MAHATMA GANDHI UNIVERSITY

Nalgonda – 508 254

Telangana State

MATHEMATICS COURSE STRUCTURE

(B.Sc. Common Core Syllabus with effect from 2016-17)

 Contents

1. B.Sc. Course Structure Template

2. Syllabus: Theory and Practicals

3. MOOCs(Massive Online Open

Courses) Resources for ICT
based Learning and Teaching

4. Appendix 1

5. Appendix 2
 B.Sc. Course Structure Template

FIRST YEAR SEMESTER-I

Code Course Title Course Type HPW Credits
BS101 Communica;on AECC-1 2 2
BS102 English CC-1A 5 5
BS103 Second Language CC –2A 5 5
B.Sc. PROGRAMME

BS104 Op;onal - I Differential Calculus DSC-1A 4 T + 2P = 6 4+1=5

BS105 Op;onal - II DSC-2A 4 T + 2P = 6 4+1=5
BS106 Op;onal – III DSC-3A 4 T + 2P = 6 4+1=5
30 27
SEMESTER-II
BS201 Environmental Studies AECC-2 2 2
BS202 English CC-1B 5 5
BS203 Second Language CC –2B 5 5
BS204 Op;onal - I Differential Equations DSC-1B 4 T + 2P = 6 4+1=5
BS205 Op;onal - II DSC-2B 4 T + 2P = 6 4+1=5
BS206 Op;onal – III DSC-3B 4 T + 2P = 6 4+1=5
30 27

SECOND YEAR SEMESTER-III

BS301 SEC SEC-1 2 2
BS302 English CC-1C 5 5
BS303 Second Language CC-2C 5 5
B.Sc. PROGRAMME

BS304 Op;onal - I Real Analysis DSC-1C 4 T + 2P = 6 4+1=5

BS305 Op;onal - II DSC-2C 4 T + 2P = 6 4+1=5
BS306 Op;onal – III DSC-3C 4 T + 2P = 6 4+1=5
30 27
SEMESTER-IV
BS401 SEC SEC-2 2 2
BS402 English CC -1D 5 5
BS403 Second Language CC-2D 5 5
BS404 Op;onal - I Algebra DSC-1D 4 T + 2P = 6 4+1=5
BS405 Op;onal - II DSC-2D 4 T + 2P = 6 4+1=5
BS406 Op;onal – III DSC-3D 4 T + 2P = 6 4+1=5
30 27

Page 1
 B.Sc. Course Structure Template

THIRD YEAR SEMESTER-V

Code Course Title Course Type HPW Credits
BS501 SEC SEC-3 2 2
BS502 Generic Elective GE-1 2 T 2
BS503 Op;onal - I Linear Algebra DSC-1E 3 T + 2P = 5 3+1=4
BS504 Op;onal –II DSC-2E 3 T + 2P = 5 3+1=4
B.Sc. PROGRAMME

BS505 Op;onal –III DSC-3E 3 T + 2P = 5 3+1=4

BS506 Op;onal –I A/B/C Slid Geometry/
Integral Calculus DSE- 1E 3 T + 2P = 5 3+1=4
BS507 Op;onal – II A/B/C DSE-2E 3 T + 2P = 5 3+1=4
BS508 Op;onal – III A/B/C DSE-3E 3 T + 2P = 5 3+1=4
34 28
SEMESTER-VI
BS601 SEC SEC-4 2 2
BS602 Generic Elective GE-2 2 T 2
BS603 Op;onal - I Numerical Analysis DSC-1F 3 T + 2P = 5 3+1=4
BS604 Op;onal –II DSC-2F 3 T + 2P = 5 3+1=4
BS605 Op;onal –III DSC-3F 3 T + 2P = 5 3+1=4
BS606 Op;onal –I A/B/C Complex Analysis/
Vector Calcullus DSE- 1F 3 T + 2P = 5 3+1=4
BS607 Op;onal – II A/B/C DSE-2F 3 T + 2P = 5 3+1=4
BS608 Op;onal – III A/B/C DSE-3F 3 T + 2P = 5 3+1=4
34 28
TOTAL Credits 164

SUMMARY OF CREDITS

Sl. Course No. of Credits Per Credits

No. Category Courses Course
1 AECC 2 2 4
B.Sc. PROGRAMME

2 SEC 4 2 8
3 CC 8 5 40
Language 12 5 60
DSC 6 4 24
DSC
4 DSE 6 4 24
5 GE 2 2 4
TOTAL 40 164
Op;onals Total 24 108

Page 2
Syllabus

Page 3
DSC-1A DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS BS:104

Theory: 4 credits and Practicals: 1 credits

Theory: 4 hours /week and Practicals: 2 hours /week

Objective: The course is aimed at exposing the students to some basic notions in
differential calculus .

Outcome: By the time students completes the course they realize wide ranging
applications of the subject.

Unit- I

Successive differentiation- Expansions of Functions- Mean value theorems

Unit – II

Indeterminate forms – Curvature and Evolutes

Unit – III

Partial differentiation – Homogeneous functions- Total derivative

Unit – IV

Maxima and Minima of functions of two variables – Lagrange’s Method of

multipliers –Asymptotes- Envelopes

Text : Shanti Narayan and Mittal, Differential Calculus

References: William Anthony Granville, Percey F Smith and William Raymond Longley;
Elements of the differential and integral calculus

Joseph Edwards , Differential calculus for beginners

Smith and Minton, Calculus

Elis Pine, How to Enjoy Calculus

Hari Kishan ,Differential Calculus

Page 4
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>>
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^==^(0),
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Practicals Question Bank
F(x) for
RewritingThus,
Rewriting relation F(x)
this relation
this as
as for x > 2 and is for #=0.
Therefore Exercises in the interval
UNIT-I Therefore monotonically
F(x) Exercises increasing is
Jn_
Jn_ In-i is JL
F(x)
In-i monotonically increasing in
JL ,
the interval
[0, oo], AlsoF(0)=0. rprove
,

[0, oo], u~u~

If ~(/i-i)
1. 1. IfAlsoF(0)=0.
tan~
tan~x, x,
~(/i-i) r /j
prove
n
nthat
!
that
x x

>> >>
/j !

and replacing
and by F(x)
we get
we F(0)=0forz
the required result.
____ result.
0.
replacing by ,
,
1,
1, F(0)=0forz
get the
____ required 0. ,
,
2,
3, 2,
3,F(x)
Hence F(x) is positive for positive values of x, so that
Hence
d - 2F(x)
d n isshow
positive for positive values of x, so that
12. If y= -ndetermine
U
-l)n the thatofof u when x=0
x=0
>> >>
and
12. andhence
If y=
hencedetermine
2
showvalues
the values the derivatives
the derivatives ofof u when (M.T,
(M.T,
x x 0. 0.
-l) that
x ,
)
(1+Jt) for
n , )
x log
2. 2. If If log (1+Jt) for
(x*-l)y nn+t+2xy
(x*-l)y -n(n+ l)^
+t+2xynn++ll -n(n+ l)^nn 0. 0.
1 1
j>=sin (m(msin"
sin" show
Exercises
x),x), show
that
that
Hence show
Hence show that satisfies j>=sin
that .y satisfies the Legendre's equation
Exercises
the Legendre's
EXPANSIONS equation 187
.y
-x')*,
(1 (1 -x')*, +,=(2n
+,=(2n f IkVn-n+V-'"')*,
f IkVn-n+V-'"')*,
1. Show that
2962. and
and
find
findyny(0).
1.
nShow that
(0). DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (P.U. /P5>
(P.U. /P5>
(i) x/sin x increases steadily from x=0 to x=n/2. (P*U.%
Prove that
3.(i) x/sin
3. Find
Find
x
y
increases
nyx when steadily
when from
[x+ 4(\
x=0 to x=n/2. (P*U.%
Uann(ii)denotes
If U
(0)
n decreases
(0) j>=*log
j>=*log [x+ 4(\
monotonically
{ x')]. x=0 to jc=n/2.
x')].
{
from
13. If
13. (ii) x/tan
denotes
x/tan
the
xthe nth derivative
decreases
nth derivative
3 of
monotonically
b from x=0
of (Lx-t-M)l(x*2Bx+C)., prove
to jc=n/2. prove
(Lx-t-M)l(x*2Bx+C).,
that 3. Find
e * (//i) radius
thebx=bx+abx*+-
sin the equation tan x -~-
of curvature the
at *+....
x=6 one andof
has origin only
curve
theone root in
that
(//i) the equation tan x x=6
3 has one and only one root in ( ( Jw,Jw, Jn).
Jn).
(.{/. 7952)
?(( (.{/. 7952)
+ ? -*r*Ji
Wn+t + -*r*Ji
It is easy to tan-
O'v)
O'v) tan-
Wn+t
see that X-axis *>-2
^ ^ <is<tan-"
*>-2
the
tan-"
1
x x
1
< < at the origin.
tangent
14.
14.
x
If y=x*e x then
If y=x*e then [Refer note 15*45, p. 294]
Obtain 2. 2.
the Show
Show that
,
that
, x~sin
inx~sin
x is
x is anan increasing
of tan" 1 x function throughout anyinterval
function
in interval
3. wth term the expansion increasing ascending powersany
throughout
ofof x. weDetermine what axsin x is a steadily
of*. ofof values
Dividing
values by x.y y Determine
get forfor
what values a aaxsin
ofof
values x (P.U.1951)
is a steadily
increas-
increas- y
y

ing function.
function. (M.J7.)
ing (M.J7.)
Show
4.
296 that 3. cos 2 x=*l-x 2 DIFFERENTIAL
+$x*-^\x ...... CALCULUS
Determine
553.. Determine thethe intervals
intervals in in which
which thethe function
z, P./., D.(/., 7955)
z, P./.,
function D.(/., 7955)
140
5. *= * 2 -f * 34(x
Prove that e x sin 2 DIFFEBENTIAL
+
4
CALCULUS
____
-f4Jx6jcH 17x a
+ 32x+
15. If (x +2 6jcH 17x a
+ 32x+ 32)*-*
32)*-*
=
15.
6. Let
If
isxincreasing
- 3. so Find
thatthe radius
lim of curvature at the origin of the curve
Ifis>>=log
6.
increasing or or
[x+ >!(!+
Find the greatest
x 2)],
decreasing.
x->0
and prove
decreasing. that 2p.
(x jy)
least values of the function

4. 6.
4. Separate thethe intervals
intervals in in which
which the
the function
function
Separate
x -9x -f24xin[0, 6].
8 2

It is easy 0.2p+5.2p-8=0,
to see that (*+*+!)
X-axis
(*+*+!) /(*--
is
/(*-- +
* +* l)
the tangent
l) at the origin.
that
prove that x-
7. isShow (i -f x) decreases as x increases from note to o
1
prove that or
15*45,
or
is increasing
increasing or log
decreasing.
decreasing. [Refer
of p. 294]
.

Differentiate this n times and deduce p=4/5. expansion

the y in ascending
7.
powers of x$. Show
in the form
5. 5.
that Determine
if x > 0,the
Determine the
we intervals
intervals in in which
which thethe function
function and(4-x(4-x8 8 8 8 is
1949
oror
Dividing by ydraw
Also y get
Exercises //ow5., and
(D.I/. //ow5.,
(D.I/. Pass,
Pass,
)is
) 1949 ; increasing:
increasing:
;
x3 Also1 draw
*.
decreasing. its5 graph.
decreasing.
1 3 its xgraph. 1 3 5 x 7 P.U.
P.U. 1958
1958 Sept.)
296 1.yssFind*~ ,-*-<
+ DIFFERENTIAL
T*
T-'
lo, (!+)< ~5~~
-~2~'
CALCULUS '+ ' Sept.)
187
' ' '
,
' ' '
(/)
the radius
3 EXPANSIONS
4
of curvature at any 4 on 6the curves
point 7 :

3. (/)Find
cosh (xlc) (Catenary).
y c the curvature at2 the origin = * (P.C/. 7P57)
the curve
7.
2. (//) Let
Prove
If >>=sin x radius
that 2- x-soof
that +
lim
EXPANSIONS
log (;c -}-2x-M),
log
prove that (x jy) 2p. < d+x) < x- l\ of
-
1953) (B.U. 187
x-=a (cos sin y^a(sin cos
(//) t-l-t
t /),
x->0 3 b -~-
t t).

8.
9. Showethat
a*
sin bx=bx+abx*+- *+....
isProve
2.(W)x% that at the origin.
It easy-Kyf see that
to =--fll
x < expand
0.2p+5.2p-8=0,
X-axis
(Astroid) is the
3
1 tangent
<
.

of xx <
(D.U. 1953)
Hence or otherwipe .v in <
-log(l-x) x (1 -x)-powers
ascending for far as
as 1.
(iv) x^(a cos y^=(a sin 3 b -~- [Refer note 15*45, p. 294]
ore a * t)lt,
sin bx=bx+abx*+-
x
t)it.
*+....
p=4/5.
8. ProveProve
10. that that between at the
e~ liescurvature 3
2.
Dividing by y weofget
Find the radius y
origin for
Exercises
1-xand 1-x + Jx 2 .

3. Obtain the.
wth 2term in the expansion of tan"
,
1
x in ascending powers
x*y-xy*-\
Find-2x y radius of curvature at any point on the curves
11. (//)Show sinthe
of*. x2 lies between

1. that :

2 (P.U.1951)
2x*'\-ly*-\-4x
(ill)
cosh in -\-2x- -0. y+xy-y (P.U. Supp. 1939)
9.
3. Show
Obtain the
(/) ywth
cos 2c x=*l-x
term 2
(xlc)
the x9
2(Catenary).
expansion x 5......
of tan" 1 x in ascending powers =
4. that
Let
3.
x - that
Show sothe that
radiuslimof curvature
+$x*-^\x
(x jy) 2p.
of any point of the astroid
,

of*. (P.U.1951)
5. (//) x-=a
Prove that x->0
*=
e x sin(cos t-l-t
2 2 sin3 /), y^a(sin
8* -f * -f
4 t t cos t).

10. Show that that x=a cos 0,2 y-^a sin Jx ____
3
9. 4.
12. Show
If < x <cos 2 x=*l-x
1, show that
2 of +$x*-^\x
......
to three
is equal 6. times
(W)x%
If >>=log the
[x+ 0.2p+5.2p-8=0,
-Kyf x=--fll
length the(Astroid)
)],2 prove perpendicular
that from . the origin to the
(D.U. 1953)
Prove that e x >!(!+
sin 2 *= * -f * 3 -f Jx42)____ m (m 8) 2 2
5.
tangent. (Andhra 1951) , ,

or (iv) x^(a cos

y^=(a sin t)it.
p=4/5. t)lt,
2
6. If
4. Show >>=log [x+ >!(!+ x )], prove
the curve
for the
thatFind radius
that
of curvature at the origin for
UNIT-II
2.
10. Obtain the following expressions Exercises :

Hence
Differentiate this taking *
n times =2/1 >>=flsin
W
3and deduce
), (Hexpansion
rdcduce
the
costhat
0), of y in ascending >
tan (i"fx)=Zx+*x 2 -f + ----
1'
(/) log -JxH
powers
the 1.
of
radius
1. xFind
of in the
theform
curvature radius
(//) of
x*y-xy*-\
is, a, at -2x
the
curvaturey
point for
at which
any point on
the value
the of the parameter
curves :

TT/4.Differentiate this 3n times 2 2

is
(/) y *~+ x
1 2x*'\-ly*-\-4x
cosh
c(ill)
sin 1 3
(xlc) (Catenary). 1
in ascending y+xy-y
and deduce
(P.U. Supp. 1939) the
x 5 -\-2x- -0.expansion
3 5 of
x y 7

x yss
powers5.of Show
(l
form + '+ ,

T*
' ' '
in the ' ' ' '
that
3. the radius
Show that
3 T-'
of
the the 4
radius curvature
~5~~
of ~2~'at
curvature any 4
of 6
point of
any point the
7 curve
of the astroid
(//) x-=a (cos t-l-t3 sin /), y^a(sin 5t t cos t).
x t 1 x=a t 8x
32 cos . 14 sin 33 t 5 x 7 (P.C/. 7P57)
yssx=tc
*~
1
smh1++ T-' cosh x .
I 0, y-^a
.
x -
'+ ' 5. 7957)
. , ,

y^~-2c cosh
1

T*=--fll 4 ' ' ' ' ' '

.

47
, ,

the 2T~ 4 c ~5~~ ~2~' 4 c 6 7 ,

* '
c
T~
7. is(W)x%
equal -Kyf
to three 23
times (Astroid) of the
30" .
from (D.U. 1953) to the
the origin
If >>=sin log (;c -}-2x-M),length prove that perpendicular
13. 2Show that (P.C/. 7P57)
(Andhra 1951)
is, tangent.
2c cosh x^(a
(iv) (tic) cos (//c),
sinh wheresin
t)lt,2 y^=(a t is the
t)it. parameter.
... tan A: ^c 7
x ""
xM
. .
tan^c
2
+ ifo<x<
,

7. Iflog
>>=sin
Find Show
log that -}-2x-M),
for the prove
curve that '
..
(iv)
2. that of
'
2.
6. Show
4.the radius
^ the =-^
(;c
radius curvature
of curvature at the
at origin for
a point of the curve
Hence or otherwipe expand x "90" sm.v in
jc
ascending powers of(H x as far as
), >>=flsin cos 0),
* fi
*
fi
X __.
Show x^aeX-2x(sin
that 1 9 cos
A'
2
- 1
y=a? X* (sin 0-fcos 0)
14.
8.
(v)
, .

Prove
the radius
Hence(//)
e.^!-
that
x*y-xy*-\
1
or otherwipe 2"+fi
2
y
of curvature is, .va, in
expand 2!
0),
at the ""
30 point
ascending
+ *"-
for which the valueas of the parameter
4"! 1 powers of x as far
'

is twice the distance of the

is(ill)TT/4.
x-1 > logx>
2x*'\-ly*-\-4xtangent
2 at2 the (jc-l)x-
point
-\-2x- -0.
, from the
y+xy-y
oiigio. (P.U. Supp. 1939)
Prove thatjc~l > l >
and 2xlogx 4 3(x-l)-2
x log*
8.
,1. ^ 8 5
3. Show
Prove Show
the that the
radius ofofradius of
ytheofcurvature
pointatofany
-+point the point of the curve
astroid
.

3.
sm-^^xl x > 1.3 8--f-2^-
i that
5.
that the radius curvature
curvature the ,
7. at any '
(M.T.)
for (v/) 4f 3 "5t i
x=a cos
2a,. 2a) on the 0, t
y-^a jcsin
x=tc
y=flU +y
i . t
curve "~2a -

. . .

smh
,
( cosh ) is cosh
15. If is derivable in the interval [a-h, y^~-2c
a+h], prove,
that l

,
.

is equal to three /(x)

times the length of thec perpendicular
c from thec origin to the
8. Show
(vi7)
tangent. log secthat the radius
2
+ of12curvature
*=2>
2c cosh 2 (tic) sinh (//c), ^+45tofisx%the
where
Lemniscate (D.V.1953}
the parameter. (Andhra 1951)
+"-
is,
9.Show that < ^ < 1
where
4. Show that for the curve
;

the point where Show

6. the that the
tangent radius of
is parallel x-axis is at a2 point
to curvature of the curve
(H mcos
at 2

9.
(a+h)-2f(a)+f(a-h
Show that 2)
), >>=flsin , (m0), 8) ,

* * fi fi
where < tx^ae < 1. (sin 9 cos 0), y=a? 2 (sin2 0-fcos 0)
fl
the radius of curvature is, a, at the point for which 2)
the m (m of
value 8)
the parameter
is * TT/4.
16is twice
10. Obtain distance
thethe
The derivative of of the
a function /(x) at
tangent is positive
,
the pointfor from
everythevalue of x in an
oiigio.
,

following expressions :

andthe for every value of x in [c, c+h]

Page 5 show that /(c)
interval Showlog
5. [c-A, tan negative
;
c],
7.that
Prove radiustheofradius
(i"fx)=Zx+*x
that the curvature
3
----
of interval
-f at any
curvature at point
the point of the curve
10. (/)
b the greatestObtain
valuethe the function
offollowing in the-JxH
expressions [c-h, c+h]. :

.
x=tct
tan smh( 2a, cosh
t
2a) on3 -f curve
they^~-2c
. f
jc y=flU
cosh
----
-
t i.
+y i ) is "~2a
.

,
l
,
.
 parabola,/we have
parabola,/we mx ). (D.U. 1955)
11.
//
(a) AShow*}/ X^3x+2a,
X^3x+2a,
that the circle of point (am(Ex.
(Ex. 1, p.
1, p.
, 2am) 306)
of306)
the Y=y
Y=y
=
33
curvature, at the
I4:a*.
I4:a*.
2

As given,
parabola y*=4ax9A has =1, for itsi.e., 6 3a 6.
equation of curvature and
/Thus
/Thus A(2a, 0)
A(2a, 0) is
is the
the 2
centre
centre of curvature for
for O(0, 0)
O(0, 0) and
4\/2a) is
L(8<t, 4\/2a)
L(8<t, thex*+y*-6am
is the centre of
centre x-4ax+4am*y=3a*m*.
curvature
ofcurvature for P(2a, ff
forP(2a, (D.U. Hons. 1957)
From(b) and
(1)Find the we have of the circle of curvature at the point (0, b) of
202 (2), equation
DIFFERENTIAL
The radius
The radius of
CALCULUS
curvature
ofcurvature
* at/? = 0.4=20.
at/?= 0.4=20.
the ellipse
^= + 1 (P.U. Hons. 1959)
The radius
The ofcurvature
radius of curvature at
Exercisesat P=PL=(
P=PL=( 2

4. Show that the radii of curvature of the curve

12.
/;
/; first order arc
arc of
1. Find
Ex. 3. the Determine partial
the derivatives
limits of the following(sin 0+cos 0),
x==ae^ (sin cos^),^=a^
Hence
Hence
tanr l
and(/)its evolute
(x+y).
C
the
the required
required length
length
at corresponding points
X (//) Af4L=4a(3
Af4L=4a(3
e ax sin
arex..v by.
equal.
vv'3'3 1).
1).
, lv
(Hi) Ex.
13.
5. 2.-j->>Show
Ex.
logU
2
Find
2. 2
Show
the
).
radius
that of
the
that the whole
whole
curvature
lengthat of
ofthe
the
lengthany point evoluteP
evolute of
of
of the
y=c cosh (x]c) and
theellipse
ellipse
show that PC=PG where C is the centre of curvature at P and G the point of
2.intersection

sm
....
of the order
Find the second
14.x Show
normal at P with
partial
x DIFFERENTIAL
x costhat
x-axis. of
derivatives
the chord of curvature
through pole equiangular
f
(Allahabad)
.

cosh A:
thecos A:
f

of the
X Vm r^
Show
Show thewhole
thatthe lengthof
wholelength theevolute
ofthe ofthe
evoluteof theastroid
.

6. 3.3. is
/ .

