppressing negative emotions generated in the amygdala as a response to the threatening
face.This negative response is instinctively generated in the amygdala and may be the basis of
aggressive and other highly emotional reactions, therefore increasing the likelihood of an
aggression or violent reaction.

Critical Thinking
- Ecological validity of the stud
• The study could be questioned on the grounds of ecological validity because of the
research methodology used. The participants brain activation was measured while they
were laying down in an fMRI and viewing images of an angry face.
• This is very different to what happens in real life when someone is threatened and may
respond violently. By correlating brain activity with seeing an angry face doesn’t
necessarily mean we can generalise these ndings to situations involving extremely high
levels of danger and threat, such as are often involved in violent crimes.
• Similarly, typically when we are confronted we are not in a tiny space like an fMRI.
Perhaps our brain activity might be different if we are not enclosed in a small area.
- Areas of uncertaint
• This study only supports an explanation of violence in situations where someone is
responding to emotion in someone else (the brain was activated in response to the
angry face).
• This methodology means that there are signi cant limitations in using these results to
explain violence when the violent person is the aggressor. i.e. they are the ones that
initiate the violence, as opposed to just being the ones who respond aggressively or
attacks without being provoked.  
- The effect of serotoni
• Another limitation in the study is that there is an assumption that serotonin levels have
been manipulated due to the reduced levels of tryptophan (which were measured)
• However, as there is no way of actually recording serotonin levels in the brain, there’s
no way to tell for certain that the treatment affected serotonin
c. E X C I T A T O R Y & I N H I B I T O R Y N E U R O T R A N S M I T T E R S
A. E X C I T A T O R Y N E U R O T R A N S M I T T E R
Dopamine is an example of a neurotransmitter that binds to excitatory receptor sites
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in goal-directed behaviour (motivation) such as
pleasure seeking, control of movement, emotional response, and addictive behaviour.
Dopamine is released in the brain’s reward system and has been associated with pleasure
seeking and addictive behaviour
Fisher et al. (2003) - TRUE EXPERIMEN

fi
fi

Aim : The aim of the study was to investigate the neural mechanisms associated with the
attraction system (romantic love).
Procedure : 10 female and 7 male participants aged from 18 to 26 were recruited, they
reported being in love for an average of 7.5 months.
1. The participants rst lled out a questionnaire (the passionate love scale) to investigate how
they felt about their relationship.
2. They were placed placed in an fMRI scanner. They rst looked at a photograph of their
beloved for 30 seconds, then performed a distraction task of counting backwards, then looked
at a photograph of a neutral acquaintance for 30 seconds. This was repeated six times
Results : The researchers found that the brain showed activity in the brain's reward system,
which is activated by a pleasant stimulus. The researchers found that there was an increased
activity in the dopamine rich brain areas associated with reward, motivation and goal orientation
when participants looked at their lover.
Conclusion : The results indicate the possibility of brain circuits dedicated to attraction. They also
found the more passionate they were (determined by the questionnaire), the more active the
brain's reward circuitry was. This therefore supported a correlation between the attitudes
towards the lover and brain activity
Critical Thinking
- Ethic
• The study was ethical because there was informed consent, they were debriefed, their
identities remained con dential, they were not deceived, and could withdraw while they
were protected from mental and physical harm
- Cultural Bia
• The study is culturally biased because the participants were all gathered from the
same university in New York (although the ethnicity or background of the participants
was not mentioned
- Application
• The results of this study may be useful for evaluating the existence of romantic
feelings for another person (possibly useful in couples therapy to determine attraction

B. I N H I B I T O R Y N E U R O T R A N S M I T T E R
Serotonin is an example of a neurotransmitter that binds to inhibitory receptor sites
Serotonin is involved in emotion and mood, balancing excessive excitatory neurotransmitter
effects in your brain
Study on Excitatory Neurotransmitters: Effect of Serotonin - Passamonti et al

d. A G O N I S T
An agonist is any chemical that binds to a receptor site on a post-synaptic neuron, causing the
neuron to r
One agonist is serotonin, which is a naturally occurring agonist of 5HT receptors. The effects
of this on behaviour can be shown in Passamonti et al.’s study
s

fi
s

fi
:

fi
fi

fi

 An agonist is a chemical that ampli es the effect of a neurotransmitter by binding to the

receptor sites of that neurotransmitter and activating them.
This is opposite of an antagonist which binds to receptors and blocks them from ring.
Neurotransmitters have an effect by binding to receptor sites and sending messages through
neural networks.
Agonists in uence this process because they increase the activation of receptors. Many drugs
are agonists.
For example, pramipexole is a drug for Parkinson’s disease and it works by binding to the
receptors of the neurotransmitter dopamine
But neurotransmitters themselves can be endogenous (naturally occurring) agonists.
For example, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitory drugs (SSRI’s) naturally increase the levels
and activity of endogenous 5HT (serotonin).
Therefore, serotonin can be considered an endogenous (naturally occurring) agonist of 5HT
(serotonin) receptor sites. Disruptions to serotonin transmission can in uence behaviour
Study on Agonist Neurotransmitters: Effect of Serotonin - Passamonti et al

e. A N T A G O N I S T
An antagonist binds to the receptor sites of a speci c neurotransmitter. An antagonist binds to
the receptor sites of a speci c neurotransmitter. It can block a neurotransmitter from binding
to that receptor site, thus reducing the effect of that neurotransmitter
Ketamine & PTSD: Ketamine binds to glutamate receptor sites and could reduce symptoms of
PTSD

Ketamine in the Treatment of PTSD (Feder et al. 2014

Aim: To test the effectiveness of ketamine on reducing the symptoms of PTSD (and depression)
Ketamine or midazolam was administered using an IV drip like the one in this image – patients
lay for 40 mins while the drugs seep into their systems. (wikicommons)
Methods: This clinical drug trial was conducted in a hospital in New York City. 41 patients
diagnosed with PTSD received either ketamine or midazolam (another anaesthetic sometimes
used for anxiety). The drugs were given to participants using an IV drip. The study was repeated
measures – they received both ketamine and midazolam but two weeks apart so the relative
effects of both treatments could be assessed. To prevent order effects, the order of which drug
they were given was randomized. The main measure of effectiveness was taken after 24 hours.
To measure PTSD symptoms, the Impact of Event Scale – Revised version (IES-R) was used. To
measure effects on depression the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) was
also used
The study was double-blind, so neither the patient nor the person conducting the tests knew
which condition the patient was in (however, the chief researchers would know)
Results: The results of the IES scores showed that ketamine was signi cantly more effective in
reducing PTSD symptoms compared with midazolam