Ex.
Ex. that astroid /

spiral r=ae-
The reader may see
( V)
Show
15. cos
log
7
2r.
EXERCISES
x that thev x~
that
x~ writing
(x->0).
chord (vi)
of curvature ,- M -,,-v
_

through
205
the pole of the equiangular
Jog(14-6x)
; -.
r 3. it 120.
itVerify that^2 is
r=ae
120. bisected at the * (D.C/. //b/i5. 7952)
10. spiral
z(x+y)=x y 2, show
If
2
that pole. xlogx=
Ex. If cx and
7. 4. 16.Evaluate a the
// v be the chords
cfollowing of curvature parallel to the axes at any
(I/log x)
V=
:

which is of thecurve a*a>*L

form xl a 4 ( 1 - az- 9Z-
(AlhLatcd) - \
point of the
when u8-2
is

Note
Jim
*" y=ae
3y
would not be of any avail.
t
J
(0/0)

1
and
, prove that
Af \*employingdx
.(D.U.1952) (//)
w
the

Xy
.

^^
corresponding result of
dy Jlim
{P U ' 1948)
'

- '

11. lfz=3xy-y
(/)
a
e know
sin- 1 -\-(y -2x) i -
lx doesthat
that ,1 verify
/;;x
nottend to(D.a limit
-
as x -*
U. Hons. 0. P.U.
1951, In fact we
1957)
haye 17. If Cx y and c v be the chords of curvature parallel to the axes at any
0*1*INDETERMINATE FORMS 177
sin x+x y=c
" 1' the
of .*
cosh
^v / (xlci, prove that
(Hi) log (y catenary
*v
r\ T
point i
'
\
sin y
lim =00, *
4. Find the*-(0+0)
value of *-(0-0) FORMS
INDETERMINATE 169
11 (v)Tr chord Show
^ of curvature (D.U. cardioide
.

12. If w =log
18. i
that the that A
+7 through
=1.
,
the pole of the 1955) ,

* is*
Ag ~
in
Ex.
Jr. of 8.
log x is prove
defined
->
1
'
-^,
for positive
r=0(l cos 0).of x only so that there is no
values ^-
x
^
question 5.
making If the limit of
through
a2 negative values while determining
19. Lf c r and c * 2be the chords of3wcurvature
sin 2x+a sin x of the cardioide r=o(l 4-cos 0)
13.(vii)
when ( fl ) If w-sin- 1 , (x-->0).
through the pole and x '
lim
, show that
(D.C7.
perpendicular
-f >>
7949)
to the
X9
4
* (xlogx). y
A:
radius
=tan w.
vector, then
(P.t/. 1954)
x->0 ^
9x^9^
asherex tendsx <+to zero, reallybe of a 1and does tend to a limit. (P.U.)
Thus,
(A) If w-sia-
1
means
finite, find(0+
x ->
show that 0) ^^"^
the value
so that /*
the limit.

5. Ex. 9.
Verify
*
x*20. Euler's
8*3.
2. Determine
(x^x+->!y
Show theorem
Preliminary
that the
the chordfor transformation.
limits of
of curvature
7957) the following Sometimes
the pole ofathepreliminary
functions curve
(viii) ->1). ,(P.C/. through :

transformation
(/) x log taninvolving
m_
the m
use C08of m known results on -* limits, such as
x, (x -* 0). r

.. ^^ sin x
fl Q x tan
(//)
tan x .
(w/2-x). (x 0).
(P.U. 7955) .= m
t

/ is (///) (a~-x) tan x- (nxfta),

3 A: (x9y-> 0).
yExercises
..
lim =1 hm rat 1952) ~.
* =1, x-> z=jc
1
liii) z^sin- + taxri- x 2r/(ro4-l). (iv)
x log * (Guj -
.

10.
14. If 8-6.21.-IThe
z=f(x
Determine Show y
Indeterminate x ->
the
that ay), chord
of theprovefor ofthat
curvature 7b the pole for the curve
the limits
ay)-\-<f>(x followingoo functions
<*> determine
through . :

e_e- thexprocess a good deal. These 2.

simplifies limits may also be used to
& -AC
log
->
i.
1-
shorten 2 v lim
^ sin A:process at an[f(x)-F(x)l
o the (x ->0). a.
intermediate stage. ^ 3
2 > ii. (A:
v <>.' ' ,
'
is
2= x -> a a*
EXERCISES 205
15.when ltz
(v)
- = 1+^cos
Ex. rj7l'
i?
+* A:~cosh IT-
Find
j x
hm
|. 1+sin
2/(r)//'(r).
log(l-f
prove that x)
x cos x+log J ~> 0).
(Lucknow) (1x)
r iii.
3. (x-{-y) 1. (x+y)<9(ylx),
x br tan
5
2
x
, (x
v '
Show that for the curve p~ae the chord of curvature through the
^^^
22.
_9 z\
22
If z(x+y)=x 2/9yz show
2 ,
10. lim that
is of constant length. /(x)=<x>
,
pole If The inconvenience show
6. that of \9y differentiating the denomi-
* 2
iv. u=f(yjx), V9^ 2
X->fl 2 continuously
nator, We
23. which
write
For the
9y9^y
*Llemniscate
involves (
r 2
4 tan 1 x-as a 20,
az- - 9Z
=fl 2 cos show
-
factor, may V the length
that be =of the
r^3/ 3.P.U. 1954) (B.U.)
(AlhLatcd)
partially tangent
avoided as \
theJcircle 8_of dy),Jpoint
2
16. Iffrom
w=/(cix
2
the origin-f 2/7^+^ 3y
to*!"_ 2
), v-^(^
+J =0
\*
We
2
curvature dx at any
-f-2/?xy-h^ prove 7950
(D.[/.isthat
UNIT-III
;
follows.
.

write
11. lfz=3xy-y
1.
1.
1a
+-\-(y
sin
9^ V -2x)
If z=xyf(x/y)
t
xshowcos
.Jr.V i
9^ x that
V,
x+logV -f
f
verify
9*
that(1 x x)
9^ t
1
(M.r.) ,
\
so that the x tan^x
n numerator and dZ denominator
- both tend to as x tends
p rj \ to
limite~
r2/4/ dz which will make
i
17.a. If The 9=t (
x~~^find
1 + sin
now bethe xcos =2z. of n with
>- value
\ 2 ^.L/./
.

may -j-^-r.determined x+log (1 the x)help/ofx 8*2.

,

~~ EXERCISES3
EXERCISES 205
205
(2jc tan2 x .dY^ao^^ao
i
\tan x/ (M r<)
"

11 Tr7. In n sec x), (A:A -> n/2). x .

we
.

12.
rr If w =log this i
case, V say that/ ^
that + =1. assumes the indetermi- , ,

2.nate
10.
10. If form
z(x+y)=x
8. z(x+y)=x
If oo -^,
r
j_
2 2
9r prove
oo1y+
2
y2forshow
sin x=a.
show x
8r
that
cos
that
9^ [/(x)
^-
x+log
find the(1
7 F(x)]
valuex)of
^VV
If z=-tan
101 (y+ax)+(y-ax)'*
,.
18. If -=/(r) where
log x
r= VU 2
-f
2
j/ ), prove that
, , ,

u
2
-> x tan 2
x 3w a* assume!
\a function
13. 8 Note.
w-sin-
If(cot *) In order
1
*L to evaluate
*L show
o).=44(that
^=J!?. (* 1 1 -A:-the
the limit az
az--4of ^dy
-y- 9Z
a9Z
\9=tan
--function w. which(P.t/. 1954)the
xJ!^
&+C;-^m
. ,
( fl )
(AlhLatcd)
(AlhLatcd)
.

form, oo -oo it is necessary 3y

3y >>JJ to express 9x^9^
dx
dx samedy asJJ -f
(P.U.
,
'
1945)
which assumeg .

1-j-sin xcos x+log (1 x)

,
\*\*
the form 0/0 or oo/oo.
r=tapr 1 ^^"^ x3
w-sia- showi that that A
1
>. If If
3. lfz=3xy-y =log UHy-hz a a (y/x),t t 2 verify that 1 1
11.
11.
19. (A)
If
10. Ex.
lfz=3xy-y 1. Determine
-\-(y -2x)
-\-(y -2x) i
), prove that that
verify
verify x-* , ,
^x+->!y
2
1-^-4-1^ -0,9 2wxcos x+log (AC/.)
f a _ =1+sin ~
.= ~ -
(1 -
x)~
L
^^ (P.U. 7955)
- -
.

/ 3>az 9zax
x 3>0
A:
dxdy'
9y
m

11
11
4.
20.
12.
12.
14.
Tr
IfTr
If
IfIf
We
mwrite
K=r
ww=log
z=f(x
=log where r 2 prove
i i2 2
1that
-Fythat x ++cos
^,^ show
A2
+Azsin that 7 x+log(l
7that =1.
=1.
, ,
=x .

+
.
, ,

x)
-^, ___
prove
13.
-I ay)-\-<f>(x

(cos ax)
prove
ay),
lim
, (x -> 0). 1 -^, -3
x ^-
^-tog (X- !)-(*-
13.
13.
and
( fl

see
w-sin-
( flw-sin-
To
14. If
) )

that
If
x-2 11
evaluate
the
log
xx >>>>the
new form
(x-1)
show
show
limit a*
that
that
* on
of
*
the
the
A:A:
_1
3w
3w4
(x-2) ^^
4yy log =tan
B.H.S.,
9x^9^
9x^9^
(x-1)
=tan
we notice
w.w.
when x -* 2.
jc^O
that
2

(P.t/.
(P.t/. 1954)
the
2

1954)
numera-
, '
' ,
a 2
'

^^
'

==(x-{-y)
-f -f

15. ltztor
215. If
and +
denominator
y
- - , find
w tan- 1 (x+y)<9(ylx),
bothis
prove become
that type 0/0
for x=0.
1 1^^"^
^^"^
.15.
(A) If
(A) Ifw-sia-
w-sia- ..
/9 2

hm^x+->!y zl+sin
_9
*.
^x+->!y
2 x
z\
show __L__1
show cos
that
thatx + log (Ir x)iog(y~i)-(y~2 _ ^^^
3 2 *
2
V9^ tan 9y9^y x \9y
216 -=-
CALCULUS
16.
//
If16.
2
DIFFERENTIAL
w=/(cix -f 2/7^+^ ), v-^(^(2-O
(
^ 2 2a
^^
^^(*->).
',
A:A: cosx
2
-f-2/?xy-h^ 12 ), prove that (P.U.
(B.V.1953) (P.U.7955)
7955) .=
.= m m

\w Ct S 3 3 9y
9y fsui-v-
6.
[Refer
14.
14. If
Ex. 3, p.
z=f(x 9^
201]
8. If/(jc, y)=Q, <p(y, z)=0, show that
Ifz=f(x
V
ay)-\-<f>(x
ay)-\-<f>(x .Jr.V ay),
xay),
9^ sec fV,
V that
2 prove
9*prove
-I-I -f
thatx
9^
(M.r.) \
17.
9.
17.
2
sin
?/ 9
?,.
( e~ r2/4/ find theaavalue
If 9=t
n
If JH(l-yH^(l-* )=fl, show that
4L= ?/..

a* of n which
a*
1*
^ .

,
(/>./.)>

8
2 2
' '
.

will make
15.
15. ltz =
ltz =(x-{-y)
(x-{-y)2+ .dY^ao^^ao
_+(x+y)<9(ylx), provethat
(x+y)<9(ylx),prove
i
that _ (M r<)
.

r 9r V 8r /
- az\
9^

18. If -=/(r) where

/9
/9 _9
y?=-
dX
V9^
z
r= _9
V9^ VU
z
2
,j _^
z\
2

9y9^y), prove
-f -J
9y9^y \9ythat
\9y
22
2
2 2

2 2
2 2

3 ^^^
^^^ -

-cos x^sin x-
j/
.

*
*
(P.U. 1935\

^
10.
16.
20.
If
16. If
u and
(sec
Ifw=/(cix
2x)
v are
2
w=/(cix -f-f
->
, (x 2 of
functions 2
),),
xn/2).
&+C;-^m
and >> 2defined
2 _
-f-2/?xy-h^
xu v
cot x
by 2T2
21. (2-x)
2/7^+^ ------
2/7^+^ v-^(^
provethat
-f-2/?xy-h^),),prove v-^(^
that
Page 6 tan ff
, (x^- 1).

+ e~ sin w, yv-\-e~ cos w,

z'
 of are the squares of the semi-axes of the section,
in question.
We
stationarywrite ,,

"" 1
216
ff~z
= r X log tfXCALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL
"I"
.

2. u L J
If
g(x, y, z)=flx'+&V+c'2
a
+> + f -1
Find
where8. If/(jc, dy/dx
14.
2
in the cases
show that
following ( I y I )-
y)=Q, z)=0, <p(y,
:

(/) x *+y*=laxy.
Equating to zero the
9
?/ (P.U.)
?,. partial 1* x y*= of g(x, y,
4L= ?/..derivatives
(//)
4
-i
z) w r, to
. . (/>./.)>
x, and
y (Hi) z, 6 we obtain
8
Jc +^ =5fl Jc.y.
5 x y z (iv) jc 5 y 5 =
''

216 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS -!

show 7.
that
9. If
the JH(l-yH^(l-* 8
stationary value)=fl, show that by
=0, 2A
ofu, is given
15. If AX, >^)=0 and/.T ^0, prove
8.
y-
that
2
=0. ,
show that
-

If/(jc, y)=Q, -<p(y,

a z)=0,
dx
y?=- = _ /y d 2x ^_S^fv}*-2fa (P.U. 1935\ 377
ENVELOPES
-
.

dX 2 OALOTTIJJ8
212 We write
These give dy
3
-J 9
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
2
,j fx_^
?/ dy 1*
'

. ?,. 4L= . ?/.. (/ . (/>./.)>

8.
16.
10. Given
If u andthat are functions
Find of x and >> of defined drawn at risht angles, to the
f'W> v7.
$) ,:$w4';&? ewehpt
the envelope off he by lines
family
straight " of
lines
or radii
g(x, y,
9. If
vectors
/(x,xu ax=by~cz.
JH(l-yH^(l-*
z)=flx'+&V+c'2
>>)=.xM
of the
z'
+> ( I
y
3 a
+ e~Cordioide.
8
)=fl,
3ax>>:=0,
sin w, yv-\-e~
show
show
v that
costhat
w, +
y
f I
-1
)-
.,, (/) ,(0,
proveThe that the a and the b- orea
equation parameters (/) along _ y?=- with connected
given subsidiaryby the relation
-
condition(P.U. 1935\
of g(x, y, z) w r, to
.
2
to theirzero
'
2 dX
Equating through dx 2 and the
extremities. derivatives
_^
determine = dy
dv partial

3
=1,
Subtracting, we x,d^ y z. ,j -J
(P.U. 1936)
z, we obtain
x, y and get
17. If 9. Let
a
is Here,
10. If
P
dy
u and
homogeneous
bevdx
if, as any
are point
the
in functions function
example
onofthe ofx and curve.
the
abo^e, nth we
>> defined
degree
a inbe its one
Ifeliminate
by
vectorial angle,
(x, y> z) andparameter,if
then Exercises
,4, B, C its radius vector OP=^a(l +cos
11. Ifthe
process are of
the angles of a
determining + e~ envelope
y-
triangle
xu
the z

2 =0,
such that
sin w, yv-\-e~ =0.
a). will
' v become
cos w,
P
rather
2A tedious.
^a to the
--

1. Thisthe
Find du The
minimum
~"av
tedio^sn^ss 2
equation
sin +may
value
,,
sin
2ofbe
of theavoided
a
B] co-efficients
,v sin -h^
2line
fz drawn
2
C=constant, when
in the through 2
following at
manner. right angles
where X, Y, Z are that the first
/1
differential of, w, with respect to x, y, r
prove that
These
respectively,
prove
radius
prove Wevector pohsider, is
that OP b, As a 'functibq. of, a, as determined fr6m (//).
(w)
give
Differentiating
dA^ tan C-lan
9*
d^ =
dy
---.
r dv
(/) and
cos (6
dxB (11) w.r.
ENVELOPES a)=tf(l to the +cos a).
parameter,, a, we get
p
(P.U. 1936)
375
..(I)-

(MI) xyz=a*. The angle a is different 9>> for different straight lines.
11.ToIfobtain ,4, B, C the are the angles ofwe have tosuch
a triangle eliminate
that 6 between (i) and
or 10.
3.
2. JfHf^yz, zx, xy)
Find2 the extreme Differentiating
From
value envelope,
ax=by~cz.
of xy
(1) when prove
w.r. to a, we
that, get .,, (/)
(ii), we get
1950)
,

; .
.

12. Ifax
(//). -} 2hxy + by* 2
sin /1 + sin prove 2
B] sin
2
that C=constant,
The equation (/) -\-2gx-\-2fytc-Q, along with rsin the a)^ sin a.
subsidiary condition ..(2)
prove that
z.of axby
(0 given b
whenand (2), we re-write them as ^ N '
_ .

=1,3. Finddetermine the To y andvalue

greatest eliminate
x, ......
"dx* x*+xy+y*^3k*.
^c (a)
van
dA^
from
//*-!- = ---
tan-
v^tan C-lan B.
(1) z da'

6(D.U. sin a=a. Hons. 1953)

Qa)()*
,
From and cos we eliminate
I
cos a-\-r sin p
UNIT-IV db\da and get .(3) .
(rExercises
Let
13. Find
4. Show thatperpendicular
the
(Hi)
at the point rof the surface
(iv),
distance of the from the
sin 9 .x cos2 a 2 ypoint (r COR (a> b, c) sin a
a) =0, plane ..(4)
1.
1. Find the 12. minimum
Ifax
Now, u=y
2
-} 2hxy
(4)
value of ,v
vzx, w=xy,
aa
z,+ by* -\-2gx-\-2fytc-Q,
gives
,v -h^ fz 2 when prove that
b^the Lagrange's method of undetermined multipliers.
that
so where x=yz, The equation of the tan...... cL
envelope r sin will, 0/(r cos= now,
is at the maximum distance from by
Qa). be obtained elimi-
5.
tbepohU{2,(MI)
Which
(w)
nating
1,3)?
point of the sphere
xyz=a*.
a andH=f(u,
'
ff~zb from
=
__
v,
r
"dx*
w).
2x*=l
X(/),log
r
(11) sin
tfX
and""
"I"
1//*-!-
(v). Now
C S a __
I
(v) gives r cos
~ 0a
---
.

We
2. Find
2. havethe
Find the Showx'/a
13. extreme
lengths-^
Substituting that
ofvalue
the aty\b
as H
Lthese
the
of axy
axes of values
xfa+y/b
when
point the of the
J conic infunction1
surface we of
get x, >>, 2.
2
cos 0' '

6. expressed composite r n
=-- (/),
L-
n [From
L (/)
v y and (//)]
v /J
in (3), we obtain
~l.
2
2 z
14. Find dy/dx in the
Substituting ax*+2hxy+by
following thesecases values :

374 DIUFBBBNTIAL CALCULUS +(by)$] =**-&*,

Findwhere
3.(/) x *+y*=laxy. the x=yz, value of axby
[(<*x)% maximum
cos when 2 [(**)*
+r sin+(*)>)*]*
2
3. In a the value of
0_
'

7. greatest
plane triangle, find 0-tf) x 4
(r -i y*=
=
'
(P.U.) 9* w or a (//)
ens =:xc
A COS B COS 2C. a 2ar cos "" 1 "~~
+a
= 0) (D.U.
Hons. 1953)
'
x*+xy+y*^3k*. y(r
6
(Hi) Jc +^ =5fl Jc.y.
5 or8 ff~z
Examples = r X(iv)logjc 5 tfXy 5"I" -!
4. Find
'

or the extttme Va lues of

distance of the point J(a> from the plane
.
8. the? perpendicular
or L
^n
b, c)
^^
4.15. Find
I. If AX, the orenvelope
>^)=0
14. Find
Substituting
method
and/. of
rT2^02_oar
dy/dx
of undetermined
the
^0,2 prove family
in thevalues
these
that of
cos in cases
following
semi-cubical
2
(//), we get
0a
parabola*
i.^., r=2a cos
/ *Y
, :

b^the Lagrange's which the d x multipliers.

2
whichisis the dx
required
= _ /y evolute. ^_S^fv}*-2fa
x *+y*=laxy. required envelope. x 4
-i y*=
Which point (P.U.) is at the maximum to a, we from
ofdy x 2x*=l
(/) '
(//)
w.r.distance
2
5. 5. Find
4. thethe sphere fenvelope dy of the
Differentiating family (/) (/ ellipses
of .

tbepohU{2, 1,3)? 6 8 Exercises 5=

that +^
5 5
16. Given(Hi) Jc =5fl Jc.y. (iv) jc y -!
or Find of the of lines
Similarly
6. Find the lengths 1. of thethe envelope
axes
ASYMPTOTES of the conic following families
that . by the relation 32&
:

flre show
3
/z^ two >>)=.xM
/(x,parameter y 3ax>>:=0, connected
15. (i) y^wx+^cFm
AX, 2 a,
^0, 6,2
zz^ 6 prove the m
If

(//) x cos Q-\-y

__
>^)=0
ax*+2hxy+by
x3n/(n+l)
and/.
dx
T ~l.
Eliminating
sin 3 0=a,
),

/y pthe
that
parameter
dvalue
2
x
parameter a+b=c
being
a between (i) and
being o
;

7. In a plane
'

'dy find _9 M
ASYMPTOTES
'

the maximum
= 3"_
we get the 2 of
'
^_S^fv}*-2fa 323
;
;

the required
as fomg triangle,
(B.U. 1954)*
'
tz constant. 2
envelope.2
(iii) dx x (//),
c,
ax+by+c+lim
sin dy
ens A COS B COS C. y cos G~flO.
dy f x dy parameter
y=o, /~^0,
'
being o (/ .
',

If
We
6. (/v)
is a Given
Show
will xcos n
that
eliminate
Oi->>sin
the n
one
envelope
function 0^=0, fn-ithe
parameter
of
of a
parameter
the
and
circle
nthenvelope.
whose
express
being 6 centre
in (x, y> z)and
the
and
lies
equationon the of
homogeneous we if ;
It17. 16. that the degree
8. isFind
''

easy to extttme
the? see
y*=4ax that Va and
lues
amcould
which
ofwhich
pofthe is have eliminated
required through m
havethe
itsWe vertex
step (i),the cissoid
is
when xparabola
->
given family
oo and y/x
(v) y=mx
in ->terms
+
ASYMPTOTES the passesother.
parameter 3 being
3ax>>:=0, show
323
= y=0
,
a\b. ;

simplified the process by saying/(x, >>)=.xM y We

& c know thatthat
as 7953)
that the is iff
(v/) xcosec o ^cot ry*(2a+x)+x*=0.
o~c. already
required a, asymptote (B.U.
where To
Adding,
X,so -Z
that
we
Y,determine
-.are7. get
the Find the
the
first result.
limit
2 differentialthe locus
(/ n-a/'
r
of n-i)>
co-efficients singular
w ^ divide withthe
points
w,
numerator
i.e., cusps,
x, y, r
to distance where
It as is easy to 155 Now, 2.
see that the
we could envelope
is ~
n2any l have
of
_
point the on
family
eliminated
of,
the of straight
the
parabola.
respect lines Its and
xla+ylb=-\ from
well the6provedenominator
v that (a/ - IB 2at)
y+X
4- x =- Km
limby
,
x and and see'
thattouches eachstep member(i), a factor
as
H appears
2
respectively, 4, are connected
a homogeneous b> O fdx
the i relation dy also it 1/xz of ordernis prove
4. the is vertex 0) is i function of x,
so thatthe
simplified jP _process by
(0,
> saying a* x -> x
that the required y, asymptote ;

of the family.n 2 17. /Fn ^ If 1(/) a+

-
6=c. a 2 +6 2 -c
.
2
(m) a^-c1 . ,
is a homogeneous (//) function of the nth degree in (x, y> z) and if
when x -> oo
th(it and ->
of circlesa.is co-ordinates as
Thus
v
c is a const yjxant. IB 1.
ia the
Find v 4- x
equation y+Xthe=-- Kmof
lim the family of the on parameter
2. the
8. Find the envelope
2.
Thus,3. Find equation
of the family
the ienvelope ofinvolving
the given family
ellipses, having the axes of1950)
asymptotes of to a y2 by weof, have 2
.

whereDifferentiating
principal X, axesY, Zand are the the (xsemi-axes
(i) at*)+(y-2at)*=^a
first partially
differential n\r.
a, b connected
co-efficients t*+4a*t tne w, with
relation
,
respect to x, y, r
when x -> or
is on
oo and yjx ->
respectively, prove 1. that
-f 5x 2
15xy flO.y + 2
f 1 -0. -^
where 2. a[Thisasymptote.
Equating
is Euler's
a constant
9. is Find to 4.
the
and
asymptotes
zero
theorem
Show
the that
m
Weof
co-efficient
for a homogeneous function of three
is a parameter.
have
x*+y*2at*x-4:aty=Q.
the envelope of theofhighest the family of
or power -
the parabolas,
y* of y, ~0 ...(vi) ca
m =
-

independent variables.] w.r. to we Exercises we

we seeDifferentiating
thatDifferentiating (i), 5x 2
under then condition -f
w.r. get
to t,
15xy flO.y + get 2
or /=
f 1 -0. -^
10. Find which H=x
the gives f
asymptotes
4xH-10=0,
f
a6=c 2 of
4a/x 4oy=0,
the 2x+5--=0,
following v) where
curves yjx-u, y\x.
z 'x=v.
of y, with
1950)
axes.
.

valueofof
:

Equating to zero the is the

(/), we power
a|j=x/\w,
co-efficient
i.e., having get thecoinciding
,
hyperbola its asymptotes
highest y*
(

Eliminating
(/)
m,
Substitutingwe get this
t in required envelope.
we see that
is one i.
asymptote. (11) a-f 6==c is an astroid.
,

ii.
2. (x--i)(;c-2)(;c-Kx)+*
4xH-10=0,
the highest degree
2
j-x+1 -0. we
i.e., 2x+5--=0,
whichFactorising
is the envelope. terms, get
is one Thus iii.
3. y
3
-*M .y2 + X 9
+ y-
the envelope consists of ^two
- X ----
+\^Q. /(

asymptote.
ines 4. x(y 2Substituting these values in (/), we get
Here 2y +x the ~lby+2b*)^y*-3bx*+b*.
is a highest
repeateddegree factor we
linearterms, of highest degree terms,
Factorising
i.e., 3rd degree.
5. x0
2 and x=a.
^ 3 f6.vThere will, therefore, be noly^-ZxfSy
^MlA:/--h6^4-3^4-12x^f
get
asymptote parallel to
f-5-0. (7\l/. > 1

2y+JC~0 If weiftrace the is not

given curves
a factor of the 2nd degree terms also.
(2y+x)
2
not+x
Here 6. .x
(3>'^,v)MM3vfAr)(xHr)-h9^-|-6A7f9y^6x+9-0.
is a repeated linear factor of highest degree terms,
But this is 2y the
or case. In fact, the equation is Fig. 156
3rd degree. 2 There 2 2 2
therefore, no asymptote
+ ^-2x 2 )(2>'be-jc)-7/ 2
-l9xy-23x
2
-hx f 2/ to3-^>.
i.e., 7. (y -HA7^2x )will,
x(2y notx+a
-}-(y
2
+5(x
a +y)(x +2y)
the
- 2y
2nd + 1 - 0.
parallel
terms
|

2y+JC~0 8. (2y+x)
if
or
is-f-*) factor of degree also.
we will x(y-3)*^.4y(x~\)*.
that is the locus of itsis singular points and
But thisfind
is not j-axis
the
the case.
curve(x=0)
In
has two
fact, the equationparallel to
x=a Therefore, which to is2 the
each required asymptotes
2 envelope
curve.
is tangent
9. 2 2
x(2y -f-*) +5(x +y)(x +2y) 2y + 1 - 0.
(a-}-x) (/? -}A' )--xV2 - .

3 -
3. 10.Considering 2
the evolute
5A-y -h8^^4jc
3
-3/-f a curve
of 9A7
2
-6A' i2^ as the 2x f envelope
-0. of its 1

We lim two -> x and

><
havethe
Therefore, now
the to curve
find has 2 when
asymptotes 2 xparallel to ->
normals, find evolute of the (y+\x)
ellipse x 2
/a +y /6-=l.
yjx
Let lim (y16-f5. Jx)=--c so that lim
Intersection curve and 2c.
of a (2^+x) its asymptotes.Page 7
The equation of the normal at any point (a cos 0, b sin 0) on
We Any by x,tothe
now becomes x and
the Dividing have
is asymptote find
of equation
alim
curve of the when
(y+\x) nth degree x -> cuts curve
the yjx ->in (n 2)
DSC- 1B DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS BS:204

Theory: 4 Credits and Practicals: 1 credits

Theory: 4 hours /week and Practicals: 2 hours /week

Objective: The main aim of this course is to introduce the students to the techniques
of solving differential equations and to train to apply their skills in solving some of
the problems of engineering and science.

Outcomes: After learning the course the students will be equipped with the various
tools to solve few types differential equations that arise in several branches of science.

Unit – I

Differential Equations of first order and first degree:

Exact differential equations – Integrating Factors – Change in variables – Total
Differential Equations – Simultaneous Total Differential Equations – Equations of the
form dx P = dy Q = dz R
Differential Equations first order but not of first degree: Equations Solvable for y –
Equations Solvable for x – Equations that do not contain x ( or y ) – Clairaut’s
equation

Unit – II

Higher order linear differential equations: Solution of homogeneous linear differential

equations with constant coefficients – Solution of non-homogeneous differential
equations P(D)y= Q(x) with constant coefficients by means of polynomial operators
when Q(x)=bx ! ,be!" ,e!" V, b cos ax , b sin (ax)

Unit – III

Method of undetermined coefficients – Method of variation of parameters – Linear

differential equations with non constant coefficients – The Cauchy – Euler Equation

Page 8
Unit – IV

Partial Differential equations- Formation and solution- Equations easily integrable –

Linear equations of first order – Non linear equations of first order – Charpit’s method
– Non homogeneous linear partial differential equations – Separation of variables

Text: Zafar Ahsan, Differential Equations and Their Applications

References: Frank Ayres Jr, Theory and Problems of Differential Equations

Ford, L.R, Differential Equations.

Daniel Murray, Differential Equations

S. Balachandra Rao, Differential Equations with Applications and Programs

Stuart P Hastings, J Bryce McLead; Classical Methods in Ordinary Differential

Equations

Page 9
 Differential Equations
Practicals Question Bank

Unit-I

Solve the following differential equations:

1. y′ = sin(x + y) + cos(x + y)

2. xdy − ydx = a(x 2 + y 2 )dy

3. x 2 ydx − (x 3 + y 3 )dy = 0

4. (y + z)dx + (x + z)dy + (x + y)dz = 0

5. ysin 2xdx − (1+ y 2 + cos 2 x)dy = 0

6. y + px = p 2 x 4

7. yp 2 + (x − y)p − x = 0

dx dy dz
8. = = 2
y − zx yz + x x + y 2

dx dy dz
9. = =
x(y − z ) y(z − x ) z(x − y 2 )
2 2 2 2 2

10. Use the transformation x 2 = u and y 2 = v to solve the equation

axyp 2 + (x 2 − ay 2 − b)p − xy = 0 .

Unit-II

Solve the following differential equations:

1. D 2 y + (a + b)Dy + aby = 0

2. D 3 y − D 2 y − Dy − 2y = 0

3. D 3 y + Dy = x 2 + 2x

4. y ′′ + 3y ′ + 2y = 2(e−2 x + x 2 )
Page 10
5. y(5) + 2 y ′′′ + y′ = 2x + sin x + cos x

x 3x
6. (D 2 + 1)(D 2 + 4)y = cos cos
2 2

7. (D 2 + 1)y = cos x + xe2 x + e x sin x

8. y′′ + 3y′ + 2y = 12e x

9. y′′ − y = cos x

10. 4 y ′′ − 5 y ′ = x 2 e x

Unit-III

Solve the following differential equations:

1. y′′ + 3y′ + 2y = xe x

2. y′′ + 3y′ + 2y = sin x

3. y ′′ + y ′ + y = x 2

4. y ′′ + 2 y ′ + y = x 2 e− x

5. x 2 y ′′ − xy ′ + y = 2 log x

6. x 4 y ′′′ + 2x 3 y ′′ − x 2 y ′ + xy = 1

7. x 2 y ′′ − xy ′ + 2y = x log x

8. x 2 y ′′ − xy ′ + 2y = x

Use the reduction of order method to solve the following homogeneous equation
whose one of the solutions is given:

2 2
9. y ′′ − y ′ + 2 y = 0 , y1 = x
x x

10. (2x 2 + 1) y ′′ − 4xy ′ + 4y = 0 , y1 = x

Page 11
Unit-IV

1. Form the partial differential equation , by eliminating the arbitrary constants from
z = (x 2 + a)(y 2 + b) .

2. Find the differential equation of the family of all planes whose members are all at
a constant distance r from the origin.

3. Form the differential equation by eliminating arbitrary function F from

F(x 2 + y 2 , z − xy) = 0 .

Solve the following differential equations:

4. x 2 (y − z)p + y 2 (z − x)q = z 2 (x − y)

5. x(z 2 − y 2 )p + y(x 2 − z 2 )q = z(y 2 − x 2 )

( )
6. p 2 − q 2 z = x − y

7. z = px + qy + p 2 q 2

8. z 2 = pqxy

9. z 2 ( p 2 + q 2 ) = x 2 + y 2

10. r + s − 6t = cos(2x + y)

Page 11
Page 12
DSC- 1C REAL ANALYSIS BS: 304

Theory: 4 credits and Practicals: 1 credits

Theory: 4 hours /week and Practicals: 2 hours /week

Objective: The course is aimed at exposing the students to the foundations of analysis
which will be useful in understanding various physical phenomena.

Outcome: After the completion of the course students will be in a position to

appreciate beauty and applicability of the course.

Unit – I

Sequences: Limits of Sequences- A Discussion about Proofs-Limit Theorems for

Sequences-Monotone Sequences and Cauchy Sequences
Unit – II

Subsequences-Lim sup’s and Lim inf’s-Series-Alternating Series and Integral Tests

Unit – III

Sequences and Series of Functions: Power Series-Uniform Convergence-More on

Uniform Convergence-Differentiation and Integration of Power Series (Theorems in
this section without Proofs)

Unit – IV

Integration : The Riemann Integral – Properties of Riemann Integral-Fundamental

Theorem of Calculus

Text: Kenneth A Ross, Elementary Analysis-The Theory of Calculus

References: William F. Trench, Introduction to Real Analysis

Lee Larson, Introduction to Real Analysis I

Page 15
Shanti Narayan and Mittal, Mathematical Analysis

Brian S. Thomson, Judith B. Bruckner, Andrew M. Bruckner; Elementary Real

analysis

Sudhir R. Ghorpade Balmohan V. Limaye ,A Course in Calculus and Real Analysis

Page 16
 54
toandverify:
hence(i) convergent sequences are Cauchy sequences, and (ii)
Cauchy sequences are convergent sequences. We already verified (i)
n > (ii),
N implies aMCauchy < sn . sequence
inϵ >
Lemma
0,
2. so 10.9. exists
there To checkN such consider
that n > N implies | s1n − 0| <
(snϵ)=and 1
M.
44
Exercises
note
Sequences
That(sis,
Since snn) lim
>is 0,
bounded
snwe +∞by
= can write
and Lemma 10.10. By Theorem 10.7 we need
(2) holds.
only
7.1 show
Write out the first five terms of the following 1 sequences.
1
1 n> N 0 implies 0< =< 3n+1
n ∈ N in view of (1)
then(a) we sclearly
n = 3n+1 have mlim> inf and |s n | (b)
≥ m
s = lim sup snnnπ bnsfor
.Real Analysis
all M
4n−1 (1).
Thus(c) cn =n |3n:n n ∈ N} ≥ m > n0, as desired.
inf{|s (d) sin( 4 )
and
Let ϵ hence
Exercises
> 0. Since (sn ) isina ExerciseCauchy 7.1, sequence, Practicals Question Bank
there exists N so that
7.2 For each sequence determine whether it converges. If
UNIT-I
9.1Formal
Using proofs
the limit arenrequired
>
Theorems N impliesinproofs
implies
9.2–9.7, the following
proveM−the< .exercises.
s|n<
following.
it converges,
1 (a) lim n+1
give
m, n>its limit.
N No |snare required.
sm3n+7
ϵ. 1 Justify all steps.
= 1 (b) lim =
InThat
7.3 For is, each
particular, snssequence
lim17n n5= <+∞
+73n
and
below,
s4 −18n
+ ϵ2 +3(2)determine
for holds.
all17 m, n >whether
6n−5
N . Thisitshows
2
converges
s +and,
ϵ is ifanit
(c) lim n23n5 +13nm 3 = 23 m
converges, give its limit. No proofs are required.
Exercises
upper bound forn {sn : n > N }, so vN = sup{snn2 +3
(a) a =lim
N } ≤ sm +
: n > Exercises 65ϵ
9.2 Suppose xn = 3, lim yn = 7 and(b)
all ybn are
= nnonzero. Determine the
for m > Nn. This, n+1 in turn, shows vN − ϵ is a 2 −3
lower bound for {s m :
8.1 Prove
(c) cnthe
following −n
2following:
= limits: (d) tn = 1 + n2
}, lim(x
mExercises
>N (a) lim
so (−1)
vN + −=
n
yϵ ≤
)0 inf{s
n
} =lim
m : m > N(b)
(b) uN3y.1nThus
lim −x1/n
=n 0
(e) xnTheorem
10.2 Prove =nn73 +n(−1) (f ) sn = n1/3(2)
yn2
2n−1 210.2 for bounded decreasing n+6sequences.n0
(c)
9.1 2
Using lim
(g) ynthe = lim =
n! sup3sn ≤ vN ≤ uN + (h) (d)
ϵ ≤ dlimlim n = ninf(−1) s=n+ n ϵ.Justify all steps.
n limit Theorems 9.2–9.7, prove the following.
3n+2 2 −6
a3n +4a n
9.3 Suppose
10.3 For
(i) a(−1) n+1lim
decimal a n = a,
expansion lim b K.d
n = b,
d
1 2 (b)d and
d
3(j) · s·
4 lim 3 ·,
7n
n
3
=
let
+8n
3n+7 (s2 n . Prove
) 1 be defined limassnin=
8.2 (a) lim
Determine = 1
n n the limits of the following sequences, −3
2n 6n−5
bn=+1
and then 9prove your
Since Discussion
athis
3
+4a9n holds
2
carefully, for
10.3.
−185 +73n4using all
Prove ϵ
−18n2 the
> s 0,
+3 n limit
< weK have
+
17 theorems.
1 forlim allsupn
nπ ∈s nN. ≤ 2 lim
Hint :inf s . 9The
10 n 102 +
+
claims.
(k)
(c)
b2 +1lim 9
17n
1 = (l) sin( )
· · · +inequality
opposite 10n =n1 − always
6n+18 23n5 +13n
10n for holds,
3
all n.23 so we√have 2nπ established
2
7n−19 (1).
(a)
(m) asin(nπ)
n = n2 +1 (b)
(n) sbsin( n = 3n+7 )
9.4 Let
9.2 Suppose s 1 = 1
lim
4n+3
and for n ≥
xn = 3, lim yn = 7n+1 1 let s =
and all would ynnn+1+ are1.3
2n+4nonzero. Determineour the
10.4 Discuss
(c)
(o) cnn1 sin =why n Theorems 10.2 and 10.11
7n−5 (d)
(p) d2n2n=−7 +5 fail
5n+2
if we restricted
following
The
world proof
(a)3nnof limits:
of
numbers Theorem 10.11 Q of uses Theorem 10.7, and Theo-
(e)
(q) slim(x
List
= sin n tofour
1 the first the set terms of rational
(sn ).
(r) lim
numbers.
(1 +3ynn1y−x )2 n Axiom 4.4, since
(a)
rem 10.7 relies
n! nn+ yn )
implicitly on the (b)
Completeness 2

8.3 3
2 n
10.5 Prove(b) 4n Theorem
It+3 turns 10.4(ii).
out thataxiom (s nonnegative
) converges. 6n+4
Assume thislim fact
withoutLet
(s) (s
the )completeness
3nn2 −2
be a sequence of
√√ n it is(t) not9nreal 2 +7 numbers,
clear that
a3n +4a infand
and prove
ssuppose
n and
9.3 lim
Supposesn the = lim 0.limit
aProve
n = is 12a,lim
(1lim + bsn5).= = b,0. and Thissnwill = complete n
. the
Prove proof
lim sn for
=
lim
7.4sup
10.6 (a)
Give snLet are(smeaningful.
examples n ) beofa sequence Thesuch completeness
that axiombn +1 assures
2
Exercises us that65
Example
a3 +4a 5.
the b2 +1t carefully,
9.5expressions
Let sup{s usingn|s= : the >limit
nt2n +2 N| }<ntheorems.
and
2≥−n1. inf{s n : (t nn∈ N.Na} limit
)>converges in Defini-
1 = 1 and tn+1 − sfor Assume
for all n and find
8.4
tion Let
10.6 (a)
(t are
n A
) be sequence
a bounded
meaningful, (x n+1
n ) 2tof
sequence,
and
n
n irrational
Theoremi.e., √ numbers
there 10.2 exists [which having
M such that
itself |tn |lim
relies ≤on xn
M
the limit.
9.4 4
Let s =
1 that 1 and for n ≥ 1 let s = s + 1.
for Prove
all n, andis
(s a) rational
let is
n 10.2 for (s a ) number.
Cauchy
be a n+1 sequence
sequence nsuch and that hencelim sa convergent
= 0. Prove
10.2completeness
the Prove Theorem axiom] bounded
nassures
2
us that decreasingthe limits sequences. n
in Definition 10.6
9.6 lim(s
Let(a) xsequence.
=) 1=and
n1tList
n 0. first
the xn+1four = 3x terms
n for of n≥ (s 1.).
also are meaningful.
(b) A sequence (r n ) of rational
10.3 For1 a decimal expansion K.d1 d2 d3 d41 · · ·, let (sn ) be defined numbers
n having a limit lim r as that
n in
⋆
8.5Exercises
(b) (a)Is is
the
Showan
on irrational
result
limif a in
sup’s
= (a)
lim number.
true
and
x , if
lim
then weinf’s
a only
= assume
appear
or a = in
0.|s §§11Exercises
− s
and | <
9 12.1
65 for
n 9prove all
(b) It turns
Discussion 10.3.out Prove thatsnn√ (s<n )Kconverges.
+ 1 for 3 all n ∈ N.
Assume n+1 this
Hint: fact
n
10
and
+ 102 +
· · · +
(a) n 9∈ the N?
=
Consider limit
1 − is1 1 (1 +
three for all
sequences 5).
n. (a ), (b ) and (s ) such ≤
7.5 Determine
(b)10Doesn the limfollowing
xnn 2exist?limits.
10 Explain. No nproofsn are required, n but showanany
that
10.7 Discuss
Let S bewhy
relevant s ≤
a bounded
nalgebra. b n for all n
nonempty
2 and lim
subseta =
n of R suchlim b = s. Prove
n that sup S is notnin S. lim s = s.
10.210.4
Prove
9.5 LetTheorem
t1 =
(c) 1 and
Discuss
This is
Theorems
10.2 tthe
called
n+1forapparent
= the
t10.2
n +2 and 10.11 would fail if we restricted our
bounded for
“squeeze decreasing
n ≥
contradiction 1.
lemma.” Assume sequences.
between (t n ) converges
parts (a) and find
(b).
Prove of
world there
numbers a sequence
to sthe=set
2t n √nQ
(s ) ofofpoints in S such that lim sn = sup S.
1rational
− n, numbers.
10.3Exercises
the(a) limit.
lim sn where n2 +
For 5
See
a
9.7 Complete also
decimal
(b) Suppose Exercise
theexpansion
√ proof
11.11.
(sn )ofand
n
K.d
Theorem d d
(t1n )2 are d ·
39.7(c), · ·,
4sequences i.e., (s
let n ) the
give
such bethat defined
|sn | ≤asargument
standard tninfor all
10.5
9.6 Prove
Discussion
Let x Theorem
10.3.
= 1 andProve
2 10.4(ii).
x s = < 3x K 2 + 1 for all n ∈ N. Hint : 9 + 9 +
for n ≥ 1.
10.8 needed
10.1 Which
Let (b)
9 (s
1n toand
of
lim( show
the
n ) be an
lim+ lim
nfollowing n=
tn+1 s−nn 0.
= Prove
n), 0.n
sequences
1 increasing sequence of(−1)
n limaresnincreasing?
= positive
0. n decreasing?
numbers 10 and bounded?
102
define
··· +
10.6 (a)
(a) n 1=
Let 1 1 (s −√ ) n for all n.
be a sequence such (b)
that
σn(a)
8.6 Let 10 =(s
n )(s
Showbe
1 n+aif
10 s
(c)5 lim( 4n + n − 2n).
n a + =
sequence
2 2 · · ·
lim + xs
innn,).
R. Prove
then a = (σ 1
n )or isn a
2 an= increasing
0. sequence.
3 nπ
(c) why
10.4 Discuss n Theorems 10.2 and 10.11−n (d)
would sin( 1fail7 )if
10.9 (e)
Let (a)
(b) s Hint
=
1 Prove
Doesn1 for
and lim
lim (a):
sx s |s =First
=
exist?
n+10 ( −
if show
ns | 2
and )s
Explain.
n < s 2
for
n = n
nonly(fif) lim
√ for
≥ n 1.|sall |= . nwe restricted our
0.∈ N.
(−2) n+1
world of numbers to the set Q of rational numbers.
nn n+1 3
2
nn+1+n n