3. N E U R O P L A S T I C I T Y
.

fl

fi

fi

fi
)

fl
.

fi
.

fi
 Neuroplasticity is the phenomenon of the brain developing new neural pathways as a result of
repeated experience of something
This ability of the brain to grow old and change as the result of experiences
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s ability to demonstrate plasticity
Plasticity is the quality of being easily shaped or molded
The more sensory stimulation we have in our environment, the more input our sensory organs
will detect and want to respond to
Different types of sensory stimulation will require many different areas of the activating and
communicating with one another through neurotransmission
The more our brains are active, the more neural pathways will require developing
Learning is occurring neurons need to create more synapses, so connection between and
growth of more dendrites and axon terminals are necessary to connect more neuron
throughout the brain
Connections will be weak when we are learning something new because area of the brain
involved in learning the new task haven’t had to communicate before
Neurons need to create more synapses in order for the neurotransmission
The dendrites and axon terminals were making more connections as a result of having more
sensory stimulation
This would allow faster and more uent neurotransmission to occur between different areas of
the brain

Maguire et al. Taxi Driver

Aim: Investigate whether neuroplasticity occurs in London cab drivers, who must memorize
25,000 street names, landmarks, restaurants and hotels in order to earn a cab license.
Procedure: A sample of 16 healthy, right-handed London cab drivers had their brains scanned
using an MRI, and this was compared with MRI scans of 50 non-cab driving right-handed males
of the same average age.  MRI uses magnets to track the ow of oxygenated blood in the brain,
revealing brain structure.  The cab drivers had been driving for various lengths of time, ranging
from 1.5 to 42 years
Results: The posterior (rear) of the hippocampus was signi cantly larger in the taxi drivers, while
the anterior (front) of the hippocampus was larger in the control group.  Furthermore, there
was a positive correlation between years of experience driving a taxi and the size of the
posterior of the hippocampus.
Conclusion:  The hippocampus is the region of the brain associated with memory, and the
posterior is believed to be related to spatial memory and navigation.  Experienced cab drivers
develop a "mental map" of London, involving thousands of streets and landmarks.  This causes an
increase in the posterior of the hippocampus

Critical Thinking
- Correlational Results
• This study involved comparing two separate groups of participants, with no random
assignment into different conditions. 
.

fl
.

fi
.

fl
.

 • Therefore, the results are correlational, and it cannot be concluded with certainty that
driving a cab caused changes in the hippocampus. 
• It is possible that cab drivers already tended to have a bigger hippocampus even
before they started driving
- Area of Uncertaint
• The precise role of the posterior and anterior of the hippocampus remain speculative. 
• Although it is believed that the posterior of the hippocampus is linked to spatial
navigation, more research is needed to con rm this
- Evaluation of Neuroplasticity
• Neuroplasticity helps us to understand how we learn. The concept of long-term
potentiation - that neurons that wire together, re together - is a biological
explanation of the concept of "rehearsal" which is central to early memory models
• Research on neuroplasticity has been applied to better understanding learning, stroke
patients, children who have suffered from neglect, and the role of stress on memory
• Many studies of neuroplasticity are correlational in nature and cannot establish a cause
and effect relationship
• The theory itself is reductionist as it does not consider other factors at play

a. N E U R A L N E T W O R K S
A neural network is a series of connected neurons that allows the processing and transmitting
of information. Speci c networks are responsible for speci c tasks
The PFC and amygdala connectivity are connected through neural networks, which helps to
process emotion
Study on Neural Transmitters: Effect of Serotonin - Passamonti et al

b. N E U R A L P R U N I N G
Another way that our brain can change is through neural pruning - which is a decrease in the
number of synapses as a result of the removal of dendritic branches.
Pruning can be the result of neuron cell death, hormones such as cortisol or the lack of use of
a neural pathway. 
The exact mechanism of neural pruning is not yet fully understood

Dragansky et al
Aim: A study by Dragansky showed that when neural pathways are not used, they may be
pruned. 
Procedure: The sample was made up of 24 non-jugglers.  Each participant had an MRI scan at
the beginning of the study in order to see the structure of the brain prior to the experiment. 
The participants were randomly allocated to one of two conditions.  In one condition, they were
asked to learn a juggling routine and to practice it daily until they had mastered it. When they
did, they had a second MRI. Then they were told not to juggle anymore.  Three months later
they had a third MRI.  The other group of participants simply served as a control group.

fi
.

fi
fi
.

fi
.

 Results: Using voxel-based morphometry the researchers measured the density of the grey
matter in the brains of jugglers vs. non-jugglers. The jugglers showed a signi cantly larger
amount of grey matter in the mid-temporal area in both hemispheres - an area associated with
visual memory. Three months after the participants stopped juggling, the amount of grey matter
in these parts of the brain had decreased.
Conclusion: This shows that when learning a new skill, new neural networks were created. 
However, when the behaviour stopped and those neurons were no longer activated, the neurons
were pruned.

4. H O R M O N E
A key biological factor in psychology is the endocrine system, and its role in releasing hormones
in our body
Hormones are chemical messengers that are transported through blood and it performs a
number functions in the body
They are chemicals that can spark physical reactions throughout the body
Testosterone is another hormone that has been studied extensively due to its relation and
in uence on aggression

Radke et al. (2015)

Aim : To investigate the relationships between perceiving a social threat, testosterone levels and
the amygdala
Description : Researchers hypothesised that the amygdala wasn’t just involved in the perception
of the threat, but the effect of motivation to deal with the threat. When we’re threatened we
feel motivated to defend ourselves and our social status. Researchers suggest that it isn’t just
about experiencing emotion tat sparks the activation of the amygdala, but it is about motivation
to respond in some way
Procedure : 27 females were given a small dose of testosterone and 27 were given a placebo.
The participants lay down in an fMRI scanner and pictures of faces that were angry or happy
were shown at a time. For each face that appears on the screen, the participants have to avoid
or approach the face. They avoid/approach the face by moving the joystick with their hand.
When pushed one way the stick will make the face gradually appear larger and vice versa for
avoidance. The motivation factor was the following of the researcher’s instructions to approach
or to avoid. Results : The results showed that the group with testosterone had more activation in
their amygdala when they were approaching angry faces when they were told to do so and the
activation was higher that when they approached happy faces
Conclusion : While testosterone might in uence aggression at times when we are socially
threatened by increasing the activation of the amygdala. There wasn’t a signi cant difference in
the activation of the prefrontal cortex across groups
fl
.

fl
.

fi
fi
Critical Thinking
- Generalisability
• Lacks generalisability as the results may not be valid for other genders, lacks
population validity as they only used a small number of participants and therefore they
may not accurately represent the whole population, lacks ecological validity because the
way that the participants react in an fMRI scanner looking at images of faces when
they know they are being observed may be different to how they would act in a
natural setting with a real threat stimulus
• Experiments in the biological approach often take a reductionist approach, looking at
the effect of a single IV on a DV.

5. P H E R O M O N E
Pheromones are chemical messengers transmitted from one individual to another through the
air and are detected by the receiving individual through the sense of smell
There is a considerable amount of evidence that shows that pheromones affect animal
behaviour, but the in uence on human behaviour is still debated
Androstienone is found in male sweat and may help females in the process of selecting a mate
This putative pheromone may send signals through smell

Cornwell et al.- FIELD EXPERIMENT

Aim : This experiment aims to investigate the correlation between pheromones and facial
characteristics.
Procedure : There 56 male and 56 female participants of ages 17 - 26. The participants were
exposed to male and female pheromones.
1. Participants were shown faces from a range of ethnicities and the faces ranged from in
appearance from 50% feminized to 50% masculinization.
2. The women were asked which face they would prefer for a short-term or long-term
relationship
3. The women were asked to smell 5 different vials
⁃ Androstienone
⁃ Androstenone
⁃ A female pheromon
⁃ Clove Oi
⁃ Cade Oi
Results : The results showed that there was a positive correlation between masculine facial
features and their preference for the smell of adrostadienone
Conclusion : The researchers conclude that pheromones and facial characteristics might work
together but in revealing an individual to mate quality. This could also be an indicator of
dominance and good overall health. This study also gives a better understanding of how
androstenedione in uence attraction. While visual characteristics can send a visual signal many
pheromones may work by sending signals through the sense of smell
l

fl
e

fl

Critical Thinking
- Alternative Explanation
• There are also other numerous factors that in uence attraction and we are looking at a
very select sample and there are many differences in preferences between males and
females in attraction.

6. G E N E S
Studies suggest that there is a correlation between people with a variation of this gene and
antisocial behavior
MAOA is also known as monoamine oxidase A
MAOA is an enzyme that affects levels of neurotransmitters
Some people have mutation in this gene, so they do not produce enough of the MAOA enzyme
that can affect serotonin levels in the brain
The combination of genetics and environment cannot be ignored as studies also shows that the
presence of the variation of the MAOA gene coupled abuse as a child, increased the likelihood
of displaying antisocial behaviors
MAOA - L which means that a person does not have enough of the enzyme to break the
neurotransmitters the body is producing

Meyer-Lindeberg et al. 2008 - QUASI EXPERIMENT

Aim : This study investigates the in uence of MAOA-L gene on brain function.
Procedure : The consists of 2 groups of participants. One group had high expressing MAOA gene
(MAOA-H), whereas another group had the variant that has low expression of the MAOA gene,
which is the type correlated with aggressive behaviour (MAOA-L). Both groups of participants
viewed angry and fearful faces in the fMRI.
Results : The MAOA-L group had signi cantly increased activity in their amygdala, and reduced
activity in their ventromedial prefrontal cortex compared to the MAOA-H group
Conclusion : The increased activity in the amygdala shows that there is an increased emotional
arousal and the reduced prefrontal cortex activity shows that there is an inability to regulate
emotion or impulsive actions. This shows that MAOA-L gene carriers are more prone to impulsive
reactive aggression
Strength : fMRI can record activity in all regions of the brain. The focus is mostly on localized
functioning, which was the dependent variable for this experiment and therefore making this
experiment more reliable

Critical Thinking
- Correlatio
• The study only shows the correlation of MAOA to prefrontal cortex and amygdala activity it
did not show the cause and effect relation
- Ecological Validit
n

fl
fi
.

fl

 • Low ecological validity - viewing only angry faces (and like lying in a magnetic tube and not
seeing actual humans) didn't account for other factors in uencing aggression (like
testosterone) only investigates one type of aggression (responsive)

7. G E N E T I C S I M I L A R I T Y ( T W I N A N D K I N S H I P S T U D I E S )
Researchers investigate multiple behaviours and their connections with genetics to see if a
particular behaviours are a result of genetic or environmental factors
Research is on behaviours like antisocial behaviour, aggression and crime
These studies regularly show that both genetics and the environment can affect these
behaviours
The extent to which a behaviour can be attributed to genetics is called heritability
Genetic studies often involve twins.
Twin studies rely on the fact that identical twins (monozygotic) have 100% common genetic
material. Fraternal twins (dizygotic) have 50% common genetic material
They get a bunch of identical and fraternal twins together and they measure a particular
behaviour
What they do is see how similar the identical twins are to each other, and then calculate this
average across all the identical twins. They see how the fraternal twins are similar to each
other and again calculate average
The researchers then compare the averages between the identical and fraternal twins, which
enable them to determine the heritability of a certain behaviour.

Raine and Baker (2007) - Field Experiment

Aim : Conducted a study in which used 120 twins in California, USA, where they studied anti-
social behaviour
Description : Antisocial behavior in young children is a good predictor of later criminal behavior
Procedure : The researcher gathered data using questionnaires. The child, their teacher and a
caregiver lled out a range of question to test the kids’ personalities, behaviours and social
skills. All these were designed to provide a measure of the kids’ level of antisocial behavior. This
could then be statically analyses, making comparisons between fraternal and identical twins and
correlations compared
Results : The heritability always came around 50%
Conclusion : Antisocial behaviour in these kids was about half a product of genetics and half
explained by environmental factors

Critical Thinking
- Assumption
• Making conclusions about genetics front twins studies is that perhaps the similarities
between identical twins could be explained as they look the same, compared to fraternal
twins, who might be raised differently due to their gender

8. E V O L U T I O N A R Y E X P L A N A T I O N
.

fi
.

fl
.