(a)
(b)
(c)ProveFind(ssn2 ,)the
Observe
Discuss s3is and
that aif sCauchy
s4=
apparent
n . (−1) sequence
n
, then limand
contradiction |sn | hence
betweenexists, a (a)
but
parts convergent
limand
sn does
(b).
10.5 Prove Theorem
sequence. 10.4(ii).
6 not
(b) Show
exist.
thealim sn ofexists.
10.6 9.7
(a) Complete
Let Is(snthe
) be proof
sequence Theorem 9.7(c), i.e., give the standard argument
suchifthat assume |sn+1 − sn | < n1 for all
8.7 (b)
Show
needed theto result
following
show in (a)
lim s true
sequences
=
n 0. 0. we
do onlyconverge.
not
(c) Prove
n ∈ nπN? lim s =
(a) cos( 3 ) |sn+1n
− sn | < 2−n (b) ∈ N.n n
sn =n(−1)
for all
nπ
10.10 (c)
Let sin( )and sn+1 = (sn + 1) for n ≥ 1.
1
10.7 Let Ss1be=(s3a1bounded
Prove ) is a Cauchy
n nonempty
3 sequence R such
subset ofand that asup
hence S is not in S.
convergent
Prove
(a)there
Findiss2a, sequence
sequence. s3 and s4(s . n ) of points in S such that lim sn = sup S.
1 See also Exercise 11.11.
This exercise is referred to in several places.
(b)7 Is (b)
the result in (a) true
Use induction to ifshow
we only
sn >assume
1 |sn+1 − sn | < n1 for all
2 for all n.
10.8 Letn ∈(s N?
n ) be an increasing sequence of positive numbers and define
σn (c) Show
= n1 (s 1 + s(s
2 n+) ·is· ·a+decreasing
sn ). Provesequence.
(σn ) is an increasing sequence.
10.7 Let S be a bounded nonempty subset of R such that sup S is not in S.
10.9 8
Prove (d)
Letthere
s1 =Show
is1aandlimsn+1
sequencesn exists
=
(s(nn+1n
) ofand
)s 2find lim sn .
n for in
points n≥ 1. that lim sn = sup S.
S such
See also
10.11 Let tExercise
= 1 and 11.11. = [1 − 1 ] · t for n ≥ 1.
(a) 1 Find s2 , tsn+1
3 and s4 . 4n2 n
10.8 Let (sn(a) ) beShow
an increasing
limstnn exists. sequence of positive numbers and define
(b) Show lim
σn = n1 (s1 + s2 + · · · + sn ). Prove (σn ) is an increasing sequence.
(b) Prove
(c) What lim do syou=think n0. 2
lim tn is?
10.9 Let s1 = 1 and sn+1 =n ( n+1 )sn for n ≥ 1.
10.10 Let s1 = 1 and sn+1 = 13 (sn + 1) for n ≥ 1.
(a) Find s2 , s3 and s4 .
(a) Find s , s3 and s4 .
(b) Show lim s2n exists.
(b) Use induction to show sn > 12 for all n.
(c) Prove lim sn = 0.
(c) Show (sn ) is 1a decreasing sequence.
10.10 Let s1 = 1 and sn+1 = 3 (sn + 1) for n ≥ 1.
(d) Show lim sn exists and find lim sn .
(a) Find s2 , s3 and s4 .
10.11(b)LetUse
t1 =induction
1 and tn+1 to = [1 −s 4n1>
show 2]1· tfor
n forallnn.≥ 1.
n 2 Page 17

(c) (a) Show

Show (sn )lim
is atndecreasing
exists. sequence.
 Prove (sn ) is a Cauchy sequence and hence a convergent
sequence.
1
(b) Is the result in (a) true if we only assume |sn+1 − sn | < n for all
n ∈ N?
66 2. Sequences
10.7 Let S be a bounded nonempty subset of R such that sup S is not in S.
Prove there is a sequence (sn ) of points in S such that lim sn = sup S.
9
See also Exercise 11.11.
1
76
10.122.Let t1 = 1 and tn+1 = [1 − (n+1)
Sequences 2 ] · tn for n ≥ 1.
10.8 Let (sn ) be an increasing sequence of positive numbers and define
76 2.σn (a)
Sequences
= 1 Show
(s1 + slim
n 2 +tn· ·exists.
· + sn ). Prove (σn ) is an increasing sequence.
10.9 Let(b)
Proof s1 =What dosn+1
1 and you =think n lim2tn is?
( n+1 )sn for n ≥ 1.
Suppose t
(c)is finite.
Use Consider
induction
Proof (a) Find s , s and s . to the
show interval
tn = n+1 (t − ϵ, t + ϵ). Then some tn
2n .
2 3 4
isSuppose
in this interval.
finite.Let
t isRepeat δ = min{t
Consider + ϵ − tn ,(t
tn−−ϵ,t t++ϵ},
ϵ).so thatsome tn
(d) part (b). the interval Then
(b) Show lim sn exists.
is in this interval. (t
Let δ = min{t + ϵ − t , t − t + ϵ}, so that
n − δ, tn + δ) ⊆ (t −nϵ, tn+ ϵ).
(c) Prove lim sn = 0.
Since10 tn is a subsequential (tn − δ,limit,
tn + δ) the⊆set(t −
{nϵ,∈t N+ :ϵ). sn ∈ (tn −δ, tn +δ)}
§11
10.10
isSince Let
infinite, Subsequences
s = 1 and s =
the set {n ∈ N3limit,
1
(s +
: sn ∈the 1) for
(t − n ≥ 1.
tn isso setϵ, {n
t +∈ϵ)}Nis: salso infinite. Thus,
1 n+1 n
a subsequential n ∈ (tn −δ, tn +δ)}
by Theorem(a)
is infinite, so the 2set 3{n ∈ N4 : sn ∈ (t − ϵ, t + ϵ)} is also (s
11.2(i),
Find s , s t itself
and s is
. a subsequential limit of n ).
infinite. Thus,
11.1 If Definition.
t = +∞, then clearly the sequence (s
by Theorem 11.2(i), t itself is a subsequential
1 n limit of (sn ). above,
) is unbounded
Suppose (b)
(snUse
)n∈Ninduction to show A
isof a(ssequence. sn subsequence
> 2 for all n.of this sequence is a
so aIfsubsequence
t = +∞, then n ) hasthe
clearly limit +∞ by(sTheorem
sequence 11.2(ii). above,
Thus
sequence n ) kis there
unbounded
+∞ is (c)ofShow
also inthe
S. form
(s
A ) is(tak decreasing
nsimilar
)k∈N where
argument for each
sequence.
applies if t = −∞. is a positive
so a subsequence
integer nk such that of (sn ) has limit +∞ by Theorem 11.2(ii). Thus
+∞ is (d) also Show
in S.limA ssimilar
n existsargument
and find lim sn . if t = −∞.
applies
n1 < n2 < · · · 1< nk < nk+1 < · · · (1)
10.11 UNIT-II
Let t1 = 1 and tn+1 = [1 − 4n2 ] · tn for n ≥ 1.
Exercises
and 11
(a) Show lim tn exists.
Exercises
11.1 Let an = 3 + 2(−1)n for n t∈k N.
= s nk . (2)
(b) What do you think lim tn is?
11.1 Let
Thus k )ais
(t(a) =
nList3 the
just+a2(−1)
first n
eight
selection N. of the
of∈some
for nterms sequence
[possibly all](aof
n ).the sn ’s taken
in order.
(a) Give
(b) List the first eight terms
a subsequence that of
is the sequence
constant (an ).a single value].
[takes
Specify the selection function σ.
Here(b) are Givesomea alternative
subsequenceways that to is constant
approach[takes a single value].
this concept. Note
that 12
11.2 Consider Specify
the the
sequences selection function
defined as σ.
follows:
(1) defines an infinite subset of N, namely {n1 , n2 , n3 , . . .}. Con-
=of N
versely, every 1 as 6n + 4
11.2 Consideran =infinite
the
(−1) n subset
sequences
, bndefined, canfollows:
cnbe= described
n2 , dn by
= (1). Thus . a
subsequence of (sn ) isn a sequence1 obtained by2 selecting,7n
n in − 3
order,
6n + 4 an
infinite (a)
subsetaFor
n = (−1)
ofeach ,
the sequence,
terms. bn =give, an example
cn = n , of adnmonotone
= .
n 7n − 3 subse-
For a(a) morequence.
For precise definition,
each sequence, give recall we canofview
an example the sequence
a monotone subse-
(sn )n∈N(b) as Foraquence.
function s with domain N; see §7.
each sequence, give its set of subsequential limits. For the subset
{n1 , 2.
n2 ,Sequences
n3 , . . .}, there is a natural function σ [lower case Greek sigma]
82 (c)
(b) For For each
each sequence,
sequence,givegiveitsits lim
setsup and lim inf. limits.
of subsequential
given by σ(k) = nk for k ∈ N. The function σ “selects” an infinite
82 2. of
subset Sequences
N,Which
(c)
(d) For
in each
order.sequence,
of the The give converges?
sequences its lim sup
subsequence and lim inf.
of sdiverges to +∞? diverges
corresponding to σ is
simply the to −∞? s ◦ σ. Thatdiverges
Exercises (d) composite
Which of the function t = converges?
sequences is, to +∞? diverges
=(e) to −∞?
Which
s ◦(tof the =
sequences
s(σ(k)) is
= bounded?
Exercises
12.1tk Lett(k)
(sn )=
and σ(k) existskN∈0 N.
s(nk ) = snk for
n ) be sequences and suppose there
(3)
such that
11.3 Repeat(e)tnWhich
an ≤ Exercise of 11.2
the sequences
0for is bounded?
the sequences:
ofsna!≤sequence n ≤
12.1 sLet
Thus (sn ) for
sequence andall(tt nnis
)> aNsequences
be . Show
subsequence lim
andinfsuppose lim inf tn sand
there
"n exists
limsuch
if N
and
0
sup sthat
only if
t 11.3 lim
= s13 ≤sup
s◦Repeat
σ for
t t n .
some
for Hint:
nπall
Exercise n Use
increasing
> N
11.2 Definition
.
for 3
Show
the lim10.6
functioninf σ
sand
sequences: ≤ Exercise
1
mapping
lim inf N
t 9.9(c).
into
and N.
lim We
sup s 1
will
≤
snn = cos(
n
), tn =0 , un =n !− " , nvn = (−1)n + n .
usuallylim suplim
tn .sup
suppress Hint
3 the : |Use Definition
4n
notation + 1 10.6lim
andsnExercise
2= 9.9(c). n1 t
|s 3 andif often
σ suppress the notation
12.2 Prove = 0 if and only n
nπ n 1 0.
sn = cos( ), tn = , un = − , vn = (−1)n + .
11.4 Repeat
12.3 14
12.2 Prove Exercise
lim sup |s 11.2
| = 0for
if the
and sequences:
only if lim s = 0.
Let (sn ) and (tn ) be the following sequences that repeat in cyclesnof
3 n 4n + 1 n 2
# nπ $
11.4 four:
n
n (t ) 11.2 (−1)
12.3 Repeat
Let
wn (s ) Exercise
and
=n(−2) , nxnbe 5for
= the the, sequences:
following 1 + (−1)nthat
yn =sequences , zrepeat
n = n cos in cycles of
.
four: 4 $
# nπ
(sn ) =
wn = (−2) , xn = 5 (0, 1, 2, 1,
(−1) 0,
n 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1, 0, . . .)
n
, yn = 1 + (−1) , zn = n cos .
(s
(tn ) = (2,(0, 1, 1,
2, 0,
1, 2,
0, 1, 1,
2, 0,
1, 2,
0, 1, 1,
2, 0,
1, 2,
0, 1, 1,
2, 0,
1, 2,
0, . . .) 4

Find (tn ) = (2, 1, 1, 0, 2, 1, 1, 0, 2, 1, 1, 0, 2, 1, 1, 0, 2, . . .)

(a)
Find lim inf sn + lim inf tn , (b) lim inf(sn + tn ),
(c) lim inf s + lim sup
(a) lim inf snn + lim inf tnn,t , (d)
(b) lim
lim sup(s
inf(snn+ +ttnn),),
(e)
(c) lim sup s + lim sup
inf snn+ lim sup tnn, t , (f
(d)) lim inf(s
sup(snn n+),tn ),
t
(g)
(e) lim sup(s
sup snn t+n )lim sup tn , (f ) lim inf(sn tn ),
(g) lim sup(s n tn )
12.4 Show lim sup(sn +tn ) ≤ lim sup sn +lim sup tn for bounded sequences
12.4 (sn ) and
Show lim (tn ). Hint:
sup(s n +tn )First
≤ lim show
sup sn +lim sup tn for bounded sequences
(sn )sup{s
and (tn+).t Hint : First show
: n > N } ≤ sup{s : n > N } + sup{t : n > N }.
n n n n
sup{sn + tn : n > N } ≤ sup{sn : n > N } + sup{tn : n > N }.
Then apply Exercise 9.9(c).
Then apply Exercise 9.9(c).
12.5 Use Exercises 11.8 and 12.4 to prove
12.5 Use Exercises 11.8 and 12.4 to prove Page 18
lim inf(sn + tn ) ≥ lim inf sn + lim inf tn
lim inf(sn + tn ) ≥ lim inf sn + lim inf tn
 14.4 Repeat !∞Exercise1 14.1 for the following.! √
9 n!
√
14.4 (a)Repeat Exercise
n=2 [n+(−1) ] 14.1
n 2 for the (b)
following. [ n + 1 − n]
!∞! 1 ! √ √
(a) n=2
(c) n!
n [n+(−1) n ]2 (b) [ n + 1 − n]
! nn!
104 2. Sequences
(c)
14.5 Supposenn an = A and
! !
b = B where A and B are real numbers.
! !n
Use
14.5 Suppose limit theorems
an = A and from §9 bto
n = quickly
B where prove A and the following.
B are real numbers.
Use limit ! theorems from §9 to quickly prove the following.
Exercises
15 (a) ! ! n
(a + bn ) = A + B.
(a) (an + bn ) = A + B.
14.1 Determine
(b) !kawhich n = kAof forthe R.
k ∈ following series converge. Justify your
answers.
(b)
! n4 kaann = ! kA for k ∈ R.
§15. Alternating Series
! 2nand Integral Tests 105
(a)(c) Is n ! bn = AB a reasonable (b) conjecture? Discuss.
! 2nIs2
(c) an bn = !AB a reasonable conjecture? ! n!n! Discuss.
14.6 (a)(c) Prove 3 !n that if ! |a n | converges (d) and (bnn4 +3) is a bounded sequence,
14.6 is (a) ! Prove nthat |an | converges
nifconverges.
!∞
then an bthe Hint )andTheorem
:(fUse (born )else is1 a14.4.
bounded bothsequence,
2
finite. cosThen series both converge they diverge.
(e) n2! n=2 log n
Prove thenthis. an b:nThis
Hint converges.is almost Hint : Use Theorem
obvious from Theorem14.4. 14.4.
(b)
14.2 16 Repeat Observe Exercise that14.1 Corollary
for the14.7 is a special case of part (a).
following.
! ! ! !
14.10 (b)
Find
(a) athatObserve series
n−1 that Corollary
an which diverges 14.7 is bya special
the Rootcase
n of part
Test but (a).
for which
14.7 Prove n2 if!!an is a convergent (b) series (−1)
of nonnegative numbers and
the !
Ratio 3n Test gives
p no information. !
Compare n 3 Example 8.
14.7 p(c)
Prove
> 1, then that
n 3 if! np a a n is a
converges. convergent series
(d) of n nonnegative numbers and
p > ! 1, then ! a converges. ! ! 31 of Real Numbers
14.11 17 Let (a
(e) !nthat
14.8 Show
n2be a sequence
)
if !
§16. n * Decimal
of nonzero Expansions
real
(f ) numbers such that
! of nonnegativethe sequence 109
an+1 n!
((g) n ratios !ais√ n and !bn are convergent nn series
√ an is a geometric
an ) that
14.8 numbers,
Show of
2 then
n if a a and
constant
nan bn converges. b n
sequence.
are convergent Show series
Hint : Show √an bn ≤ an + bn for of nonnegative
series. !√
14.3 all numbers,
n. Exercise
Repeat then 14.1anfor bn theconverges.
following. Hint : Show an bn ≤ an + bn for
To all ! 1the last claim, note that s!
check
n. 2k2+cos ≤|asn| ≤ s2k+1 , so both
14.12 Let (a) (a n√ )n∈N be a sequence such that (b)
!∞ lim inf n = 0. Prove there is
s14.9 The
−s convergence
and
! s−s
n! are of clearly
a seriesbounded does not depend
by ! s 3non any finite number of
−s 2k = a2k+1 ≤ a2k .
14.9 18
2k+1 a subsequence 1 2k (ank )k∈N such that a(2k+1
1 k nconverges.
Theterms,
(c)
the convergence though of
of acourse
seriesthe doesvaluenot
(d)of depend
k=1 the n ) (50
limit + n2 finite
on does.
any )Morenumber precisely, of
So, whether ! 2n is even or odd, we have |s!
n +n
! ! − (100)
sn | ≤
2
n an .
Wethe
14.13 consider
(e) terms,
have series
seenthough
nπ
sin( 9 ) ! n that a of itcourse
and is often
!n bthe avalue
and lot
(f ) of
suppose the
harder limit
theto setdoes.
find {n ∈
the N
More :
valueaprecisely,
n ̸
= of b n}
an
n!
192 4. Sequences
consider
infinite sum series and
than aSeries
ton and
show of
it Functions
b and
exists.
n suppose
Here are thesome set {n
sums ∈ N :
that a ncan ̸
= b n}
be
14.4 handled.
Repeat Exercise 14.1 for the following.
!∞
(a) n=2 [n+(−1)
§16.
1
* Decimal Expansions !√ of
[ n + 1 − n]
Real √ Numbers 109
Exercises ! !n ]2
∞ 2 n
!(b) ∞ 2 n
functions. (c)(a) This
Calculate
n!
nn is because
n=1 ( 3 ) and n=1 (− 3 ) .
15.1To Determine ! which ! ∞ of the 1 ! following series converge. !nJustify1 your
19214.5 4. (b)
check
Sequences Prove
the
n a last and claim,
Series
n(n+1)of note= 1.B
that
Functions Hint s:2kNote ≤and sthat≤ are
∞ s2k+1 k=1, k(k+1)
so both =
Suppose
answers. ! ! nn 1 k 1 n = A
n=1 and b n = where A !B real numbers.
s2k+1 Use−s lim !
and s−s are clearly bounded by! s n −s = ak ≤ a
limit a
theorems [ x− ].
converges
from §9 to quickly uniformly to a x 2k .
(a)n→∞ (−1)
n
k=1 2kk
k k+1 (b) prove 2k+1
(−1)
2n
then! following.
2k k 2k+1
So, whether! nk=0 is even ! ∞ orn−1 odd, we have |s − sn | ≤ k=0 ank. k+1
15.2 Repeat (c) Prove
(a) (an + bn=1
Exercise ) =2n+1
15.1
n A +=
for theB.12 .following.
Hint : Note 2k−1 k+1 = 2k − 2k+1 .
functions. !This is because !
on sets(a) [−R1[sin( ,! R1 ]nπsuch n that R1 ! <∞ R. The definition nof uniform con-
(d)
(b) Use nka(c) 6n )] =tokA for k ∈ R.n=1 2(b)
calculate n
n.
[sin( nπ 7 )]∞
vergence is given ! !
limto
! !∞ ! in1 x the
1k
next section, and the next two ! sections
k will
thisaa converges uniformly
15.3 Show ∞ converges if only to
and conjecture? ifthep> 1. ak x∞
be 19
Exercises
14.14 Prove
devoted (c)
n→∞ Isn=2
n=1
kbdiverges
=p AB
nnimportant
n(log n n) by comparing
a notion.
reasonable Wewith return series
toDiscuss.
power n=2 an where
series in
§26,
15.4and(anagain
) is the
Determine k=0sequence
in §31.
which ! of the following series k=0
converge. Justify your
14.6 (a) Prove!that
15.1 Determine which if of|athe n | converges
followingand (bn ) converge.
series is a bounded Justifysequence, your
on setsanswers.
[−R 1then
!
answers. 1 1, R11 ] 1a such 1
b 1 that1
converges. 1R 1 1
< 1
R.
Hint The
: 1
Use ! 1 1
definition
Theorem 1 1
of
14.4. 1
uniform 1 con-
(
(a)is2! , ∞ , , ,
n n, , , , , , , ∞, ,
log n , , , , . . .).
16 !
1
vergence (a) ! 4(−1)
given
n=2 4√nin 8 log8the n 8 next8 16section, 16 16 (b) and 16
then=2 16
(−1) nextn
16
n! two 16 sections
32 32 will
that1Corollary 14.7 is(b)
n n
(b) Observe
∞ n !∞ 2nlog
a special case n of part (a).
be devoted(c) to this
n=4 n(log important
!n)(log notion. (d)
We return 2to power series in
15.2 Repeat Exercise 15.1logfor n)
the following.!n=2 n
Exercises
14.7
§26,
15.5and
Prove !
(a)again
that innπ if§31.
! a n is a convergent
)]nuse the Comparison
series of nonnegative
nπ n numbers and
20
Why
p > 1, !
didn’t
[sin( we
then 6 apn converges.
(b)Test[sin( to prove 7 )]
Theorem 15.1 for
§15
23.1 p >Alternating
15.3 ForShow
1? ∞
each of the! following
n=2ifn(logan)p and
1 Series
power
!
converges series,
if andand onlyIntegral
find the
if p! > 1. of Tests
radius convergence
! 2
14.8 andShowdetermine
15.6 (a) "
that
Give2 an the
example nexact b
interval
! √ of a divergent"series n are of convergent
convergence.
x
series
√
an for which
of nonnegative
an
15.4 UNIT-III
numbers,
Determine
(a) n xthen n which of an bthe n converges.
following (b)Hint (:nShow
series n
) converge. an b n ≤ an + bnyour
Justify for
Sometimes converges.
" one can check convergence"orn3divergence of series by
Exercises all
(c) n.
answers.
21 !(the 2n
nn2 )x
n
! with familiar (d) !(integrals. n
3n )xlog n We illustrate.
comparing
(b) "
(a) Observe
∞ partial
√nthat 1 if sums a n is a convergent(b) "∞ series of nonnegative terms,
of!
2 1
23.1 (e)
14.9 For
Theeach ! (n=2
convergence )xthe n log nof a series
2 following power does (f ) depend
not
series, !(∞
find n=2 on
the14.7. n any
radius
2 n )xnfinite number of
of convergence
"then ∞n! a also1 converges. See Exercise "
(n+1) log2n
(c) terms,
the 3 though
n
ofexact
course (d)of the n
!the value limit 2 does. More precisely,
n (−1)
and determine
1(n=4 n the log n)interval of
(h)convergence. n=2
n!
n Exercises ! 2
Example (g)
(c)
"
consider
(a) !
Give n
n·4
an
n(log
n )x !
n example
2series
n)(log
a
1 x we usenthe Comparison and of a bconvergent
n and (b)
"( xn2 ·4
suppose series
( ) n
the
n)x
seta n{n for
∈ Nwhich
: a n ̸
=
199 ann}
bfor
15.5
We Why
show " didn’t Test to prove Theorem 15.1
23.2 Repeat diverges.2nn =n+∞.
Exercise 23.1 for the following: " nn3 n
p >"
(c)
Consider 1?(√2 )xn picture of the function (d) "( 31n )x= 1
(a) " 2nnthe nx n n n 1 (b) "f n(x) √ xn x in Fig. 15.1.
n 1! n
!For
! an2
15.7
The (a)
(e)
reciprocal
≥ 1(c)
n15.6 it is
(a) "Prove
Give (
evident )x
of if (a
( n )
thatis
) a isdecreasing
(1+ ) n , sequence
(f
the ) "
nth ( of
term real ofnumbers
)x
a sequence and if
which
n! an n+1 example of an divergent series n 2 2 an for which
n
a
" xn!
converges, n then lim na = 0. (d)
Hint "
: √3(n+1)
Consider x 2n+1
n
|a +a +· · ·+n
has " limit
n(g) e. This
converges.
( n·4 3
n )x was n mentioned,
(h) ( (−1)
n but not proved, n
2
n ·4 n in
)x nExample
N +1 N +2 3 of §7;
1 an | for suitable ! N. n n
a23.3
proof Findis given
= the Sum in of
exact Theorem
interval
the areas 37.11.
of Therefore
convergence
of the first for
n we
the have
rectangles series lim(
in n+1 )15.1
in Example
Fig. =6.1e .
23.2 22
(b)
Repeat
k
(b) "
Observe Exercise
! that if
23.1 a
for n is
the a convergent
following: "
! series
1 of nonnegative terms,
n √(a)nto
Use 2 give
a2,2n3, another proof that 1n diverges.
nlim fn ( n ) = +∞;
Since k=1lim[nn+1
23.4 (a)
For = ]0,
then =1,+∞,
nx . .we
also conclude
., converges.
let an = [ 4+2(−1) from
See (b) (1)]nn.that
Exercise
n
√ 14.7.
nx n+1
15.8Exercise
see "
Formulate n! and prove a ofgeneral
5 "
integral test
3n as !advised in
∈which15.2. ! =2
(c)
(c) Give x12.9(a). an example In particular,
1/n
a convergentlim sup{|f
(d) series
√
n
x (x)|
n2n+1 a n
a
: x
for [0, 1]} an
+∞, so (a)(fFind n ) does
diverges. lim not sup(a n)
converge , lim inf(an )1/nto
uniformly , lim 0 on sup[0, | a1].
n+1
n
| and lim inf
23.3 Find| athe an |.
n+1
exact interval of convergence for the series in Example!6.
15.7 (a) Prove if (an ) is"a decreasing sequence
"4+2(−1) n
of real numbers and if an
n : Consider
n |aN
23.4 (b)
For nDo converges,
= the 0, 1,series 2, 3,then. . .,lim n na
alet ann==[ 0.
and (−1)Hint a ] converge?
. +1 +aNbriefly.
Explain +2 +· · ·+
§16 *anDecimal | for suitable N Expansions
.
5
"
n
of Real Numbers
Exercises23
(c) Now
(a) Find consider lim sup(athe n)
power
1/n
, limseriesinf(an )1/n an!,xlim
n
1
with
sup the
| an+1
an
coefficients
| and lim an
inf
We (b) as Use
an+1 (a)
above. to Find
give another
the radius proof of that
convergence nofdiverges. and determine the
24.1begin
Let | fby ann(x) |.recalling
= 1+2the cos2 nx
√
n
brief
. discussion
Prove carefully decimals
that (fn ) inconverges
Discus-
15.8
sion 10.3. exact
Formulate There we interval
and prove of convergence
a general for
integral the testseries. as advised
expansion K.d1 d2 d3 · · ·, in 15.2.
uniformly
(b) Do thetoseries 0 onconsidered
"R.a and "a(−1) decimal
n
an converge? Explain briefly.
n " n
23.5 Consider a power series a x with " radius of convergence R.
24.2 For x ∈ [0, ∞), let fn (x) = nnx .
(c) Now consider the power series an xn with the coefficients an
(a)
(a) Prove
as
Find above. fthat
(x)Find if all
= limthethe
fn (x).coefficients
radius of convergence an are integers andand if infinitely
determine the
§16 *many exactDecimal of them of
interval are Expansions
nonzero, then
convergence for R the≤ ofseries.
1. Real Numbers
(b) Determine whether" fn → f uniformly on [0, 1]. Page 19
23.5 (b)
Consider Provea that power if lim
series sup |aan | x>n 0,with thenradiusR ≤ 1. of convergence R.
n
We begin by recalling
(c) Determine whether the fbrief n → fdiscussion
uniformly of on [0, decimals
∞). in Discus-
 24.8 Repeat
Exercises
25.2 Let Exercise
fn (x) = 24.6 x for fn (x) = k=0 x .
n . Show (fn ) is uniformly convergent on [−1, 1] and
25.1 specify
Derive the Discussions
limit 25.1(b) from 25.1(a). Hint : Apply (a) twice, once
24.9 25.1
Consider Derive fnDiscussions
(x) = nxnfunction. − x) for
(125.1(b) from x ∈25.1(a).[0, 1]. Hint : Apply (a) twice, once
to g and |g| and once to −|g| and g.
n+cos x
25.3
(a) Let to
Find gfand
nf(x)(x)|g| ==and lim once
xn fn2(x).
to −|g|
for all real andnumbers g. x.
25.2 Let fn (x) =2n+sin n
n
. Show x
(fn ) is uniformly convergent on [−1, 1] and
x
25.2
(b) (a) Let fShow
specify
Does nf(x)
nthe→(f =flimit . Show
n )uniformly
n converges
function. (fon )[0,is 1]?
nuniformly uniformly on R.convergent
Justify. Hint : First Exercises [−1, 1]207
ondecide and
what
specify the" 1thelimit limit
function function. is; then " show
1 (f n ) converges Exercises
uniformly 207
to it.
25.3
(c) Does Let fn (x) f= (x)n+cosdx converge x
2 x for all toreal fnumbers
(x) dx? Justify. x.
24
25.3 (b) Let fCalculate
0 n 2n+sin n+cos x !
for7all
0
n (x) = 2n+sin limn→∞ fn (x)realdx. numbers
Hint : Don’t x. Exercises
integrate fn . 279
Exercises
24.10 (a) Prove (a) Show that(fifn )fnconverges
2
→x f 2uniformly uniformly onon a R. set Hint S, and : First n → gwhat
if gdecide
Exercises (a)
25.4 Derive
Let (fShow
uniformlythe beon
) limit (fanS, )function
converges
then fnis;
sequence of+uniformly
gn →show
then
functions f +on R.
g nuniformly
(f
on Hint
)a converges
set S : ⊆First
onR, S. decide
uniformly what
to it.
25.1 nDiscussions 25.1(b) from 25.1(a). Hint : Apply (a)and suppose
twice, once
25.1 to fDerive→ the
n g and f limit
uniformly
Discussions
function on25.1(b)S. is;! then
Prove
7 from (f show )
25.1(a).
n g. is (f )
uniformly
n converges Cauchy uniformly
Hint : Apply (a) twice, once on S. to it.:
Hint
|g| andlim once to −|g| and
Proof 25
Use
to
(b) Calculate
the proof
|g| and of n→∞ ! 2 fn (x) dx. Hint : Don’t integrate fn .
Lemma 10.9
to 7−|g| on page 63 as a model, but be careful.
Let
25.2 ϵ Let > g0.
(b) and
Calculate
f(f There = axnis
nlim
.a
once
n→∞ δ > fn (x)
(f20n )so
and
is that
dx.g.Hint if S :convergent
Don’t
is integrate sum
a Riemann f . with
[−1,nsuppose
25.4 Let n (x)n ) be Show
nsequence of
uniformly
functions on a set S ⊆ R, onand 1] and
25.5
25.2 Let
corresponding
Let (f
f )
n(x) be = a sequence
partition
x
. Show P of
, and
(f bounded
) if
is mesh(P
uniformly functions ) < on
δ,
convergent a
then set S,on and
[−1, suppose
specify
25.4 Let fn → n the
(fnf )uniformly limit
be ansequence function.
on S. of n
Prove functions ) ison a set S Cauchy ⊆ R, and S.1]Hint
on suppose and:
n → f the
fspecify uniformly
limit on
function. S.! Prove " f(fnis !
uniformly
a bounded function on S.
25.3 26
Let n →the
fUse fnf(x) uniformly
proof
= 2n+sin of Lemma
n+cos
"
on
x S. ! Prove10.9 on
2 x for all real numbers
b(fnpage !) is"uniformly
63 as x. a model, Cauchy butonbeS.careful.Hint :
25.6 Use
(a) the
Show proofthat of if
n+cos Lemmax |ak!|S< −
10.9 ∞, onthen f ! < ϵ.
page 63
a as
x k a model, but be careful.
converges uniformly on
25.3
25.5 Let Let f(f n (x) = sequence
n ) be a2n+sin
2 x for !of all boundedreal numbers ! functions k x. on a set S, and suppose
(a) Show [−1, 1](fton )aconverges
continuousuniformly a
function. on R. Hint : First decide what
25.5 (a) fn →
Let (f nf) uniformly
be(fa sequence on S. of Prove
bounded f isfunctions
aonbounded on afunction
: set S, decide
and
on suppose
S. what
Choose Show
the "∞
limit )mesh(P
converges
nfunction is; < uniformly
then show (fnN)R. Hint
.converges Firstuniformly to it.
(b)fn N →Doesso
the f that
uniformly
limit function
n=1
1"
2 onx n S. n ) Prove
represent
is; then
δ for f
show a ncontinuous
is a>"
(fbounded
)
Then
converges
k
function
function onon
uniformly S.
[−1, 1]?it.
to
25.6 (a) Show that! if " |a n !
" kb|7<f!n∞, then " ak x converges uniformly on
n
(b) "∞ 1!limn→∞
Calculate !|27<!∞, (x) dx. Hint : Don’t
k integrate f n .
25.6 Show
25.7 (a) Show [−1,n=1 1]thatton2!aifcoscontinuous
nx |akconverges function.
then uniformly a x converges
on R to auniformly
continuous on
− 2ff!!nfunction.
k
(b) Calculate !lim (x)ϵ dx.for Hintn: Don’t > N. integrate fn .
25.4 Letfunction.
(f[−1, 1]" to aScontinuous
n ) be a∞sequence
nn→∞
1 n a of functions
<
on a set function S ⊆ R, and suppose
25.4 27
(b) Does " n=1 n2 x represent a continuous on [−1, 1]?
Let
f(b) (f
n →Does fn"") be
uniformly a sequence
x 1on of functions
nS. Prove (fn ) is uniformly on a set S ⊆
Cauchy R, and
on suppose
S. Hint
1]? :
∞ ∞ n
#
25.8 Show ∞ n=1 12 2nn2on xhasrepresent radius of a continuous
convergence bfunction
2 andonthe [−1,series
Since
25.7 UsefϵShow
n> 0f"
→the isuniformly
arbitrary,
n=1
proof
n=1
nof
n 2 cos
Lemma nxthis shows
S. converges
Prove
10.9 on (fpage lim
n Sn as
)uniformly
isn uniformly
63 = a on model,
a .R tobuta on
fCauchy be S. Hint :
continuous
careful.
converges∞uniformly to a continuous function on [−2, 2].
25.7 Use the proof
function.
Show 1of Lemma
n=1 n2 cos nx converges uniformly
10.9 on page 63 as aon model, R tobut be careful.
a continuous
25.5 Let (f n" ) be a sequence of bounded functions "∞ on n a set S, and suppose
25.9 28
32.11 function.
(a) Let 0∞< a x< 1. Show the series n=0 x converges uniformly
Remark. n
25.5
25.8 fLet Show
n → (ffn )uniformly
be a sequence
n2n2n on 1has S.ofProve bounded
radius f of isfunctions
aconvergence
bounded on function
a set 2 S, andandonthe suppose
S. series
on "[−a, n=1
∞ a] xto . use the following simple observation. If
I 25.8
recentlyfShow
n →
convergeshad
f occasion
uniformly
uniformly
n=1 nand 2 2n " on
1−x has toS.
to aProve
continuous
radius f ofis a bounded
function
convergence
" function
on 2[−2,and 2].on theS. series
208
one
4.
25.6ignores
(a)
(b)
Sequences
Show
converges
Does thethe that
endseries
uniformly ""
Series
ifintervals |a of
tok∞|a<continuous
of
x
∞, Functions
nthe then
converge "
partitions, "ak xk converges
∞ k the
function on “almost
[−2, uniformly
2]. Riemann 1 on
25.9 (a)
25.6 (a) [−1,Let 1]
Show 0 that
<
to aaif< 1.|aShow
continuous n=0
k | < ∞, the then
function. series uniformlyakn=0 x converges on
xn converges (−1, 1)uniformly
uniformlyto 1−x on?
sums”29 so Explain.
obtained still converge
1 to the "∞
integral; n see [59]. This arose
25.9 (a) [−1, on [−a,
Let 01]" <to a]ato
∞a <1 1.
continuous
1−x .
Show function.
the series n=0 x converges uniformly
because (b)the Does !"
intervals∞n=1 n had2x 1n the representform [a, b], but thefunction
a continuous partition onpoints
[−1, 1]?had
25.12
25.10 (b)Suppose
(a)
(b)
on
kShow
Does
Does
[−a, "
k=1
the
a] to
∞ gkn1is
x
series
n
1−x " .
an series
converges
x ∞
represent x
of
n forcontinuous
a
convergexcontinuous 1).functions
∈ [0,uniformly function on
gExercises
k on [a, b] that
(−1,on [−1,
1) to 1]?
289
1
the form "
. Thus thenpartition points were nice and equally 1−x ?
spaced,
1+x
n=1 2
∞uniformly " n=0
25.7 converges
ShownExplain. "n=1
1
cos nx to ∞ g on
converges [a, b]. Prove
uniformly on R to a continuous 1
except Does
for Show
the the
end n1series
2
ones. xn converge uniformlyonon[0,(−1, 1) to ?
25.7 (b) Show
function.
∞ that the series
2 cos"nx
n=0 converges
b converges# "uniformly
uniformly on R toExercises a]
a for each
continuous 1−xa,

generality
25.10 function.
Explain.
0
(a) Show <
it"does
n=1
a <" n
1.not x n
follow g(x)immediately
converges dx =
∞
for x ∈ [0,gfrom
b
1). the Dominated Con-
289
∞" 1+x xnn n k (x) dx.
25.8 ShowTheorem,
vergence " 2x2
because has
a radius
in that of convergence
setting a integrable 2 and the series
functions need
∈
25.8 30
25.10 (a)
(c) Show n=1 n n
converges for x
k=1 [0, 1).
(b) Does the series
x n converge uniformly on [0, 1)? Explain.
∞ n
Show
converges Show ! that 1+x
uniformly
n=1 n 22 the
n hasseries
to a radiusconverges
continuous of convergence
!∞ proof of the Monotone Convergence uniformly
function on on2
[−2, and
[0, a]
2]. the
for series
each a,
not be
generality
25.13 bounded.
Suppose
converges 0it<does
∞An
auniformlynotgktheelementary
follow
and to ak=1 immediately
hk converge
continuous from
functionuniformly the
onon[−2, Dominated
on a set S. Show Con-
Exercises
25.11 ! (b)
(a) ∞
Show
Sketch <the
that
k=1 1. functions series gconverges
0 , g1 , g2 and
"∞
uniformly
g3functions,
in nExample [0, 2].
a] 3.for each a,
Theorem
25.9 (a)k=1
vergence is<proved
Let
0(g
Theorem, k0 a+< <hk1. a) < for 1.Riemann
converges
because Show in the integrable
uniformly
that seriessetting on" S.
n=0 x converges
integrable without
functionsuniformlyresort
need
∞
25.9
to (a)
Lebesgue
(b) (c) on Let
Does
Prove 0 the
[−a, <
theory,thea]a! <by
series
to
function1.1Brian
Show
converge
. f inS. the series 3 n=0
uniformly
Thomson
Example ison
[67]. x n
[0, converges
1)?
continuous. Explain. uniformly
not
32.1 be
Find bounded.
the upper An elementary
and1−x lower proof
Darboux ofintegrals
the Monotonefor
setfExplain.
(x)and = xif3 honis the
Convergence
25.14 UNIT-IV
Prove
(c)
interval
on
Does that
[−a,
[0, theif
a] series
b].theHint
g
to 1−x 1 converges
k converge
"
:Riemann
.
Exercise ! uniformly
uniformly on on [0, a1)? S
in §1without
a
Theorem
25.11 (b)
bounded is
(a) Does proved
Sketch function forfunctions
on S,∞ g0
then n,1.3g1 ,hg and
integrableg2k and Example
convergesgfunctions, 1uniformly
3 in Example will
3.1)
onbeS.useful.
resort
1
31 the series "n=0 x converge uniformly on (−1, to 1−x ?
∞ n, gThomson 1
to
25.11Lebesgue
32.2 Let(b)(a) Sketch
Does
Explain. theory,
the the series by
functions Brian gx S.
0 ,
converge
1 g 2 and g [67].
uniformly
3 in Example on (−1, 3. 1) to 1−x ?
25.15 Let (b)f(fProve
(x) = xthe forfunction
rational n=0 fxinand
n ) be a sequence of continuous functions on [a, b].
Example f (x) =30isforcontinuous. irrational x.
Explain. " xn
Exercises
25.10 (b) Show
(a)
(a)
Prove "
Calculate
the function
the
f in Example 3 is continuous.
n converges for x ∈ [0, 1).
Suppose 1+x xn upper
that, for each andx lower in x[a, Darboux integrals for f on se- the
25.10 (a) Show n converges for ∈ b], (fn (x))
[0, 1). is a decreasing
33.1 (b) interval
CompleteShow the
quence that[0,1+x b].
of proof
real
the series of Theorem
numbers. convergesProve 33.1uniformly
by showing
that if fn on →[0, that
0 a] afordecreasing
pointwise each on a,
280 (b)
Exercises 6. Integration
function[a,
0Show< b],aon then
that
< [a,
1. b] nis→
fthe integrable.
0 uniformly
series converges on [a, b]. Hint :on
uniformly If [0,
not, a] there
for each exists a,
(b) Is f integrable on [0, b]?
ϵ0 > < 0a and < 1.a sequence (xn ) in [a, b] such that fn (xn ) ≥ ϵ for all
33.1
33.2 (c) Complete
ThisDoes exercise the series
proof converge
could of Theorem
have appeared 33.1 just byon asshowing
easily that
in §4.aLet decreasing
S be a
32.3 32 n. Obtain the a contradiction. uniformly [0, 1)? Explain.
Repeat
function
nonempty Exercise
on [a,
bounded b] 32.2
is for of
integrable.
subset g R. where For g(x) c=
fixed > x2letforcSrational
0, = {cs : sx∈and S}.
32.6 (c) Let fDoes be athe series converge
bounded function uniformly on [a, b]. Suppose on [0, 1)? thereExplain.exist sequences
g(x)
25.11 (b)(a)
Show =
Sketch 0 for
sup(cS) irrational
the = functions
c · sup(S) x. g ,
and g , g
inf(cS) and =g c in
· Example
inf(S). 3.
33.2 This (U )Supposeand (Lnthat,
exercise ) of upper for each 0 x 1in
and lower [a,
2 b], (f3n (x)) sums
Darboux is an for increasing
in §4.3.fLet such se-
that
25.11 (a)n quence
Sketch thecould
of realfunctions have gappeared
numbers. 0 ,Prove
g1 , g2that just
and gas
if 3fn ineasily
!Example
→ b f pointwise on
S be
[a,
a
b] .
32.4 Supply
33.3 (b) lim(U
nonempty
A Prove
function − Lbounded
n the finduction
n )on
the = 0. b]
function
[a, Show isargument
subset f fin
called R.
ofisExample needed
aintegrable
For
step fixed 3 in
function c the
isand >if0,aproof
continuous.let
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f =cSexists
lim=Lemma
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partition L
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(b) and if fthe is function
continuous onExample
[a, b], then → f uniformly on [a, b].
fncontinuous.
P = Prove
Show {a sup(cS)
= u0 < = uc1· sup(S)< · · f· < inand = b} of3=
cm inf(cS) is
[a, cb]· inf(S).
such that f is constant
32.7 33
32.5 Use This
Exercise isintegrable
Dini’s
4.8 totheorem. prove Theorem
on each interval (uj−1 , uj ), say f (x) = cj forgxisina(ufunction
Let f be on [a, b], and 32.4.
suppose Specify the sets S and on T[a,inb]
j−1 , uj ).
33.3 thisAsuchfunction
case.
that g(x) f on = [a,fb](x) is called
excepta for stepfinitelyfunction many if there x inexists [a, b].aShowpartition g is
P = {a = u < !ub < ·!· ·b < c = b} of [a, b] such that f is !constant b
integrable
(a) Show that and aastep
0 1f = function a g. Hint:
m f isFirst reduce and
integrable to the case where
evaluate a
f . f is
on
theeach
function interval (uj−1 , uequal
identically j ), saytof (x) 0. = cj for x in (uj−1 , uj ).
!4
(b) Evaluate the integral 0 P (x) dx for the postage-stamp !function
§26 Differentiation and Integration of Power
32.8 (a) ShowShowP that that
if f aisstep
in Exercise functiononf [a,
integrable
17.16. is integrable
b], then f and evaluate on
is integrable
b
f.
a every
interval [c, d] ⊆ [a, b]. !
Series
33.4 (b) GiveEvaluate
an example the integral
of a function
4
0 P (x) f on dx for [0, 1] thethat postage-stamp
is not integrable function for
34 which P in
|f | Exercise
is integrable. 17.16. Hint : Modify Example 2 in §32.
The following ! result was mentioned §23
33.4
33.5 GiveShow an | −2π
2π
example x2 sin8of(exa) function dx| ≤ 16π f3inon [0,after
1] that Example
is not integrable8. for
3 .
which |f | is integrable. Hint : Modify Example 2 in §32.
26.1 !35
33.6Theorem.
§33 Prove (2) ! 2πin the
Properties 2
proof of Theorem3 33.5. Hint : For x0 , y0 ∈ S, we have
8 x of the 16πRiemann Integral
Let33.5 ∞ Show
|f (x a
0 )| | x−n |f
−2π be(yx a
0 sin
)| ≤ (e
power |f (x ) dx|0) −
series ≤f (y 30 )|. ≤radius
with M (f, S) of −convergence
m(f, S). R>0
n=0 n
[possibly
33.6 LetR
Prove
33.7this
In f= (2)+∞].
be
section theIf
ainbounded
we 0<
proof R1Theorem
of
function
establish < R,
on [a,
some then
33.5.the
b], so
basic Hintpower
that series
: there
For x
properties ∈converges
, y0the
0exists
of BS,Riemann
>we0 have
such
uniformly|f (x
that on
0 )|
|f −[−R
|f
(x)| (y
≤1 ,
B
0 R
)| ≤]
for
1 to
|f
alla
(xx continuous
)∈− f
[a,(y
b]. )| ≤
integral and we show many familiar functions, including piece-
0 0 function.
M (f, S) − m(f, S).
wise
Proof continuous
33.7 Let
(a) fShow and piecewise
be a bounded function on monotonic functions,
[a, b], so that areBRiemann
there exists > 0 such
integrable.
Considerthat0|f<(x)|
R ≤
1! B
< for
R. all
A x ∈ [a,
glance b].
at Theorem 23.1
Page 20
shows the se-
! U (f 2 , P n) − L(f 2 , P ) ≤ 2B[U (f, P ) − L(f, P )]
A
ries (a) function
n
an xShowand is monotonic on an interval if it is
|an |x have the same radius of convergence, either increasing
 0
which |f | is integrable. Hint : Modify Example 2 in §32.
g −1 ◦Gg(x)
SinceShow = x for x inonI,Rwe
is differentiable and obtain
compute G′ .
! 2π 8 x 3
33.5 Show | −2π x2!sing(b) (e ) dx| ≤ 16π3 . ! "b 1 √
2
34.7 Use change of variables −1to integrate 0 x ′ 1 − x dx.
33.6 Prove (2) in the proofg of (u) du = 33.5.xg
Theorem (x): dx.
Hint For x0 , y0 ∈ S, we have
34.8 |f
(a) g(a) a
(x0Use
)| −integration
|f (y0 )| ≤ |fby
(x0parts to evaluate
) − f (y 0 )| ≤ M (f, S) − m(f, S).
Now integrate by parts with u(x) ! = x and v(x) = g(x):
33.7 Let f be a bounded function on1 [a, b], so that there exists B > 0 such
! g(b) x arctan x dx. ! b
that |f (x)| ≤−1B for all x ∈ [a,0b].
g (u) du = b · g(b) − a · g(a) − g(x) dx.
(a) Show g(a)
Hint : Let u(x) = arctan x, so that u′ (x) = 1+x
a 1
2.