 Aggression might help to restrain and maintain social status

Status is achieved in many ways across social groups, cultures and genders, so the value of
aggression in these situations will vary from situation to situation
Evolution is about the survival of the ttest.
This means only the organisms that have the best features and characteristics can survive
Genes will more likely be passed if it increases the chances of survival/ reproduction
The process of evolution works by mutations happening in the genetic material that are passed
on
Our brains have evolved to allow us think and behave in ways that are likely to increase our
chances of survival.
Displaying aggression is one of the ways is one of the ways that can help us maintain our
social status in the event of ring challenged or threatened
Study on Evolutionary Explanation: Effect of Testosterone - Radke et al

9. R E S E A R C H M E T H O D S
The biological approach argues that human behaviour has physiological origins and that
‘biology’ should be taken into account when studying human beings.
Psychologists use multiple research methods to investigate how environmental factors interact
with biological systems humans.
Two research methods that are used in this approach are laboratory experiments and case
studies

Laboratory Experiment
The purpose of using laboratory experiments in the biological approach is for the researchers
to establish a causal relationship between two variables - the independent and the dependent
variable.
Experiments are based on hypothesis testing - that is, making a measurable and testable
hypothesis and then seeing if the results of the study are statistically signi cant so that they
can reject the null hypothesis.
In addition, an experiment must contain at least one group that receives a treatment (the
manipulation of an independent variable), and a control group does not receive the treatment.
In a true experiment, participants are randomly allocated to conditions
Advantage
One of the most signi cant strengths of a laboratory experiment is that it has a highly
standardised procedure so the study can be replicated by other researchers, and the reliability
of the results can be further tested.
Experiments also try to control extraneous variables and randomly allocate participants to
conditions, which increases the internal validity, allowing for a cause and effect relationship to
be established
On the other hand, they suffer from low ecological validity due to the highly controlled
environments, meaning that the results may not re ect behaviour under normal conditions.
.

fi

fi

fl
.

fi
Case Stud
Case studies are comprehensive investigations of one individual with a particular brain
abnormality or damage; case studies provide situations that cannot be ethically reproduced by
researchers in a laboratory under controlled conditions.
They are also often carried out longitudinally to observe short-term and long-term effects,
where the same variables are investigated in repeated and different types of observations over
long periods of time.
An independent variable is not manipulated in this type of research and hence, no causal
relationship can be established.
In addition, psychologists study the brain-damaged patient by using triangulation - for
example, more than one method, researcher, and different sources of data.
Advantage
Case studies collect data over a long period of time, accounting for both short-term and long-
term effects on the patient’s behaviour; they also use a more holistic approach as opposed to
experiments by looking at a range of behaviours, rather than measuring a single dependent
variable.
In addition, the use of method triangulation increases the validity of the results. 
Nevertheless, generalisability is one of the most critical limitations of this type of research
method; case studies often study brain abnormality or damage that is unique to an individual
and for that reason, the observed results cannot be generalized to the behaviour of all human
beings.
In addition, a causal relationship cannot be established as an independent variable is not
manipulated in this type of research.
Lastly, it might also be dif cult for the researcher to acquire and verify information about the
patient prior to his/her accident, which may otherwise be of some use when drawing
conclusions.

SM Woman ( Feinstein Adolphs , Damaiso and Tranel, 2011) - CASE STUD

Aim : To investigate if the amygdala played a role in the induction of fear.
Sample : One unique woman (SM) who suffered a rare genetic disease and had severe leisions in
the brain which caused damage to the amygdala.
Procedure : SM was constantly exposed to fear in the experiment. They went to a exotic pet
house and though SM expressed her dislike for sakes and spiders when asked to touch them she
did not express any form of fear. They made a haunted house for her even though it was not
Halloween and to test her reaction they also used a few controls
Results : Due to SM's unique bilateral lesions she could no longer experience fear
Conclusion : The amygdala is a critical brain region for triggering a state of fear

10. E T H I C A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S
Biological research into the relationship between the brain and behaviour is far‐reaching and
includes methods such as imaging techniques, experiments and quasi‐experiments, and case
studies.

fi

Ethical guidelines to protect participants in psychological research are laid out by national
organizations, such as the American Psychological Association and the British Psychological
Society.
These guidelines require that all psychological research is passed by an ethics committee to
ensure that it does no psychological nor physical harm, so ethical considerations have to start
long before the research does.
The nature of biological research means that particular ethical conditions become very
important.
Informed Consen
To obtain informed consent, the aim and the procedure of the research – as well as any
possible negative outcomes – must be explained to the participant in language that the
participant can understand.
A participant could nd out that they have an unexpected genetic disposition for a
particular mental illness.
Although this could be considered a good thing because it could lead to changes in
behaviour that would prevent the onset of the disorder, it could also cause undue stress
Anonymit
Anonymity of participants before, during and after the research is usually guaranteed
through the giving of numbers or pseudonyms.
This protects their identity from the researchers and from other participants. It is not
always possible for the researcher to not know their identity at all, especially when names
are collected from previous lists, but this should be consideration

fi

COGNITIVE APPROACH
1. MODELS OF MEMORY
a. M U L T I - S T O R E M E M O R Y M O D E L
The multi-store model of memory attempts to illustrate how memories are formed through the
interaction of memory stores and control processes.

Atkinson and Shiffrin

There are distinct stores for memor
Sensory Store
Short-term Stor
Long-Term Stor
Information is rst perceived and enters the sensory store
These are modality speci c stores, which means there are different stores for different modes
of information
The information is transferred through the stores by the control processe
Attentio
Rehearsa
Retrieva
Control Process : A cognitive process that controls the ow of information from one store to
another
Information is transferred to the short term store if we pay attention to it
If we rehearse information, it will be transferred to our long-term store, where we can
retrieve it and bring it back into our conscious memory when we need it
The Multi-store memory model explains that there is a positive correlation between the
amount of rehearsal of something and the strength of the memory trace
Decay : Information may be lost through the short-term store if its not rehearsed
Iconic memory has shorter duration in the sensory store than echoic memory.

Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory

Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic

Capacity Unlimited 7±2 Chunks Very Large

Duration 0.25s 20s Years

.

fi
e

fi

fl
.

Peterson and Peterson (1959

Aim : The researchers wanted to duration and capacity of short-term memory.
Procedure : They measured the duration and capacity of the short - term store by participants
remembering trigrams - meaningless consonant triplets. Participants would be given one these
to remember but then they would be asked to count it backwards in threes out loud as a form
of distraction.
Results : After six seconds the ability to remember three-letter stimuli (in the correct order)
had about a 50% accuracy rate. When the time was extended to 18 seconds the results were
almost 0% recollection of details.
Conclusions : By not giving participants a chance to rehearse the three - letter stimuli and them
something distracting to do for various lengths of time and by increasing the time counting
backwards until there is 0% recollection of the stimuli, the researchers can provide
approximations as to the duration of the short - term store

b. W O R K I N G M E M O R Y M O D E L
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) took the short-term store from the Multi-Store Memory Model and
elaborated it in their Working Memory Model (WMM)
Working Memory : This is the term to describe information that is temporarily stored in our
consciousness and can be manipulated by our manipulated by moving in and out of our short-
term memory.
Working Memory is another name for short-term memory
Our working memory includes our attention to information in our environment
It also includes that internal rehearsal of information that might enable us to transfer
memory
The working memory model has key components. This includes
Phonological Loo
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpa
The phonological loop is responsible for auditory information
It is a temporary storage and rehearsal system for auditory information
Cognitive Capacity : refers to our ability to perform cognitive processes
The phonological loop deals with auditory information, the visa-spatial sketchpad deals with
visual information.
.