This is formula (1). U (f 2 , P ) − L(f2

2
, P ) ≤ 2B[U (f, P ) − L(f, P )]
(b) If you used v(x) = x2 in part (a), do the computation again
2
for
withallv(x)
partitions
= x 2+1P. of
2
[a, b].
This Hint : f (x)
interesting − f (y)is2 =
example [f (x)from
taken J.L.·
+ f (y)]
[f (x) − f
Borman [10]. (y)].
Exercises
(b) Show that if f is integrable " 1/2 on [a, b], then
π f√2 also is integrable
34.9 Use Example 3 to show 0 arcsin x dx = 12 + 23 − 1.
on [a, b]. 34.3 to prove Theorem 34.1 for the case g ′ is continuous.
34.1 Use Theorem
34.10 Let "x ′
Hint : be
36
g Leta Fstrictly
(x) = increasing continuous
′
a g ; then F = g . Apply
′ function mapping
" 1 Corollary
[0, 1] onto
" 1 29.5.
[0, 1]. Give a geometric argument showing 0 g(x)dx+ 0 g −1 (u)du = 1.
34.2 Calculate " x t2 "
1 3+h t2 " b
(a) limx→0
34.11 Suppose f isx1 a 0continuous
e dt function(b) on lim
[a, b].
h→0 Show
h 3 that e ifdt.a f (x)2 dx
= 0, then f (x) = 0 for all x in [a, b]. Hint : See Theorem 33.4.
34.3 37
Let f be defined as follows: f (t) = 0 for t < 0; f (t) = t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1;
f (t) =that
34.12 Show 4 forif tf >is 1.
a continuous real-valued function on [a, b] satisfying
"b "x
(a)
a
f (x)g(x)
Determine dx = the0function
for every F (x)continuous
= 0 f (t)function
dt. g on [a, b], then
f (x) = 0 for all x in [a, b].
(b) Sketch F . Where is F continuous?
(c) Where is F differentiable? Calculate F ′ at the points of
differentiability.

Page 21
DSC- 1D ALGEBRA BS: 404

Theory: 4 credits and Practicals: 1 credits

Theory: 4 hours /week and Practicals: 2 hours /week

Objective: The course is aimed at exposing the students to learn some basic algebraic
structures like groups, rings etc.

Outcome: On successful completion of the course students will be able to recognize

algebraic structures that arise in matrix algebra, linear algebra and will be able to
apply the skills learnt in understanding various such subjects.

Unit – I

Groups: Definition and Examples of Groups- Elementary Properties of Groups -

Finite Groups; Subgroups -Terminology and Notation -Subgroup Tests - Examples of
Subgroups Cyclic Groups: Properties of Cyclic Groups – Classification of Sub
groups Cyclic Groups-Permutation Groups: Definition and Notation -Cycle Notation -
Properties of Permutations -A Check Digit Scheme Based on D5

Unit – II

Isomorphisms ; Motivation- Definition and Examples -Cayley’s Theorem Properties

of Isomorphisms -Automorphisms-Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem Properties of
Cosets 138 | Lagrange’s Theorem and Consequences-An Application of Cosets to
Permutation Groups -The Rotation Group of a Cube and a Soccer Ball -Normal
Subgroups and Factor Groups ; Normal Subgroups-Factor Groups -Applications of
Factor Groups -Group Homomorphisms - Definition and Examples -Properties of
Homomorphisms -The First Isomorphism Theorem

Unit – III

Introduction to Rings: Motivation and Definition -Examples of Rings -Properties of

Rings -Subrings -Integral Domains : Definition and Examples –Characteristics of a

Page 24
Ring -Ideals and Factor Rings; Ideals -Factor Rings -Prime Ideals and Maximal
Ideals

Unit – IV

Ring Homomorphisms: Definition and Examples-Properties of Ring-

Homomorphisms -The Field of Quotients Polynomial Rings: Notation and
Terminology

Text: Joseph A Gallian, Contemporary Abstract algebra (9th edition)

References: Bhattacharya, P.B Jain, S.K.; and Nagpaul, S.R, Basic Abstract Algebra

Fraleigh, J.B. A First Course in Abstract Algebra.

Herstein, I.N. Topics in Algebra

Robert B. Ash, Basic Abstract Algebra

I Martin Isaacs, Finite Group Theory

Joseph J Rotman, Advanced Modern Algebra

Page 25
 CORE 4.1 Practicals Question Bank
ALGEBRA
Unit-I
1. Show that {1, 2, 3} under multiplication modulo 4 is not a group but that {1, 2, 3, 4} under multi-
plication modulo 5 is a group.

2. Let G be a group with the property that for any x, y, z in the group, xy = zx implies y = z. Prove
that G is Abelian.

3. Prove that the set of all 3 ⇥ 3 matrices with real entries of the form
0 1
1 a b
@0 1 c A
0 0 1

is a group under multiplication.

4. Let G be the group of polynomials under addition with coefficients from Z10 . Find the orders of
f (x) = 7x2 + 5x + 4, g(x) = 4x2 + 8x + 6, and f (x) + g(x)

5. If a is an element of a group G and |a| = 7, show that a is the cube of some element of G.

6. Suppose that hai , hbi and hci are cyclic groups of orders 6, 8, and 20, respectively. Find all generators
of hai , hbi , and hci.

7. How many subgroups does Z20 have? List a generator for each of these subgroups.

8. Consider the set {4, 8, 12, 16}. Show that this set is a group under multiplication modulo 20 by
constructing its Cayley table. What is the identity element? Is the group cyclic? If so, find all of
its generators.

9. Prove that a group of order 4 cannot have a subgroup of order 3.

10. Determine whether the following permutations are even or odd.

a. (135)
b. (1356)
c. (13567)
d. (12)(134)(152)
e. (1243)(3521).

Unit-II

1. Show that the mapping a ! log10 a is an isomorphism from R+ under multiplication to R under
addition.

2. Show that the mapping f (a + bi) = a bi is an automorphism of the group of complex numbers
under addition.

3. Find all of the left cosets of {1, 11} in U (30).

Page 26
 4. Let C ⇤ be the group of nonzero complex numbers under multiplication and let H = {a + bi 2
C ⇤ /a2 + b2 = 1}. Give a geometric description of the coset (3 + 4i)H. Give a geometric description
of the coset (c + di)H.
⇢✓ ◆
a b
5. Let H = /a, b, d 2 R, ad 6= 0 . Is H a normal subgroup of GL(2, R)?
0 d
Z60
6. What is the order of the factor group h5i
?

7. Let G = U (16), H = {1, 15}, and K = {1, 9}. Are H and K isomorphic? Are G/H and G/K
isomorphic?

8. Prove that the mapping from R under addition to GL(2, R) that takes x to

cosx sinx
sinx cosx

is a group homomorphism. What is the kernel of the homomorphism?

9. Suppose that f is a homomorphism from Z30 to Z30 and Kerf = {0, 10, 20}. If f (23) = 9,
determine all elements that map to 9.

10. How many Abelian groups (up to isomorphism) are there

a. of order 6?
b. of order 15?
c. of order 42?
d. of order pq, where p and q are distinct primes?
e. of order pqr, where p, q, and r are distinct primes?

Unit-III
⇢✓ ◆
a a
1. Let M2 (Z) be the ring of all 2 ⇥ 2 matrices over the integers and let R = /a, b 2 Z
b b
Prove or disprove that R is a subring of M2 (Z).

2. Suppose that a and b belong to a commutative ring R with unity. If a is a unit of R and b2 = 0,
show that a + b is a unit of R.

3. Let n be an integer greater than 1. In a ring in which xn = x for all x, show that ab = 0 implies
ba = 0.

4. List all zero-divisors in Z20 . Can you see a relationship between the zero-divisors of Z20 and the
units of Z20 ?

5. Let a belong to a ring R with unity and suppose that an = 0 for some positive integer n. (Such an
element is called nilpotent.) Prove that 1 a has a multiplicative inverse in R.
p p
6. Let d be an integer. Prove that Z[ d] = {a + b d/a, b 2 Z} is an integral domain.

7. Show that Zn has a nonzero nilpotent element if and only if n is divisible by the square of some
prime.
L
8. Find all units, zero-divisors, idempotents, and nilpotent elements in Z3 Z6 .

Page 2
Page 27
 9. Find all maximal ideals in
a. Z8 .
b. Z10 .
c. Z12 .
d. Zn .

10. Show that R[x]/ hx2 + 1i is a field.

Unit-IV

1. Prove that every ring homomorphism f from Zn to itself has the form f (x) = ax, where a2 = a.

2. Prove that a ring homomorphism carries an idempotent to an idempotent.

3. In Z, let A = h2i and B = h8i. Show that the group A/B is isomorphic to the group Z4 but that
the ring A/B is not ring-isomorphic to the ring Z4 .

4. Show that the number 9, 897, 654, 527, 609, 805 is divisible by 99.

5. Show that no integer of the form 111, 111, 111, ..., 111 is prime.

6. Let f (x) = 4x3 + 2x2 + x + 3 and g(x) = 3x4 + 3x3 + 3x2 + x + 4, where f (x), g(x) 2 Z5 [x]. Compute
f (x) + g(x) and f (x).g(x).

7. Let f (x) = 5x4 + 3x3 + 1 and g(x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1 in Z7 [x].Determine the quotient and remainder
upon dividing f (x) by g(x).

8. Let f (x) belong to Zp [x]. Prove that if f (b) = 0, then f (bp ) = 0.

9. Determine which of the polynomials below is (are) irreducible over Q.

a. x5 + 9x4 + 12x2 + 6
b. x4 + x + 1
c. x4 + 3x2 + 3
d. x5 + 5x2 + 1
e. (5/2)x5 + (9/2)x4 + 15x3 + (3/7)x2 + 6x + 3/14.

10. Show that x2 + x + 4 is irreducible over Z11 .

Page 3
Page 28
DSC-1E LINEAR ALGEBRA BS: 503

Theory: 3 credits and Practicals: 1 credits

Theory: 3 hours /week and Practicals: 2 hours /week

Objective: The students are exposed to various concepts like vector spaces , bases ,
dimension, Eigen values etc .

Outcome: After completion this course students appreciate its interdisciplinary nature.

Unit I

Vector Spaces : Vector Spaces and Subspaces -Null Spaces, Column Spaces, and
Linear Transformations -Linearly Independent Sets; Bases -Coordinate Systems -The
Dimension of a Vector Space

Unit II

Rank-Change of Basis - Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors - The Characteristic Equation

Unit III

Diagonalization -Eigenvectors and Linear Transformations -Complex Eigenvalues -

Applications to Differential Equations -Orthogonality and Least Squares : Inner
Product, Length, and Orthogonality -Orthogonal Sets

Text : David C Lay , Linear Algebra and its Applications 4e

References: S Lang, Introduction to Linear Algebra

Gilbert Strang, Linear Algebra and its Applications

Stephen H Friedberg et al, Linear Algebra

Kuldeep Singh, Linear Algebra

Sheldon Axler, Linear Algebra Done Right

Page 32
 1 2 3
show that H is not a subspace ofwith R2 . Exercises 11–16 and 19–21 2 in Section 3 1.3. 2 3
2a " b 4a C 3b
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not through the origin is not closed under vector addition.
Although many vector 17. 6 in3bthis
4 3c " a 5
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. 25. Show then
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and
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9t t . Show that 0
;these n polynomials
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matrices
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n
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uapt linear
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all vectors R whose
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Exercises
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21.
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In some cases, afpolynomials !3 a plane in can be isomorphic to . physics. Show
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5
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11. cannot span
2 0 as , a linear
Explain why the space 21 V, . !8 !1 , P2 of all polynomials is an infinite-of vx1 ,! , vC D 0V. . [Hint: 23. Let Bequation
be the basis as a of P3 consisting of the Hermite polynomi-
!1 5 4. 18. 4 !1 2Let 12 ,B43D
5 !3 2 f1b51 ;, :43 : :combination
;25b1n5g be3a2basis 2 for 3 avvector
23y 3 . 2´ space ExplainThink of als the
polynomials span
in Exercise 21,
“sys-
Pand 2 . Justify .t/your D !1 conclusions.
Cthe 2
C 8t 3polynomi-
26. Let dimensional space.
why1Hthebe an B -coordinate !2vectors!3oftem” of homogeneous equations.]
!3 n-dimensional subspace of an b1 ; : : : ; bn are n-dimensional
the columns
31.
23. Use
Let B coordinate
be the basis vectors of P3let to ptest
consisting whether of the 8tHermite following . Find sets the of
1 18. 4 21 3 D 22
f 3 2
4 g 3 2 3 a. 1 !
coordinate vector of 3t C 5t 2
, !3 p C 5t
relative ! 7t to
2
, B!4. C 5t ! 6t 2
, 1 ! t 2
Let B 5 4 b 5 4
b be 5 a 4
basis 5
for a vector space . Explain polynomials span P . Justify yourD !1 C
conclusions. C
; : : : ; V 2 3
e1!2
12. vector space !61 . ,Show that n D5 V. als in Exercise 21, and
2 let p .t / 8t 8t . Find the
3 "2 32 See why
; : : : ;,en of
2 01the3B-coordinate !3Vthe
2
n " n3 identity matrix.
3 !2
, H!3
in RLet C3tline y!D
b.2 on t 2 , 15t 2 8t !p2t 2
!3 Cto .CC
2
, 2!!6t3t
15tB! . 5t, P
2 4t 2t5t
53vectors 12.of b2d1 ; :ed., :a:basis bn A.
; by are E.the columns coordinate vector of
be Cthe , !3 Cof relative !2 7t ,B !4 ! t 2three
2
4 Introduction 5 4 to0!4 5 4
Functional 5 4
Analysis, 55 5 Find for theTaylor set of andvectors24. a. the basis !3x consisting of the , 1first
02 0 12.
27.
19. e !2
; : S
: : 1
Explain why the space
Let ;be,
e a !6
of finite
the ,n set
" n in Pa, of all polynomials is an infinite-
vector
identity matrix. space V with the property
055 , 4 !3 5David 4 0every 2 5, 4x0are 5
1C. Lay (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1980), pp. 92–93. Other 32. Laguerre 2polynomials
.t2/listed !in Exercise 122, t and 2let
n
6.ofdimensional space.
that in3discussed there,
V has 5 a unique 5 representation as a linear 24. b.
Let 5t
Let pB1C .t/bet D ,the 11! Cbasis8tt 2 ,!p2t 2of
, !3
PD2 tC 4t3t 2C
consisting , p2t 3 .t/
2
,of2D!the 3tCfirst ! 3tthree .
Determine
sets
19. Let polynomials
S the
be dimensions
a finite set in ofa Nul InAtoo.
vector and
Exercises
space ColVA 13with for
andthe the 14,matricesassume that A is
property p row
.t/ D equivalent
5 C 5t ! 2t to 2 B.
. Find the coordinate vector of p relative
0 5 combination !4 of 6elements of S . Show that S is a basis of V . Laguerre
a. Use polynomials
coordinate 2 vectors listed to in 2 Exercise
show that these 22,polynomialsand 2 let
shown in Exercises 13–18. Find bases forANul for Athe and aCol A. 32. to LetB.p1 .t/ D 1 C t ,2 p2 .t/ D t ! 3t , p3 .t/ D 1 C t ! 3t .
" Determinethat every
3 22 fv3
the dimensions x in V hasofa Nul unique A and
3 2d ed.,
Col
representation as matrices linear
2pa..t /Use D 5 C 5t ! 2t 3P . 2Find. the coordinate vector of p relative
2 2 1 3shown in Exercises 13–18.
2 Suppose 2 3 is Analysis, 2 by A. E.spanning 3
2 See form a basis for
20. Introduction
combination
0 1 2!6 to; : Functional
: :
1 of elements of ; v
904 0 !2 g a linearly
S . Show that!2 dependent S is a basis of Taylor
4 !2 !4 and
V.set to 1 B . 0 coordinate 6 5 vectors to show that these polynomials
David C.5Lay a,62vector (New 51York: 4 290John V . Wiley 57
&3Sons, 1980), pp.in 92–93. Other 25. Let S be a subset
b. form a basis for
Consider the basis of anBnD
22
-dimensional
f3p1 ; p2 ; p3 g vector for P2 .space Find qV in , andP2 ,
8.5 4 !2 513.
, 4 ofA
20.
sets
for3polynomials
Suppose
D 6401!1 fv!6 1 ;are
,:space ; v4 g !4
5
: :discussed there, is0 a !2
Show 13.
linearly 7too. Athat 4
each2 w
Ddependent !6 spanning
V!3can 1 5, B D 4
be
set 0
suppose 2 S contains 5 3 5Pfewer .
!1 than n vectors. Explain why S
expressed 46vector00 5in01more 02 than one 1way 5 as a linear !3 wcombination of 25. Let S be a subset of an n -dimensional vector space V , and
3 !1 !1 V!4 . 5 DShow 57 in8 an 2can!3 b.0 Consider 0 0the .Œq!basis 0 2 4B D1than f35p.1 ; pn2 ;vectors.p3 g for P2 . Find q in P2 ,
13. A for
v1D ; :a:6 : ; v . [Hint: space
4 00 4 in 00more00than05one way Let w k v
011 5
7 1 Cthat # # # each
C k 4 4v be V arbitrary be Page 33 cannot span suppose given that S V
contains B Dfewer
!12 Explain why S
expressed as a linear combination of
!B D 4 1 5subspace
f g cannot span V .
v ; : :2 0Let w0D k 0v C # # # C k3v be an arbitrary
vector in V . Use the linear dependence of v 1 ; : : : ; v 4 to 26. Let given that H be an nŒq-dimensional . of an n-dimensional
: ;0v . [Hint: 0
 5. If a 4 ! 7 matrix A has rank 3, find dim Nul A, dim Row A, e. If A and B are row equivalent, then their row spaces are
and rank AT . Many algorithms discussed the same.
in this text are useful for understanding concepts
7 ! 5 matrix
6. Iftoa Exercises A hasinrank 2, find 3.1.dim[Note: andAmaking
Nul , Finding
dim Row simple
A, computations 19.
22. Suppose theby !hand.
3, withHowever,
3 solutions ofcolumns
a homogeneous a1the, a2 ,algorithms
asystem are often
prior 15–18 Section the a. If A is 3 , then of detfive linear
A equals
" - / 0 5 &characteristic
and rank A T
.
polynomial of a 3 ! 3 matrix is not easy to do with unsuitable for large-scale problems
equations
the volume in real
in sixofunknowns life.
the parallelepiped are all multiples determined of by onea1nonzero, a2 , a3 .
ms discussed just row
in operations,
this text are because
useful the variable
for understanding ! is involved.] Rank
concepts determination issolution. b.
a good
det Texample.
Will
D thedet It would
system .
seem easyhave
necessarily to reduce a solution a matrix for
7. Suppose a 4 ! 7 matrix A has four pivot columns. Is A ."1/ A

mple computations 2 3 2 to echelon 3 form and count the
every pivots.
possible But
choice unlessof exact
constants arithmetic
on the 
right isRank
performed
sides of the
4 Aby D0 R hand. However,
A D R ?the algorithms are1 often
4 3
Col "1? Is Nul Explain 3 your 1 answers. c. The multiplicity of a root r of the characteristic equation
4 0 on a matrix whose entriesequations? are specified Explain. exactly, row operations can change the
large-scale problems 4 0 in real 4 "1 5
life.
8. Suppose a 6 ! 8 matrix A has four pivot columns.
9. 10. 5 0 5 What is of A is called the algebraic multiplicity of r as!an eigen-"
rmination is 5. a good example. It would seem 3,easy "2to reduce0 Aa,7dim matrix 20. Suppose a nonhomogeneous  The Characteristic
system of Equation5 7are 
If 1a Nul 4 !0A 7 ?matrix
Is2 ColAA has D Rrank 4 find dim Nul
apparent RowofAa, matrix.
rank e.For A and
If instance,
value of AB. are if the row equivalent,
value of x inthen thesix their linear
matrix
 row Rank equations
spaces 
m and count the2and UNIT-II
dim
pivots.rank ABut T
. 3unless exact arithmetic
? Why
2
or why not?
is performed 3 in eight unknowns has a solution,
the same. with two free variables. Is 5 x
notRank change
1
"1is 3-dimensional, d. A row replacement operation on A does the
hose entries9. are
6. 4
11
If
3the null
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a 7 !
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5 matrix
0 of a 4 ! 6 matrix A
exactly,
5 A hasrow rank operations
2, 4
find dim canis0 not
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!A
2stored what
, 5
dim the
Row "
exactly as 7 itinpossible
3A, 19.
aeigenvalues.
Suppose
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the rank
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constants
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may on be the orequations’
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2, depending
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right
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11.
5. isIf a
2
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! 7 matrix
4 ofAthe column3,space
has rank
12.
find dim
3 This
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? explicit
Nul IsACol0 D R A?, for xk sides to make the new system inconsistent?
A 7formula
Aon whether the computer treats
5, dim Row gives
e. If A xthe ! solution
and 7 Basare zero. row of!equivalent,
the difference" then equation their Explain.
row spacesxk C1 D areAxk .
of a matrix. ForWhy and 1 rank
instance, or 0why ATTif.4not?the value of x in the 0matrix 1 2 equations in six unknowns :375 are all multiples  ofRank one nonzero 
5. 2 and rank A .
If a 4 ! 7 matrix3A has rank 3, find k! In
A5, 1 practical k
xRow Atends to zero and A widely the same.
, 21. Suppose a nonhomogeneous
applications, the
used effective
method rank
for of a
estimating matrix D :125 A
eigenvalues is often determined
of a general
has2 four 3, .:92/
dimAsNul dim e. If A and
solution. xWill
kB tends to
are
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system
necessarily then
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have row spaces are
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a T 4. ! :625
xactly as 7 10.in7.
6.a12
Suppose
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7null 5Aspace4then the
matrix
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A has rank8 ! 7Amay
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A, value matrix
19. in A
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Suppose isunknowns
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has
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sides
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13.
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a reliable
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Suppose A5and source
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asixsequence
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are
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find
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that
A,linearbe-chain
and
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are
al applications, 8. Suppose
the 5
effective 8
a T6 !38 matrix A has four pivot 0 Nul2
columns. 3T What
.in Section is come almost
nonzero upper
solutions triangular,
of the associated diagonal homogeneous entries that approach
system that
11.7. and therank a .4 rank of8a!matrix A is A often determined
nullAAspace . isdiscussed Acolumns. whatIs 4.9. the same.
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7 an 5Amatrix 3-dimensional, 20. Those who that section may recognize that matrix
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and
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lar value decomposition
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R415–17, ?WEB
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Suppose
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6.7. If Exercises list A in
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D
a 7 ! 5 Amatrix R m7! D R Q1for
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30. Suppose
Suppose A aT is4 ! nhas
A matrix A
and rank bAis2,has find
in Rfour dim. WhatNul Ahas
pivot ,columns.
dim to Row
be true AIs , 19.
matrix in eight unknowns has a solution,
Suppose
similarthe solutions
A6) in the form
toExplain. of a homogeneous
ADQ with two free variables.
system of fiveDlinear
1 R1 , where Q1 7
T !1Is
is also a reliable source of
repeated according to their multiplicities. bases for! Col A , Row A
initial , Nul A
population , and distribution equations?
between city #4
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represents #5 the population
9. If
and
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12.8. IfCol therank
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.
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possible
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and R1 is upper triangular. in to 6
that
six choice
change all
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of
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constants of
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k on the the right
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2 Suppose matrix
ofb3
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2 pivot columns.
A? Is Col A3D Rk3 ?years. D 6 5 in#7 #6 5 #6 7
is the dimension
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5
7.8. Suppose
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the
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35. solution.
A20.
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Explain.
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6 Suppose
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7 18 in is Section 4.9 stated
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2 DSuppose a nonhomogeneous
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6 13"$5*$& 130#-&.4 A R2 Q2 , and so on. The similarity of systemA; Asix : : follows
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13.9. Col
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Ain eight unknowns has a solution,
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ten unknowns system has a solution k
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for linear
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8.9. Suppose theoretical of athe
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"5 what The
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sides to make the new system inconsistent?
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23. Suppose
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Aaand
to
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each other,
T k 21. in eight unknowns has a solution,
nonzero and
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Ak, !
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:125
the solutions
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v1 . with two free variables.
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ninecombinations
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R
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0#-&.4 14. 11. rank
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31 if and0! only
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8 ! 7 is the largest
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find
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12. 14 6 3 8 0
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0 ! 04 7matrix A is 2-dimensional, A AD A? 4 Explain. 22. Isin istenpossible
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11. Why or3 why not?of an52
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!64 1 8! 055!2
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If the 08null "7 space 2 matrix A1. ? Computer software as
the Tlinear
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3 ! 7 matrix, 1 !4 A
2 ? ? 3 !2 a 4 !5 !7 are0not multiples21. Suppose a nonhomogeneous
D ΠC M
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:3of each other? explain 3=7Discuss. S and linear equations
:5 0 should be
!2 !4 10. 11. If
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and 7 .what :4Verify :7 thata both 4=7 allare invertible.
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8 10 18. If!10
15 Aisisabe a75shown
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homogeneous
Repeat Exercise system matrix
35 of studied
fortwelve in integer-valued
linear Example
aIs it possible for such a system
random equations 5 in 6eight Sec-
! 7
!5 !7 11.
16. If A 5
is the dimension of the row space of what
ana 85 ! smallest A ? possible general dimensionn ! n matrix for nonzero n "
right-hand side of constants?
ten linear 5 .equations
solutions of in
the twelve
associated variableshomogeneous are multiples system of one
that
12.0If valuethe
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60 2For"3
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2 D R2 Q2 , and so on.
of A. The main idea is to factor A (or another
has only the trivial solution.
The similarity of A; A1 ; : : : follows from
5. 6
the matrices 7 16. 6 2 0 list 0the 7 AT DArank matrix similar to A) in the form A DAQ T 1 R1 , where QT D Q
D Row A. So T !1
40 SG "2 5
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3 PG4
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Rank
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23. 1 A 1has
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0 0 2
0 5 2 3 2
3 "5two pivot positions. 3 1
5 5 03 2 3 0 0 023. Show that A1ifDARD 1Q 1 , which
QR with Q is invertible,
again factored thenasAAis1 similar D Q2 Rto 2 ; then to form
2
panding the product, we can also write
0 6 6 "3 7
7
66 7 A1 D RQ A . D R Q , and so on. The similarity of A; A ; : : : follows from
16. 6 7
3 00 02 0 6 2 0 0 2 2 2 1
6 "5 15. 4 00 0 3 7 "23 5 40 3 6 0 5 Page 34
the more general result in Exercise 23.
6 1 0
! !74 0 2
14! C 68! ! 130! C 75 D 0 24. Show that if A and B are similar, then det A D det B .
7. 6 6 3 8 00 00 00 7 7 5 2 3 3 "5
4 5 23.! Show "that if A!D QR"with Q invertible, ! " then A is similar to
 13"$5*$& 130#-&.4
13"$5*$& 130#-&.4
! ! !3"! 12 " " ! "2 ! 3"
4 !3 3 3 4 02
A8 , where 2. A LetDA D 4 !3, v1 D 1 4, 0and v52 D!1 5 . Suppose you are told that v1 and
1. Compute 1. Compute A8 , where 2 A!1 D . 7 Œ.T !B D
!2 1
! 13"$5*$& 2 !1
! v"2 are eigenvectors of
!" " ! " A! " this!information
130#-&.4 1 !2 7 to diagonalize A.
!3 13"$5*$& 12 130#-&.4 3
. Use
2 "
2. Let A 2. D Let2. !3, ,.a 12
DbeaC
Bv,10Aand , and 3 D
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Suppose 2 you 5,are told that vtold
1 and
1.A Let D3.7AT
Find Let C a, 4vC 1#a
be D4n2 tmatrix matrices.
Twith
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. Suppose 3,shownyou!2
and that
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andif Pis2 similar
Asuppose
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!2
then !2 is similar7 11t to . 2! 1D
This property, together1 transformation
with the statements below,
to 2 whose
shows that
v2 are eigenvectors of 1. Find Bthe
T .a
matrix relative to
A0. UseC a1this
eigenspace tC A for
aD2 tf1;
B information 23
/, t;if t Tg isis two-dimensional.
is diagonalize
to the linear transformation A.
Do you have enough
from P2 to P2 whose information to
WEB
v2 are eigenvectors of
“similar to” is an
matrix relative to B D f1; t; t g is
determine if A . Use
equivalence
A is this information
2 relation.
diagonalizable? 2 to
(Row diagonalize
equivalence 3 A . is another example of an
3. Let A3. be Let a4# 4bematrix
Aequivalencea 4 # with eigenvalues
relation.)
4 matrix withVerify 5, parts
eigenvalues 3, and(a) !2
5, 2 3,, 3and
and and 4 , and
(b).suppose
!2 0 3 yousuppose knowyou thatknow that
 Eigenvectorsthe and eigenspace
Linear for
Transformations! D 3 is 
two-dimensional. ΠT !
Do Dyou 4 3have
0 45enough
!10 5information to
the eigenspace for ! D 3A.is two-dimensional. Do you have enough information to
a. A is similar to
ΠT !B D 4 01 !2 5 !17 5
B
WEB&9&3$*4&4 WEB determine if A is diagonalizable?
determine if A is diagonalizable?
b. If A is similar to B and B is similar to C!2 , then 7A is similar to C .
"- /05& 2. Let A, B , and C be n " n matrices. The 21 text has shown 3 that if A is similar to B ,
In Exercises 1 and 2, let A D PDP !1 and compute A4 . 2 !1 !1
UNIT-III ! !1 " 2. Let A , B , and C be n " n matrices. The 4 1 with
text has shown 5 that if Abelow, is similar tothat
B,

ay to&9&3$*4&4
 &9&3$*4&4
compute a B -matrix P
 AP7 is to compute ! AP
then
"andBthen is similar to A. This property,
to rowto A. This property, 5. A D together 4 the1 statements shows
ΠP1. &9&3$*4&4
21 5 2 0then B is similar
“similar to” is an equivalence relation. (Row together with
!1 equivalence
!1 the 2 statements below,
is another example of an shows that
mented matrix P D! to ΠI P !, 1D
AP APD!. A 2 3
2!1 3 0 4separate1“similar computation
equivalence to” isrelation.)
an  equivalence2 !12parts
Verify relation.
!1 (a) and 2 (b).
(Row 3 equivalence 32 is another example 32 of an 3
xercises 1 and 2,
ecessary. See Exercise let A D Eigenvectors
PDP
15 in Section D and
and compute !1
2.2. Linear A . Transformations 4 2 !1 !1 1 !1 !1 !1
In Exercises 1 and 2,
! 1. "! Let B D f let
b
! " ! "! " " ! ;A b ; b PDP
g and D and compute
D f d ; d g A .bases for
be
equivalence vector
relation.) 4 Verify
5. A DA.5. 1A D 44 11 4 4 1 5 5. Let
parts T 5 W
(a) P and ! P
(b). be the 0 3
transformation
5 4
0 that0 maps a0 polyno-
5 4 !1 !1 5
1 2 3 1 2 2 3
a." A is similar to D !1 1 !1 0 2 0 !1
5
P D 1. P D , D
7 spaces 5 D 7V2 and01W , 2respectively. 2 0 1Let T 0a. W VA ! W be a linear !1 !1 mial2 p.t/ into the polynomial .t C 3/p.t /.
is similar to A . !1 !1 2
" - / 20 5 &3 transformation with2. P 0D , D 1D ,DD b. If A is similar to2B and Ba.is similar 32 to C0, then !1p3.t2A/ 1is
D similar 02t Cto 0 t 2C
3. .3 !1 !1 0
2 03 the 1property 0 that3 2is similar 3 !3
03,2then !12 !1 3
2 3 Find the image of
,
!15d ; T .b / D !d C 6d ; T .b / D 4d
b. If A is similar to B 1and!1 B 10 !13 to 2 0 C 30 A0 is03 similar
0 to
0 C !1. !1
24 !1 54 0 T25 054 0transformation.
1 / !D 3dP
54 !1 5!1 !1 5
ay to !compute"a!TB.b-matrix !
" 1 03"and
AP is to "compute 1AP and 2 then to 3 row b.!1 Show that 3is a linear
! 2 4,!use D D 14 !1 !1!3 4 004 2 !1 !1
2
!1 1 4 9 50 !1 to!1
2 P
D
0#-&.4
mented
P
1
D 2.matrix
2
3D 22
,ΠD1In
P D &9&3$*4&4
Exercises
AP
2 1
Find the matrix for ! to ΠI 1 P
T
1
0 AP
relative to
the
!. Afactorization
D 3D k represents an arbitrary positive integer.
0k ,, where
separate
B and D .
A
computation PDP to com-
0 !1 c. 6.
Find
1 A D
the
0 matrix
0 !1 2 31 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 for
3 T !1
relative !1 the !1 f1;
0 bases 0 t; t g and
2


ecessary. See Exercise 2pute
&9&3$*4&4
A
3 15 in Section 2.2.
!D fdlinear
0 3
B"D f! "! Pfortovector "! spaces 2" f1;
02Let30T W P
3 t; t ; t
2 3
g .
32 32 a polyno- 3
a1 t C a2 t 2 /,2. 1.if Let T is
Let D B the D fb1a1;; db22g; b and
transformation
3 g 0and D D
b1 ; bf2dg be
1 !110;from d2bases 2 0 P2 1whose
g abe bases for vector 0 3 5. 0 2 !0P3 be the transformation 0 that 0 maps
xercises 3 and 4, Vuse and
3. the W , respectively.
factorization A DD
Let T
PDP W V ! to Wcom-be !1a linear 6. transfor-
D 4 !3 6.44Let 9T5W P2 !3P54 be0 the!1 3
transformation that maps0 a polyno- 0 1
e to BInDExercises
f1;1.t; tLet 2
g3isand
spaces B DV2.a 4,fand
buse1!; bW g band D D2 fA
2 ; ,brespectively.
the
b/ 3factorization d1D
Let 2 gW be
;1dTPDP 0V ! basesbto
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be a linear 1 6. A D 5. Let !3TpW.t/
mial P4D ! 4 90P3 be1the!3
2into the polynomial 54.t0 C 3/
transformation 4 p.tthat
2/0 . 5maps4 !3a polyno- 1 95
k
A , where mation with
kkrepresents an 2 the property that
arbitrary positive 3 integer. mial p .t/ into the polynomial p .t / C 2t p .t/ .
pute A spaces
, where V and
k represents an W , respectively.
transformation with the property that arbitrary Let T integer.
positive W V ! W be a linear 0 0 mial
a. 3p.t/0into the polynomial
0Find the 31
image of p .t / D 3.t0!C2t3/0C p.t/ t 2.
. !1
! " !! " 3"! "
!3ab42 ;! "! "! that
0"! " "! " " 2 a. 3 2 0 0
of3p2.t / D 33!22t C 3
3 0 3
a ! 0atransformation with "!
D ! theT0property D !2 C 2a. Find the 32 0of
image t22 . 3
T . d
b / D1034
/ 1 3 bd!60 .
0 .b!2 d52a/ D !
/ 1 !3 b
0 5
0d1 C 601d2 ; !1 b 3 0 !1 Find the3 image
0 p .t/ D
0 3 ! 0 2t C1 t .
ŒTT.D
1
4.!1B 2D 11D
1
0! 51D d52 ; !13T 2 1 2
0T .b3 / 2D 4d2 b.3 Show that
0 !1 T is a linear
theis3matrices 0 transformation.
in0 Exercises 0 7–20, 0 1 possible. The real
d24 0 D 5 40
0#-&.4
2.a !3.b/ 2.ab T !2 bd011and 1 4b. b.Diagonalize
Show that 45T a5 4 !3transformation.
linear transformation. 9 5 1 if9 5
! .b/b1 / D 2b3d!6
Find the matrix for 11 ! 5!2 d202 ;T 2T 1b7 .b!1 2 /0D !D
relative to C!2 !2 d.2 ; !2
6B 1T .b3 / 3D 4D !3
c.0 Show that
Find1 the!3 T 4is00a for
matrix linear
4T 0 514 !3
relative to the bases f1; t; t 22g and
Find the matrix for T relative to B and D. 1 0 c. eigenvalues
0 Find 0 the for Exercises
matrix
0 3 for T!1 11–16
relative 0 and
to 3 the 18basesare included below the
f1; t; t2 g and
a!C "t!2 /,3.!if23 "! "! "standard f1;0t;the
c.1matrix.
Find 2
3 g. 4
3
t 2 ; 0tmatrix 0 for 0T relative 3 !1
to the bases 0 3f1; t; t g and
1t C is D
the f linear g
transformation from P to P whose
3
1 be
a
!6n " 1n2.matrices.
2 T
Let " D E
Find the matrix for!
D f!3 The e ; e
d1 ; d5text
1 2 "!
; e
g0and 3Thasrelative to
be
Bthe D the
shown "! B
fb21 ; bthat and
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basis 2
A isforsimilar for 2 R ,
to BPDP let, !1 f1; t; t ; t ; t g .
3!6 Let
2In !2Exercises 2and 6,!1 matrix 2A bases
factored vector
in spaces
the form . f1; !t;Exercises
t 2 ; t 3 g. " 7–20, if possible. The!real "
D. This
f1;
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B gD fD 2 ;;!2
bW1 ;f,3bdrespectively.
b3 gg and be!3 aB basis 0 for!1 2 space
a be bases for vector spaces
vector Diagonalize
V ,transfor-
and let the matrices inmatrices
ar2 toB!6
e to A4. tLet
VUse is
DD
and
!1 1 d2!2
together with !2 DLet
the fbTstatements
1 ;WbV 2g! W bethe
below,a linear shows thatDiagonalize 6. Let theT WP 1 2 !0in P4Exercises 7–20, if possible.
be the transformation that
3 maps The
2 reala polyno-
2 !6 2
V T
mation with
and
the 2
Diagonalization
0
W R W!,2respectively.
3 !1
be a linear
V the property that Let
!23T W V!2! W3with
Theorem
3
0 transformation to find eigenvalues
eigenvalues
the property
be a linear transfor-
of
that A and
eigenvalues 6. for
mial
Let
7. 11–16 mapping
7. Assume the
for Exercises T pW.t/P
Exercises
6 ! and
!1 P 18
11–16
into the polynomial
be are
the and
W P2 ! Pbelow
T included
18 pare
transformation
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8. 2the
2 defined by
C
included
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that
0 .t/below
.
maps3 the
a polyno-
an equivalence relation. (Row
3 4equivalence
a basis for each eigenspace. 0 is another example of an
matrix. matrix.
2 4

4
mation with the property that D ! 5 ! !1
C C !13! 3 " mial p .t/ into the polynomial D p .t/
! C C2t 22
p .t/ .
" 0 C a1 t C a2!t 32 / D 23a"0! C .5a0 "! 2a21 /t C .4a1 C a2 /t 2
lation.)
xercises Verify T .x
Œparts ; x
1! / (a) ; x
2 3and
D / (b)..2x
3b52 ;3 A!1 x / b .2x / b .x 3x / b a. Find the image of p .t / 3 2t t .
In 5Exercises
and 6, the T T5.dmatrix
1B D
and 6, the Ab3 1is
0! factored
matrix Tisin the 1 formbPDP
2 / D !2in
.2dfactored 2 C2 5b. 1
1the form 2 PDP .1 0 ! 1 a. T .a
he Diagonalization Ta..dTheorem toTheorem 0 Find the image
8.T is of p.t/ D 33 ! 22t C t .
r to . the Diagonalization
AUse 1 / D 3b 1 1
Compute T find
!
Find the matrix for T relative to D and B.
b1 /2,the
.3e!2 ; TT eigenvalues
e.7
.to 2dfind
/ ,
2 / D
and the !2
T bof1/.CA and
eigenvalues
. e 3 5 b 2 of A 7.
and
6 !1 7.
b. Show that a linear
8.
transformation.
is for each eigenspace.
a basis for each eigenspace. 6 !1b.c. Show that
Find the
is linear. Find Tthe
matrix is0amatrix
for
3 transformation.
linear 0
relative 3 to the of
T representation bases f1; t; t 2to
T relative g and
the
ilar
C tobeBn and
" n3.B b.is similar
ComputetoŒTC .e, 1then
/! .is
Ashown
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e2 /! B ,Dand to e. 3./!
ifB.C
ŒT .
2 ; e3 g be the standard basis for R , let
Find the matrix for
matrices.
Let E D The fe1 ; etext Brelative to
Thas and
that A isBsimilar 3to B ,
c. f1;Bt;D
Find
basis 2 3 42
t ;f1;
the ;t;t tg.g.for T relative to the bases f1; t; t 2 g and
tmatrix
lar to A. This 3. 24
property,
c. Find the
B D EfbD
Let together
1; f
matrix for
be21;;be32g; ebe with
3 g abe
T the
basis statements
relative to
the for E and
a vector
standard below,
B .
space
basis shows 3 that
forV ,Rand let
, let f1; t; t 2 ; t 3 ; t 4 g.
an equivalence
4. BTrelation.
DWR 3
BfbD 1!; fbb2V1;(Row
b3 2g;ab
;bbe be equivalence
linear for ais vector
transformation another
with example
the property ofthat
an 7. Let B D fb1mapping
8. Assume the ; b2 ; b3 g be T WaPbasis
2 ! P 2 defined by
for a vector space V . Find
Let 3 g abe a basis for a vector space
basis space VV, and let
and let
elation.) VerifyTTpartsWW R !R
V; x(a)
3
! and
V2 be (b).
a linear transformation with the property that
be a linear transformation with the property that T .4b1 ! 3b2mapping
7. Assume the / when TT is W Pa2 linear
! P2 transformation
defined by from V to
T .x 2 ; x3 / D .2x3 ! x2 /b1 ! .2x2 /b2 C .x1 C 3x3 /b3
r to A.
1
! " a polyno- 0 C a1matrix
whose
V .a
T t C a2relative to
t 2 / D 3a0 C B is.5a0 ! 2a1 /t C .4a1 C a2 /t 2
vector 5. TLet.x1T; xW2P ; x2 3!/ DP3.2x be3 the ! xtransformation
2 /b1 2x! .2x /b2 that
!23x C x.xmaps 1 C 3x3 /b3
ailarlinear a..xCompute
T
mial 1p x2 bT2.C e1 /x, 3Tb.3e/ 2D
1 Cinto the polynomial
b.t/ /, and.tT1C.e3/ . 2.t /. 3
3 /p T .a0 C a12t C a2 t 2 / D 3a30 C .5a0 ! 2a1 /t C .4a1 C a2 /t 2
to B and Ba. is Compute
similar toT .Ce ,/then A is !2x
similar 1 C to5x C3. 0 the0 matrix 1 representation of T relative to the
b. Find the
a. Computeimage ŒT .e1 1,/! T .eŒT
ofBp, .t2 /,.eand T .e3 /.ŒT
/ D2 /!3B!, and
2t C t .2e. 3 /!B .
is linear. Find
42 5
b.Find the matrix for ŒT .e1 /!TB ,relative to e2 /!B , B and the standard basis for basis!BBDDFind
ŒisTlinear. f1; t;the . !2 representation of T relative to the
t 21gmatrix
D 4d2 c. Compute
b. Find the matrix for ŒT
T .relative to and EŒTand .e3 /!BB. . 1 23 1
R2 .Show that T is a linear transformation. basis B D f1; t; t g.
4. c. LetFind the
B D the fb1matrix for
; b2 ; b3 gfor beTTarelative to
basis fortoaEthe and B.space V and
vector let 8. Let B D fb1 ; b2 ; b3 g be a basis for a vector space V . Find
25
c. Find
T W f1;VD ! 23
matrix relative bases f1; t; t 2 g and
T .4B
8. Let b1D ! f3bb12;/bwhen2 ; b3 g T beisa abasis
linear
fortransformation
a vector spacefrom V to
V . Find
4. Let B f R
2b ; be
b
t; t ;1t g.2 3 ;ab g
linear
be transformation
a basis for a with
vector the property
space V andthat let
5. Let T W P2 ! ! the" property that
vector
spaces P be the transformation that maps a polyno- b1 ! 3matrix
TV.4whose b2 / when relative to B is transformation from V to
T is a linear
T W V ! R2 be a3 linear transformation 2x ! 3x with C
aansfor-
linear 6. Letmial T p .t/
W P into the polynomial
T .x1 b1 C x2 b2 C
2 ! P 4 be x3the D ! .t 1C 3/p2.tthat
b3 / transformation /. x3maps
" a polyno- V whose matrix 2 relative to 3 B is
mial p into the polynomial D 2x
p !2x
1 !
! C 3x
1C C 2 t2C
5x
2p.t/x
3 3. 0 0 1
a. .t/
Find the image of
T .x1 b1 C x2 b2 C x3 b3 / D p .t / 3 .t /2t 2t . 2 3
Find the matrix .t / D 3to!2x !B2tand1 C the
C t5x 2 3 ΠT !B D 4 02 01 !2 15
D 4d2 a.
b. Find the
Show that T for
image T prelative
of
is a linear transformation. . standard basis for
Find 2
R .Show that
the matrix for relative to B and the standard ΠT !B D 4 21 13 !21 5
b. T is aT linear
c.2 Find the matrix for T relative to the bases transformation. f1; t;basis for
t 2 g and 1 3 1
R
c. Find. g. Eigenvalues and
$)"15&3
f1; t; the to Eigenvectors
2 3
t ; tmatrix for T relative the bases f1; t; t g and 2
r spaces
R 3
, let f1; 2 3 4
g
6. 26
t; t ; t ; t .
ransfor-
and let Let T W P2 ! P4 be the transformation 2 that3maps a polyno-
T W P2 !p.tP/2 C
2
rty that mial p.t/ into the polynomial
7. Assume the mapping p2t.!1/
defined by p.t/. 22. If A is diagonalizable and B is similar to A, then B is also
9. a.DefineFind theT W image
P2 ! R 3
of pby .t /TD .p3/ D
! 2t 4C p.0/t 2 . 5. diagonalizable.
/b 3 p.1/
0 C a1 t C T t 2 /a D C .5a0 ! 2a 1 /t C .4a1 C a2 /t
2
Tb..aShow that a2 is 3a0 transformation.
linear 23. If B D P !1 AP and x is an eigenvector of A corresponding
a. Find the image under T of p.t/ D 5 C 3t .
c. Find the matrix for T relative to the bases f1; t; t 2 g and to an eigenvalue ", then P !1 x is an eigenvector of B corre-
R3 , let is linear.
b. f1; t; tFind the matrix representation of
Show that ; t ; t 4 gis
2 3 T
. a linear transformation.T relative to the sponding also to ".
basis B D f1; t; t 2 g.
and let c. Find the matrix for T relative to the basis f1; t; t 2 g for P 2 24. If A and B are similar, then they have the same rank. [Hint:
7. Assume the mapping T W P2 ! P3 2 defined by
8. 27
erty that
and let D fb1 ; b2 ; b3 g be a basisRfor
Let Band the standard basis for . a vector space V . Find
2 3 Refer to Supplementary Exercises 13 and 14 in Chapter 4.]
b3that
/rty T .4b1 ! 3b2 / when T is a linear transformation
p.!2/ from V to
T .a0 C a1 t C a2 t 2 / D 3a0 C .5a06! 2a1 /t 7 C .4a1 C a2 /t 2 25. The trace of a square matrix A is the sum of the diagonal
V whose matrix relative to B is p
10. Define T W P3 ! R4 by T .p/ D 6 7
.3/
4 p.1/ 5. entries in A and is denoted by tr A. It can be verified that
is linear. Find 2 3 tr .F G/ D tr .GF / for any two n " n matrices F and G .
0 the0 matrix 1 representation p.0/of T relative to the
Œbasis
T ! BDD4f1; 2 t; t12 g. !2 5 Show that if A and B are similar, then tr A D tr B .
asis for a. BShow that T is a linear transformation.
D fb11 ; b2 ;3b3 g be 1 a basis for a vector space V2. Find 26. It can be shown that the trace of a matrix A equals the sum of
and let 8. Let b. BFind the matrix for T relative to the basis f1; t; t ; t 3 g for
T .4 b ! 3 b / when T is a linear R transformation
4 from V to the eigenvalues of A. Verify this statement for the case when
erty that P1 3 and the standard basis for
2 .
V whose matrix relative to B is A is diagonalizable.