 Slave Systems : The visa-spatial sketchpad and the phonological loo

The slave systems are controlled by the central executive
Central Executive : The boss who controls the working of the slave systems
Executive Functions : Refers to the processes of the central executive, like focusing our
attention on different things
Episodic Buffer : The episodic buffer is a store with the short -term store that can hold hunks
of information until needed
It serves to connect the component of working memory with sensory perception and long-term
memory
There might be two different slave systems that process different modalities
Modality : Refers to a mode of information
A common experimental to test about two different systems processing these different
modalities is the dual-task paradigm
This requires participants to process visual and verbal information simultaneously
The task is provides evidence when the recollection of visual information is unaffected by
verbal interference

Robbins et al. (1996)

Aim : The researchers wanted to see if memory recall would be affected by processing
interfering information.
Procedure : 20 male chess players from Cambridge were tested. The players ability ranged from
rookies to pros. The participants were asked to view an arrangement of pieces on one chess
board for 10 seconds. This board was on their left as they sat down facing forward. After this
10 seconds they then had to try to recreate the arrangement they had just seen on another
chess board on their right. This involved the participants recreating the arrangement using their
working memory. The independent variable in this experiment was the type of distracting
information they had to process while they were completing this task
1. Participant’s phonological loop was interfered with as they had to repeat the word the every
second to the rhythm of a metronome.They were required to repeat the word during the ten
seconds watching the board and learning the arrangement
2. Their visa-spatial sketchpad was interfered with as they had to type into a keyboard that
was out of sight under a table. They were required to type with one hand and then arrange
the pieces on the chess board on another. This would have required the participants using
the visuospatial sketchpad.
Results : The results showed that there was a far greater reduction in scores of accurate recall
of chess positions when the participants’ visuospatial processing was interfered with during the
keyboard task. Their average score for memory of the chess pieces was around 4/25 in this
condition, compared to around 16/25 for the phonological interference
Conclusion : The fact that the visuospatial interference had a far greater detrimental effect on
the visuospatial memory of the chess board suggests that there are different systems to process
different information. Differing effects in cognition based on modality provides some evidence for
the working model of memory that claims our sensory store is comprised of different components
that process different types of information
.

3. S C H E M A T H E O R Y
a. C O G N I T I V E S C H E M A
A schema is a cluster of related pieces of information in our mind
A schema could also be described as a cognitive framework, or a system of cognitively
organizing and storing information, knowledge and memories
One of the functions of the schema is to save our cognitive energy by enabling us to make
generalizations
Stereotypes are a type generalizations, as they are examples of social schema about members
of social groups
A way of saving our cognitive energy would be to group information together, when we
encounter new information we connect it our existing schema, we can more sense of it easily
When we hear a word or see an image and a bunch of ideas, images and feelings pop into our
mind, it is known as having our schema activated
Script schemas also enable us to make predictions and they can guide our behavior in
particular situations
Schemas also facilitate our information processing and comprehension.
How easily and effectively we can understand and remember new information

Bransford and Johnson (1972

Aim: This experiment aims to investigate the effects of schema on comprehension and recall.
Procedure
Participants that listened to the passage had three conditions
1. Title befor
2. No titl
3. Title afte
They were measure for their Comprehension ( out of 7) and How many details they recalled (out
of 18).
Results:
Comprehension (0-7
Title before: 4.
No title: 2.2
Title after: 2.
Recall
Title before: 5.
No title: 2.
Title after: 2.6
Conclusion: When we’re exposed to new information, we relate it to our existing knowledge and
this can affect our comprehension of that information. In this way, we learn by making
connections between new information and existing schema.
Prior knowledge (schema) can help us comprehend new information because we are able to
process the new information and relate it to our existing knowledge (schema), which improves

comprehension.Another example of how schemas can in uence cognition (comprehension and

memory).This has signi cant applications in education, especially reading comprehension

4. T H I N K I N G A N D D E C I S I O N - M A K I N G
a. RATIONAL THINKING & INTUITIVE THINKING
The cognitive processes involved here are processing, judgment and decision making
The following theory about how we make decisions is based on how we process the information
available to us in order to make that decision
The less we process the faster we make a decision.
The more we process the longer it takes for us to make a decision.

Dual Process model of Thinking, Kahneman

• Proposed dual process model of thinking to explain two types of processing involved when
making a decision
• System 1 Processing
• System 2 Processin
Study on Decision Making - Bechara et al

5. R E C O N S T R U C T I V E M E M O R Y
a. C O N F A B U L A T I O N
That is to say, memories can be altered by providing wrong information to someone which is
later remembered and recalled with con dence
The misinformation effect and it can lead to confabulation or a false memory

Shaw and Porter (2015)

Aim : The aim of this study was to see if it was possible in a laboratory setting for researchers
to implant a false memory of committing a crime
Procedure : The researchers gathered 70 Canadian college students who were randomly assigned
to either the “criminal condition” or the “non-criminal condition.” They were interviewed three
times over three weeks. In each interview, the participants were asked to describe two events:
.

fi

fi
.

fl

 a true event (details were provided by a family member) and the a ctional account of
committing a crime when they were about 10-14 years old (the participants were led to believe
the details of this had also been given by their family member). The crimes were either theft,
assault, or assault with a weapon. To encourage the production of false memories, the
researchers encouraged the participants to practice visualisation techniques at night and they
also used subtle social pressure by saying most people can remember these kinds of things if
they try hard enough
Results : By the third interview, 21/30 (70%) of the participants in the criminal condition had a
false memory of committing the crime, some even giving speci c details of their contact with the
police at the time. Conclusion : This study provides evidence for the fact that how people are
questioned can lead to false memories

b. S C H E M A P R O C E S S I N G
The ndings from these Studies have  signi cant applications and implications especially when
it comes to court cases and eyewitness testimony
Loftus has gathered substantial empirical evidence that suggests our memory may be
unreliable and is susceptible to being manipulated. 
This casts doubt on the validity of eyewitness testimony
Leading questions refer to how the question leads the respondent to answer in a particular
way

Loftus and Palmer I (1974

Aim :  Loftus and Palmer tested the effects of a leading question in one of the earliest
studies.The hypothesis to the study was that the nature of the verb used in the question
in uenced the speed estimates of the participants.
Procedure : In this rst experiment they had 45 students participate in groups of various sizes
and watch several lms of car accidents.  peaceful for about 5 to 30 seconds long and
afterwards the participants were asked a series of questions.There was one critical question in
the series which was about how fast was the car going when they ( smashed/ collided/
Bumped/ hit/ contacted) each other?  The independent variable in this study was the verb used
1. Smashe
2. Collide
3. Bumpe
4. Hi
5. Contacte
Results : The results of the ve verbs in the mean speed estimates of the participants in this
studies were as shown
1. Smashed 40.5mp
2. Collided 39.3mp
3. Bumped 38.1mp
4. Hit 34.0mp
5. Contacted 31.8mp
fl
t

fi
d

fi
fi
.

fi
)

fi
.

fi
fi
Conclusion :The research is provided to explanations for these results
1.  Participants might not have been extra about the speed and the verb might simply letter
words a particular answer. If they were not sure about the speed and thought it was 
around 30-40mph  the verb could have biased  the participant towards a particular answer
2. The verb may have affected the memory itself.  the participant might have actually been
imagining a more severe crash and the fastest teeth then was really portrayed in the video
because of the leading question,  which might have led to an actual change in the memory of
the video

c. F A L S E M E M O R I E S
The phenomenon of having erroneous external information distort memories is known as the
misinformation effect
During the Reconstruction of our memories of past events we may be vulnerable to that never
happened
Misinformation is incorrect or inaccurate detail of the memories implanted by the researcher

Loftus and Palmer II (1974)

Aim : Loftus and Palmer hypothesize that this might have been happening in their 1974 study so
they conducted a second experiment with a modi ed design
Procedure: In this second experiment, They had 150 students watched one lm of a car and then
answer a series of questions.There were two verbs used in these critical questions: smashed or
hit. A third group of students were not asked any questions about the speed of the car. There
was another variable in this study: after one week what is the friends with us a different series
of 10 questions. and the critical question in this list was “Did you see any broken glass?”. And
there was a check-box for Yes or No
Results: The results showed again that when the verb “smashed” was in the question this
resulted in higher speed estimate than the word “hit''. Once again the results showed that the
speed estimates of those asked about the cars with the verb “smashed” were higher than those
with the verb “hit” (10.46mph and 8.00mph respectively)
Conclusion: These results provide some evidence for the explanation that the misinformation
effect was occurring. Perhaps the verb “smashed” was in uencing people’s recollections of the
crash and they were remembering it as being more severe than it really was, which is why they
could remember seeing broken glass even when there wasn’t any in the original video

3. C O N F I R M A T I O N B I A S
Con rmation bias is an example of a cognitive bias that involves focusing on information and
details that con rms and are consistent with our pre-existing beliefs
This bias is due to the product to simply the information processing
Cognitively it is easier to focus on information that is consistent with our existing schema, than
it is to consider facts or details.
fi
.

fi
.

fi
.

fl
.

fi
 Stereotypes: stereotypes can be reinforced because of our innate tendency to focus on schema
consistent-information. Stereotypes can lead to con rmation bias, which just reinforces the
stereotype (this is one way stereotypes affect behaviour

Stone et al. (2010

Aims: This study demonstrates con rmation bias and how it could reinforce stereotypes.
Procedure: College-aged participants were asked to listen to a basketball game (a radio
commentary) and make judgements about one of the players in the game. They were shown a
picture of the player they were supposedly listening to half were shown an image of a black
player, the other half a white player. They were then asked to make judgements.
Results: Black athlete condition: They rated him a “signi cantly more athletic and having played a
better game” than those who thought he was white.White athlete condition: More likely to judge
the player as “exhibiting signi cantly more basketball intelligence and hustle.”
Conclusion: It shows that activating a particular social schema (someone’s race) can in uence our
processing of new information. We focus on schema-consistent information, which reinforces that
schema.

4. E M O T I O N O N M E M O R Y E N C O D I N G
Natural fear to dangerous stimuli, but we may not be able have instinctual fear for every
possible source of danger
Therefore learning form experience can help to potentially avoid the danger
Due to the ethical implications involved in fear conditioning experiments the fear conditioning is
conducted on animals
The effect of the conditioning is measured using heart rate, skin temperature, breathing and
hormone levels
As emotion causes physiological arousal, biological factors also have a role in cognition as well
One possible explanation on how the amygdala might in uence our memory is the production of
cortisol
Cortisol is a stress hormone released during the street response as a result of activation of
the amygdala
Since learning to be afraid might save as an evolutionary advantage, the activation of the
amygdala might facilitate the development of memory, that might help to avoid in the future.
During the stress response the hypothalamus regulates the adrenal glands release of cortisol.
An important part of the stress response is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal HPA axi
This is a name given to the neural network that connects these three important glands in the
endocrine system release hormones and neurotransmitters  in response to stress  signals
Cortisol is released when the amygdala activates the HPA axis
Cortisol is associated with stress and is released as part of the stress response also known as
the ight or ght response
While the stress response might seem like a negative thing it can actually surf important
survival functions by helping to consolidate emotional memory.
The consolidation of memory refers to the transfer from short-term to long-term memory
fl
.

fi
.

fi
fi
fi
fi
fl

Buchanan and Lovallo (2001)

Aim : The research has suggested the idea that  cortisol can enhance our consolidation of
emotionally signi cant information.
Procedure : They had two groups of participants and waterproofers administer 20mg of cortisol
and the other was given a placebo. After this treatment they were shown a variety of pictures
someone emotionally arousing while others were neutral.After the week they were given a test
of the memory of the pictures. 
Results : The results showed that increased level of cortisol resulted in improved memory of the
emotional pictures compared with the neutral pictures. 
Conclusion : This suggests that the amygdala interaction with the hypothalamus and the resulting
release of the stress hormone cortisol may play an important role in the consolidation of
emotional memory

5. R E S E A R C H M E T H O D S
The purpose of using laboratory experiments in the biological approach is for the researchers
to establish a causal relationship between two variables - the independent and the dependent
variable.
Experiments are based on hypothesis testing - that is, making a measurable and testable
hypothesis and then seeing if the results of the study are statistically signi cant so that they
can reject the null hypothesis.
In addition, an experiment must contain at least one group that receives a treatment (the
manipulation of an independent variable), and a control group does not receive the treatment.
In a true experiment, participants are randomly allocated to conditions
Study for true experiment - Loftus and Palmer (Leading Questions

6. E T H I C A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S
Ethical considerations are an important part of the design of any study.
The cognitive approach studies cognitive processes such as memory. 
Manipulating people’s memories – or challenging their memories – may have a negative effect
on their self-esteem or self-con dence.
And yet, we have learned a lot about how memories are formed and how they affect our
behaviour by carrying out experiments. 
Deception is often used in experiments of false memories. Challenging the accuracy of people’s
memories may lead to undue stress. 
And in order to study memory distortion, often researchers use longitudinal research, where
participants must have the right to withdraw
Several studies investigating memory distortion and false memories make use of deception. 
There are two types of deception used in psychological research – deception by omission and
deception by commission.
Study for deception by omission - Loftus and Palmer (Leading Questions

fi
.

fi



fi
)

S O C I O C U LT U R A L A P P R O A C H
1. SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY
Social identity theory says that our identity and behaviour is in uenced by the groups we
belong to. 
Social identity theory says that we choose a group to belong to based on traits that we think
are similar to our own. 
This is called social categorization. 
SIT argues that we divide the world into in-groups and out-groups. 
We identify with our group and begin to conform to the norms of our group
We also compare our in-group to the out-group. 
We see our in-group as superior. 
We also see the out-group as all sharing common traits. 
This “out-group homogeneity” is the basis for stereotyping. 
Often these traits are negative. 
This is a way of justifying that our in-group is better than the out-group and raises our self-
esteem

Study on Social identity theor

2. S O C I A L C O G N I T I V E T H E O R Y
The social cognitive learning theory is a theory proposed by Albert Bandura that suggests that
human behaviour can be learned through observation, from watching models and imitating their
behaviour.
Effective modelling requires three conditions: attention, retention and motivation. In order for
the learning to happen, attention must be paid to the model; this can be affected by the
authority, attractiveness or the desirability of the models behaviour or the outcome of said
behaviour. 
If the model is seen as being rewarded for a behaviour, the observer will also want to receive
such a reward. 
This is known as vicarious reinforcement. Following the observation, the learner must be able
to retain and remember the behaviour.
Finally, the learner must have the motivation to repeat the behaviour based on the outcome
expectancy.
Several factors affect the learner's motivation to replicate behaviour, such as the likeability of
the model, identi cation with the model and the consistency of the behaviour.
In addition, the individual must feel that he can actually do what the model can do - in other
words, there must be a feeling of self-ef cacy

Bashing Bobo Doll Study - Bandura (1961

Aim: Bandura's Bashing Bobo Study (1961), explored the theory through a lab experiment
investigating how aggressive behaviour develops in children. His aim was to see whether or not
and to what extent the children would replicate the behaviour of a model assigned to them.
.

fi

fi

fl

 Procedure: Bandura selected 36 boys and 36 girls, ranging in age from 3 - 5 years old. The
children were divided into groups to study to what extent the participants would imitate an
aggressive v.s nonaggressive model as well as same-sex v.s non-same sex model. Bandura's
ndings were that children who saw aggressive models, did in fact act more aggressively
themselves, boys were in general more aggressive than girls and were more in uenced by male
models.
Results: Girls were more physically aggressive when in observing a male model but were more
verbally aggressive when with a female model.
Conclusion: The study strengthens Bandura's theory as it was clear that the participants (both
boys and girls) imitated their model

3. S T E R E O T Y P E S
a. O R I G I N O F S T E R E O T Y P E S
Tajfel and Turner’s original theory claimed that positiveness is a result of a natural human
desire to increase our self-esteems. This is another key aspect of the theory called the self-
esteem
The self-esteem hypothesis posits that individual behaviour will be motivated by a desire to
increase self-esteem. This desire can in uence group dynamics and intergroup interactions
We can base our positive social identity by favourably comparing our in-group with out-groups
Identity is a term that generally means how we view ourselves, so our social identity simply
refers to how people view themselves based in their belonging in the particular group
In-group bias is related to discrimination. Whereas to discriminate means to act negatively
towards an out-group, in-group bias involves acting positively towards one’s in-group

Park and Rothabar

Aim: To investigate in-group favouritism and the out-group homogeneity effects
Procedure: Participants - members of 3 sororities; asked to ll in a questionnaire judging the
members of each sorority (including their own) on negative and positive traits, as well as the
perceived diversity within each grou
Results: Members of each sorority judged their in-group members more positively than the
members of the out-group sororities. they also judged the out-groups as more homogenous than
their own group
Conclusion: We tend to perceive out-group members more negatively and as more homogenous in
comparison to our in-group member

b. E F F E C T O N B E H A V I O U R
Stereotyping is a form of generalisation where one judges an individual based on group
membership or physical attributes.  
A way of saving our cognitive energy would be to group information together, when we
encounter new information we connect it our existing schema, we can more sense of it easily
fi
.

fl

fi
fl
.

 When we hear a word or see an image and a bunch of ideas, images and feelings pop into our
mind, it is known as having our schema activated. A behaviour that is affected by stereotypes
is conformational bias
Study for Stereotypes - Stone et al

4. C U L T U R E & I N F L U E N C E O N B E H A V I O U R - C O N F O R M I T Y
Normative Social In uence involves two concepts, pressure from others and pressure results in
changing one’s behavior to t with social norms
People often change their behavior in order to t with the norms of the social environment
through a fear being ostracised - left out by the group
Conformity is the behavior in which one conforms. To conforms means to behave in a way that
is socially acceptable by following the standards and norms of the social environment
The social in uence of having the pressure into doing something could cause conformity to the
norms of the social group

Asch’s Paradig
Aim: To investigate the effects of normative social in uence on behavior. Asch also wanted to see
if he could put pressure on the subject to offer the worn answer by having the confer debates
deliberately give the wrong answer, even though the answer is obvious.
Procedure: The experiment was conducted on college male students which involves one subject
and 6-8 confederates and there’s a researcher at the front of the room. The researcher explains
that the study is about visual perception, gives the instructions on what to do and then the
tests begins. The confederates and the subject sit in a row and the researcher holds a card up.
They have to match the target line with one of the three other lines. This happens about 15
times. The control of the experiment was that one group of subjects were asked to do this
alone
Results: The results were that during the control experiment the subjects could get the answer
correct by 99% of the time. This shows that the test is easy and people can get it right if they
can resist the in uence of the group.74% of the subjects conformed at least once and only 26%
of the students were able to resist the normative social in uence of the group and provide the
correct responses in every test.

5. C U L T U R A L D I M E N S I O N S
a. I N D I V I D U A L I S M V S C O L L E C T I V I S M
Hofstede carried out a study in the 1970’s to determine if there are cultural trends with
regard to values and how members of a culture interact with one another. 
He carried out a series of questionnaires at an international company and then a content
analysis of the replies. 
He proposed a set of cultural dimensions to help discuss culture.  One such dimension is
individualism and collectivism (I-C). 
Individualistic cultures focus on uniqueness, individual achievement, freedom and self-
actualisation. 
.

fl

fl
fl
.

fi

fi
fl
.

fl

 Collectivistic cultures focus on social harmony, interdependence, modesty and group

memberships

Berry et al
Aims: The study aims to investigate the in uence of culture on conformity
Procedure: This study compared a tribe in Africa, the Temne people of Sierra Leone with the
Inuit in Northern America, on Baf n Island. The Asch’s line test was conducted in those tribes
Results: The Temne people had a higher rate of conformity than the Inuit. This is because the
Temne people were an agricultural society and they needed higher rates of cooperations in order
to society. The Inuit encourage more individualism as their method of gathering food require as
much cooperation as agricultural
Conclusion: The cultural and economic development can in uence how much people might value
something like cooperation and how this can in uence behaviors like conformity

6. E N C U L T U R A T I O N
Cultural Norm is the same as the social norm but applied to a cultural group. It is a belief
shared by a cultural group about the appropriate ways to think and act
There are multiple ways in which we learn form our cultural environment and this learning
shapes our values
How we are raised and the values we are from a young age will probably have an effect on
how we think and act throughout our lives
Enculturation describes the process of wing enveloped and surrounded by cultural in uences
that will enable us to understand the cultural norms and values of our primary home culture
Enculturation gives us the knowledge and skills we need to be a healthy and productive
member of society
Cultural learning which is the learning of cultural norms is also known as cultural transmission,
where the information is transmitted to us in various mediums
Ways to transmit cultural learnin
Observing common behavior and learning about socially acceptable behavior
Direct teaching of cultural norms from parents and in schools
Social learning is one way that may contribute to the process of cultural transmission and
enculturation
Economic factors such as how a cultural group acquires food can in uence behavior

Barry et al. (1959

Aim: In this study the researchers wanted to study how child training practices were correlated
to economic factor in different cultural groups. They hypothesised that the high food
accumulation cultures would raised their children in a way that increases compliance
• This is probably because there is a risk in being innovative as it may damage the health of
the animals and crops, that can affect food supply.
Description:Cross-cultural data was used to compare approaches to parenting. They placed
pastoralism and agriculture as high food accumulation cultures because they rely on the
gathering and storing of food over long periods of time. Subsistence economy which means
.

fi
fl
.

fl
fl
.

fl
.

producing just enough to survive on a day-to-day basis and without being able to store food
long-term. This is a low food accumulation culture. their daily catch is what is important and
they may not be able to store food, they rely more on their individual skills to get food on a
daily basis. Initiative is encouraged as there is not as much risk. If the innovation fails they
could just revert back to the previous method. This explains why some cultures put a emphasis
on compliance while others value initiative and innovation.
Procedure: They identi ed various Type of child training practices for kids from about 5 years
old to adolescence. They measured various categories such as obedience, responsibility, self-
reliance, achievement and independence.
Results: There is a positive correlation between for high-food accumulation cultures and child
training practices related to responsibility training and obedience training
Conclusion: Depending on the type of food accumulation different types of values and
characteristics is taught to the child and hence shaping them in a speci c way that can better
prepare them for their way of life

7. A C C U L T U R A T I O N - A S S I M I L A T I O N
Acculturation refers to the process of changes to an individual as a result of interactions and
contact with other cultures
Acculturation may have positive and negative outcomes
There are different acculturative strategies
Assimilatio
They do not wish maintain their original culture’s norms or values and choose to adapt the
value and norms of their new culture
Separatio
They might reject the new culture that they’re living in and develop a stronger sense of
original culture identity.
Integration
This means that someone maintains their original culture and participates in the new
culture
Acculturative stress - The experience of negative reactions to the process of acculturation.It
might result form negative experiences and pressures of a acculturation is one of many ways
that may in uence behavior
Acculturative stress can result in negative psychological disorders such as depression.
As individuals interact with a culture that is not their primary culture their thought, attitudes
and behaviours change as a result
Discrimination occurs due to many reasons

Torres et al. (2012

Aim: Conducted a correlations study on American Latinos to see if experiences of discrimination
increases acculturative stress, and if this might lead to an increase in psychological distress.
Procedure: A series of questionnaires were given to 669 participants to measure their level of
perceived discrimination, acculturative stress and psychological distress. They also measured their
.

fl
)

fi

fi
.

integration (in terms of language acquisition) into mainstream US culture.When measuring

perceived discrimination they were asked questions relating to their jobs, health care, being in
public and education. The participants had to circle a response on a Likert scale ranging from
strongly disagree to strongly agree. The measure of acculturative stress is focused particularly
on stress related to language use. To assess their psychological distress, another questionnaire
was used that gathered data on their feelings of depression, anxiety and physical symptoms.
Description: The participants were form a city in the Midwest part of west and identi ed
themselves as Mexican or Mexican - American or Chicano. Around 50% of the participants were
born outside of the US.
Results: Analysis of the data provided the results that participants who had higher levels of
perceived discrimination levels also experienced higher levels of acculturative stress. Participants
who experienced higher amounts of acculturative stress experienced higher amount of
psychological distress.
Conclusion: Acculturation may affect behavior through feeling of acculturative stress.Interacting
with new culture can be stressful, especially if one experiences discrimination. This could have
negative effects on someone’s psychological well-being.

8. R E S E A R C H M E T H O D S
The purpose of using laboratory experiments in the biological approach is for the researchers
to establish a causal relationship between two variables - the independent and the dependent
variable.
Experiments are based on hypothesis testing - that is, making a measurable and testable
hypothesis and then seeing if the results of the study are statistically signi cant so that they
can reject the null hypothesis.
In addition, an experiment must contain at least one group that receives a treatment (the
manipulation of an independent variable), and a control group does not receive the treatment.
In a true experiment, participants are randomly allocated to conditions
Study for true experiment - Asch’s Paradigm

9. E T H I C A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S
Deception means that the researcher either does not reveal the true aim of the study to the
participants, or the participant is intentionally misinformed about the experiment.  
Deception is often used in psychology as a way to avoid demand characteristics by making sure
that the participants do not know the goal of the study.
In addition, the use of deception is sometimes necessary to study something that could not be
studied otherwise – for example, if participants knew that a situation is staged or that
confederates are not telling the truth, then the experiment would not make any sense.
It would not test what it wanted to test and therefore lack validity
Asch did not reveal the true aim of the experiment: the effect of social pressures on
conformity
He instead says that the study aims to investigate on vision
Study for true experiment - Asch’s Paradigm

fi