In Exercises 11 and 12, find the B-matrix for the transformation
2 3 27. Let V be Rn with a basis B D fb1 ; : : : ; bn g; let W be Rn
x 7! Ax, where 0B D 0fb1 ; b12 g. with the standard basis, denoted here by E ; and consider the
! 42 " 5! " ! "
asis for ΠT !B D!4 !1 1 !2 !1 !1 identity transformation I W Rn ! Rn , where I.x/ D x. Find
11. A D , b D , b D
61 13 11 2 2
1 the matrix for I relative to B and E . What was this matrix
! " ! " ! " called in Section 4.4?
!6 !2 0 !1 Page 35
12. A D , b1 D , b2 D 28. Let V be a vector space with a basis B D fb1 ; : : : ; bn g, let W
4 0 1 2
be the same space V with a basis C D fc1 ; : : : ; cn g, and let I
  $)"15&3  Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

2 3
Let A be  a 2 ! 2$)"15&3 matrix with Eigenvalues
 eigenvalues "3and andEigenvectors
"1 and "6 "11 16
! " ! "
$)"15&3  Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors "1 1 16. [M] A D 4 2 5 "4 5
corresponding eigenvectors v1 D and v2 D . Let
1 1 "4 "5 210 3
2 2 "63 3 "11 16
2.
x.t/ be the position Let A be a 2 ! 2
of a particle!at time matrix
"
with
t . eigenvalues
Solve ! the " initial "3 and! "1 " and
30
"6 [M]
16. "11A D 4 64 16 2 23 5 "4 5
Let A be a 2 ! corresponding
2 matrix with eigenvalues ! 2 " v"3 and"1 "1 and 1
. LetA D44 "11
value problem x0 D Ax, x.0/ eigenvectors D "1 . 1 D ! " and v2 D 17. [M]
11 16. 1[M] AD 2 "23
5 "4"9 "45 5 "5 10
v1 D 3 and v2 D 6 "5 15 2 3
x.t / be the position
corresponding eigenvectors
1 a particle
of ! at 1
time
"
. Let
t . Solve the initial 2
"4 10 4
330 64 23
0 2 423 3
Exercises
x.t/ be the3–6, ofthea initial
solve
position particle valuetime
x0!at
problem
. Solve
x, xtnature
D "Athe
x .t/
D ofthe
2 Dinitial
Ax.t / 17.53
30[M] 64
"30 A D"2 "11 "23 "9 5
t # 0, with x.0/value problem
D .3; 2/. Classify .0/ .
3the origin 17. 18. [M] A D44 90 "52 "3 556
x 0 D A
2 [M] A D "11 "23 "9 15 4
value problem
an attractor, repeller, x.0/ Dpoint of
orx,saddle . the dynamical system 20 "10 22 3
3
cribed by xIn x. Find3–6,
0 Exercises
DA solve the initial
the directions of greatestvalueattraction 0
problem x .t / D Ax.t /
[M] Find218.
6 15
the43
4
53 "30 "2
# D 19. formulas for D voltages
90 "52v1 and "3 5 v2 (as functions of
xercises
d/or for
3–6, solve
repulsion. t
the
When 0 , with
the initial x .0/
origin value .3; 2/ .
problem
is a saddle Classify
0
.t/ D A
point,x sketch the nature
x.t/
typical of the origin
time t ) for the
[M]
"30 in"2
53 circuit A
Example 1, assuming that R1 D 1=5
as an attractor, repeller, or
# 0, with x.0/ D .3; 2/. 0 Classify the nature of the origin
ectories. saddle point of the dynamical 18. [M] system
ohm, AR D 4D90 1=3 "52
ohm, "3D
C
5 20
4
"10
farads, C
2
D 3 farads, and the
! repeller,
n attractor, described " orby x Dpoint
saddle Ax. Find of!thethe "
directions
dynamical of greatest attraction 2 19.
system 20 [M] "10 Find
1
2formulas for
2
the voltages v1 and v2 (as functions of
D A x. repulsion.
2 3 "2 "5 initial charge on each capacitor is 4 volts.
A Dby x0 and/or
ribed Find the 4. When A Dthe origin
directions of greatestis a saddle
attractionpoint, sketch typical
19. time t ) for the circuit in Example 1, assuming that R1 D 1=5
"1trajectories.
"2
1 4 20. [M] [M]Find Findformulas
formulas for the
ohm,for R the
voltages vv1 and
1=3 ohm, 1Cand
D voltages
vv2 (as
1 D 4 2 for
functions
the circuit
farads,
of
C2 D 3infarads, and the
or repulsion. When the origin is a saddle point, sketch typical
! " ! " ! " ! " time
Examplet ) for the circuit in 2that
1, assuming Example R D 1, assuming
1=15 ohm, that
R DR 1=3
1 D 1=5
ohm,
ctories. 7 "1 2 3 1 "2 "2 "5 initial charge on 1 each capacitor 2is 4 volts.
A D! 3. A D 6. A D! 4. A D C1 DR92 D
ohm, 1=3 ohm,
farads, C2 DC21 farads, D 4 farads, and the D 3 farads,
C2 initial chargeand on theeach
3 3 " "1 "2 3 "4 " 1 4 initial 20.
charge on [M]
each Find formulas
capacitor is 4 for the
volts. voltages v and v2 for the circuit in
2 3 "2 "5 capacitor is 3 volts. 1
AD  !
$)"15&3 4. "A D Eigenvalues and !
Eigenvectors " Example 1, assuming that R1 D 1=15 ohm, R2 D 1=3 ohm,
Exercises"17 and "2 8, make 7 a "1change of variable 1 4 that decouples1 "2 20.
21. [M] [M]Find Findformulas
formulas for the the voltages v1 and v2 forthe the circuit invC
5. A D 6. A D C1 D for 9 farads,current C2 D 2iLfarads, and andvoltage
the initial charge on each
!
equation x0 D"28 Ax. Write 3 3the equation ! " D P y3.t/ "4
x.t/ and Example
for the 1, assuming
circuit in that
Example R D
3, 1=15
assuming ohm, R
that D
R11=3 D 1ohm, ohm,
2 3
1 2
w 7 "1 1 "2
uncoupled system y D D y, 0 capacitor is 3 volts.
A the
D calculation that leads 6. to the A
2 !8,2makeD "3 C R D D 9 farads,
:125 ohm,C DC 2D farads,
:2 "6
farad,and the
"11
L D initial
:125 16 charge
henry, on
the each
initial
! "1
1 2
In32.Exercises
Let A be a 7 and matrix with eigenvalues
3 a "4change !of variable " thatand " and
decouples 2
cifying 3P and D. [M] Find 4
21.volts. formulas for the current
155volts. L
i and the voltage vC
the equation x0 D Ax. Write the equation "1 x.t / D P y1.tcapacitor is 3 /current
and is 016. amp,[M] and D
A the initial 2 voltage
for the circuit in Example 3,
5 is"4
assumingOrthogonal that R1SetsD 1 ohm,
xercises 7 and 8, corresponding eigenvectors
make a change of variable D decouples
v1that and v2 D 0 . Let "4is described
"5 10
A as in Exercise
show the 5 calculation 8. A thatas in Exercise 6 1
leads to the uncoupled system 21. y 1D
22. [M][M] y,The formulas
DFind circuitRin the for figurethe current iL :2and bythe theL voltage
equation vChenry, the initial
0 2 D :1252ohm, C D farad, 3 D :125
D Axx..t/ Write
equation x specifying
!P and
the equation x.t/ D P y.t/ and
" D .general ! "solution !of!0"x0 D
be the position of a particle at time "t .AxSolve the initialfor" the#circuit " in Example
current is 0 amp,3, 30 #"
assuming
and 64 #23 R
that
the initial 1 D 1 ohm,
voltage is 15 volts.
0
wExercises 9–18, that
the calculation construct
leads 3 tothe the uncoupled !2 system 2y !6 D D y, R DiL :125 ohm,b.C If 0 D :2 4 1=L
farad, L D i
:125 L henry, 5 ofthe initial vectors from an
olving complex 8.
7. Au D
as in Exercise
value problem
eigenfunctions , u D
x
and05 D A
then x, ,
x and
8.
.0/
obtain x
DA
the D as in Exercise
.
general real 6 2 D 17. [M] A y Dis a "11
linear "23
combination "9 nonzero
ifying P and D . 1
1 2
6 vC0 is 0 amp,22."1=C[M] The circuit
"1=.RC in the figure is described by the equation
3 3 current "andorthogonal
#the initial
" set,
/ then
6voltage 15vis C 15
the 4volts.# "
weights in the#linear combination
ution. Describe the shapes of typical trajectories.
! In
A as in Exercise 5" 2 19–18,
Exercises 38. Aconstruct 2 3
!!1 the general
as in Exercise 6" 2 2 solution 3 of 20 D A
22.xD[M]
x0 .t/ where
3x
is thein the
current
2 0 1=L3
iL0can be computed without row operations on a matrix. and viCL is the
229 complex
In Exercises 3–6, solve the initial value problem A 8x.tThe/ iLcircuit Dthrough
figure 53 the
"30inductor
is described "2 by theL equation
"3involving
A D 9–18, for9. t u#1 D 4 5
0 10. x, .0/
eigenfunctions
u2 A D 4
DD.3; 2/ 5
3 and
1
u3 D the
4 . ,Classify
0,Describe the shapes of typical trajectories.
with
then
4 obtain
5 the general
, and xofDthe !4
1 nature 4 " real
5
voltage
origin # "
drop c.
across
v 0If the
18. [M]C A D 90 "52 "3 4 "1=C
vectors
capacitor #
in " an
C . #
"1=.RC 5
orthogonal
Find formulas
/ set vofCfor nonzero
iL vectors are
Exercises "1construct
"1solution. the general solution
"2 1 of x0 D Ax iL0 v when0R Dnormalized, 1=LC then isome
!
lving complex as an
" !
1
attractor, repeller, 1
" or! saddle point
eigenfunctions and then obtain the general real " !
!2
of the dynamical " !3and
system D C :5
where iL is the
ohm, D 2:5 Lfarads,
"10 through
20 current 2 of the
L D new :5 vectors
henry,
the inductor L and vC is the
may not be
"3 "9
described 2"3x0 D
by 3 2Ax. Find 2 "7the 3 directions
10 2 of 33 greatest1 2 the vC0 3initial current
attraction "1=C isorthogonal.
0 "1=.RC
amp, and/the initial vC voltage is 12 volts.
tion. 9. A D
A DDescribe the shapes of typical trajectories. AD 210. isAa D 19. voltage
[M] Find drop acrossfor
formulas thethe voltagesCv1. and
capacitor Find v2 formulas for iof
(as functions
"1312. 1 point,1 sketch typical 5 L
! 2and/or 3" repulsion. "1
When the ! "4
origin "5 saddle "2 d. AvtC)matrix with D orthonormal D columns is Lan D orthogonal
4 5 4
10.2 u1 D! !3 , u"2 D, 3 2 ,1u3 D ! 1 , and x"D !3 5 4 5 4 where 5 iL is the and
current
time when
through
for the R the
circuit :5 inohm,
inductor ExampleC
L and 2:5
1, v farads,
is
assuming
C the that R:51 D
henry,
1=5
A D ! 4 "3 " ! "
"3 trajectories. matrix. D 1=3R ohm,
"310."9A"D !112.11A D ! "7 10" voltage drop acrossthe
ohm, initial
the current
R2 capacitor isC0. amp, 1 Dand
CFind the initial
4formulas
farads, 2 D
Cfor voltage is 12and
iL3 farads, volts.
the
AD "1 "130
11. A D ! 014. A D "2"2 4
and
1
v when R D
e.
initial If
:5 L ohm,
is a
charge on line
C D +
through
each
2:5 farads,
0 and
capacitor if
L O
yD
is is
4 the
:5 henry,
volts. orthogonal projection
"2 2 3 "8 "2! "5
"4 " 5 C
! 6 3. "A D ! 4. A"D
2
"3 2 ! "1 "2 3"
"9 Compute the orthogonal projection of
11. "7 10 ! 1 1 4 "onto the line the initial current 20. [M] is of0Find y onto
amp, and LC,the
formulas then forkOythe
initial k voltage
gives the
R is v
voltages distance from
12and volts.
v2 for they to L. in
circuit
AD "8 "12 4 "3
12.
"6 A D "2 7 1 1
2 13.3 A D ! ! "2 "" "4 14. 5A D ! " Example 1, assuming that R1 D+ 1=15 ohm, R2 D 1=3 ohm,
[M]!A D 45."2A D 167 !4 25
"1
! 6. "
A D
"8
1 "2 2 24. a. Not every orthogonal
C D 9 farads,
set in Rn is linearly independent.
R C2 D 2 farads, and the initial charge on each
through 123 252"8 and the origin. 3 L C
1
4 "3 7 3 3 "4
AD 14. A D "12"2"6 1 b. If a set S Dvolts.
capacitor is 3 fu ; : : : ; up g has the property that ui ! uj D 0
+ 1
6 "2 15. [M] A D7 4and28, make
In Exercises "8 25
1 a change 2 !
of variable " whenever i ¤ j , then S is an orthonormal set.
2the equation 0 3 orthogonal
1 that decouples 21. [M] Find formulas C for the current L iL and the voltage vC
12. Compute
"8 "12 "6 xthe D 7A x. 12Write projection
5 the equationof x .t/ DontoP ythe
.t/ line
and c. Ifthethecircuit
columns of an m " n3,matrix A arethat orthonormal, then
!1 for in Example assuming R1 D 1 ohm,
4 show the ! 5 " that leads to the uncoupled system y0 D D y,
calculation the linear mapping x !
7 A x preserves lengths.
[M] A D 2 1 2!1 R D :125 ohm, C D :2 farad, L D :125 henry, the initial
40-65*0/4 50 13"$5*$& 130#-&.4 2 L and
7 through
specifying 12 P and 5 3D .and the origin. current
d. The is 0 amp,
orthogonal the initialofvoltage
projection y onto isv 15 volts.
is the same as the
7. A as in Exercise ! " 5 1. Yes, ! 8.the "A3as in Exercise
! 3 matrix 6is 50 diagonalizable 22. because orthogonal
[M] Theitcircuit projection of
has three in the distinct y onto c v
eigenvalues.
figure is described whenever c ¤ 0.
by the equation
2 4 40-65*0/4 13"$5*$& 130#-&.4
" # " # " #
13. Let y D and u D Theorem . Write y as the 5.1
2 in Section sumand of two Theorem 5e.in0An orthogonal matrix
Section 5.3 are valid is invertible.
when complex
In Exercises 9–18, 3 construct !7 the general solution of x0 D Ax iL 0 1=L iL
involving orthogonal
complex vectors, scalars are used.
one in Span
eigenfunctions 1.
andfuthen Yes,
g andobtain (The proofs are essentially the same as for real scalars.)
the 3
one orthogonal ! 3 matrix
the generaltoreal u. is diagonalizable
25. Prove 0
D because
Theorem 7. [Hint: For (a), it has three distinct
compute kUeigenvalues.
xk2 , or prove
! "
40-65*0/4
! "
50Theorem
13"$5*$& 2 in 130#-&.4
Section
Page 36
5.1 and
vC
Theorem
"1=C
5 in Section
"1=.RC /
5.3 are
vC
valid when complex
solution. Describe the shapes of typical trajectories.
2. The general solution has the form (b) first.]
2 " u D 7 . Write !yscalars are used.
14. Let y!D and as the sum " of a vector where iL is the current through then inductor L and vC is the
(The proofs are essentially the same as for real scalars.)
"3 6 2 1. Yes,1 the 3 ! 3 matrix 3 1 is diagonalizable26.because Suppose it hasW isthree distinctofeigenvalues.
a subspace R spanned by n nonzero
DSE-1E/A ANALYTICAL SOLID GEOMETRY BS: 506

Unit I Theory: 3 credits and Practicals: 1 credits

Theory: 3 hours /week and Practicals: 2 hours /week

Objective: Students learn to describe some of the surfaces by using analytical

geometry.

Outcome: Students understand the beautiful interplay between algebra and geometry.

Unit I

Sphere: Definition-The Sphere Through Four Given Points-Equations of a Circle-

Intersection of a Sphere and a Line-Equation of a Tangent Plane-Angle of Intersection

of Two Spheres-Radical Plane

Unit II

Cones and Cylinders: Definition-Condition that the General Equation of second

degree Represents a Cone-Cone and a Plane through its Vertex –Intersection of a Line
with a Cone- The Right Circular Cone-The Cylinder- The Right Circular Cylinder

Unit III

The Conicoid: The General Equation of the Second Degree-Intersection of Line with
a Conicoid-Plane of contact-Enveloping Cone and Cylinder

Text : Shanti Narayan and P K Mittal , Analytical Solid Geometry (17e)

References: Khaleel Ahmed , Analytical Solid Geometry

S L Loney, Solid Geometry

Smith and Minton, Calculus

Page 37
 x, y, z, 1
and accordingly the locus of z, 1
x, y, the
(/, g, h) is sphere

Exercises
-o,
1. Find the centre and the radius of the circle -o,
EXERCISESEXERCISES 169 169
a; + 2?/H-2c=15, x* + y + z*~2y-4z=ll.
2

OP CONTACf OP CONTACf [Ans. (1, 3, 4), V7. 99 99

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they
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from (0, 0, (ii) .sphere section.)(i).
four conditions (ii) anduthen the equation
The 10.the u the
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1 Find ainof r which
the upon constants
Find thewhich cuts the
cof of
c only. a radiuson the ofwith
r radius
which centretouches (i).touches
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theh) three
upon10. 3. Obtain
plane tho equation
equations the
ofonly. sphere
circle
sphere lyingspherecircle sphere (/, g>
co-ordinate The How
co-ordinate
axes. axes.
roots many How
2of manyExercises
can
spheres be socan drawn.
are be so drawn. as they do
Thus every Thus + spheres
2this
f(x-f)+g(y-g)+k(*-h)=o.
every
sphere sphere
(MI) +z
meets 2
equation
Exercises
(MI) themeets
2.T+4*/ the
6z-h3-
Jf-axis 2/ constant,
2 the same two
Jf-axis
at the 1same
at depending
= 0;points two
1= points
and having
1. Find
upon
and the
its the
hence constants
equation
centre at (2, [Ans.
of theu 2(sHyH2
and[Ans.
sphere c through2(sHyH22
)4-2^2(
the fca;ydb)r+r
four )4-2^2(
points fca;ydb)r+r eight.0; eight. : :

and hence Find the result. the result.

3, 4). only.
OXYZ
sameOXYZ
Jt
1. will the
pass through
equation
Prove that of the
the sphere the if
through
of the the
which four which
points the octant
11. Prove 11. that the 2),
(4, -1,equation [An*.
(#',
(0, -2,
y', of
equation2'),
^2+3),2^ sphere sphere
2_2.E4-4#-6z+3=-0=a?+5?/
-5, -1),
lies in the octant7z-45.
lies in
and touches and Thus
touches
the every
theand
-1,
co-ordinate 2), sphere
co-ordinate -2, (MI)
is
(1,
of(1,
planes
meets
the -5, form
is of the
-1), the(2,
(2, 0, 1).
Jf-axis
form at the ?y
;:

two points
f(x'-f)+g{y'-g)+M*'-h)=o,
planes Exercises 0, 1).
2 Exercises
is the (4, (0, 3),
are the
4.
and hence origin
the result. A, B, C, [Ans. points x*+y*+z2-4x+6y 22+5=0.
and 1. Find1.the the locus of OP4c, [Ans.
CONTACf
is the OP
(4c,the
CONTACf
x*+y*+z2-4x+6y
4, four 22+5=0. 99 99
2.
Show
accordingly that Show the(4,
equation that
sphere
ofthe
46, the(/,
4c), (46,
sphere
sphere g, h)through
4a), sphere 46). points
Show2. Show Find Show theinequationinoftwo the sphere two through
can be the
can
drawn four
be drawn
that the that, sphere that,
(-a,spheres
(0, 0, 0), general,
general, 6, c), (, spheres
Exercises
-6, c), (a, b, through -c)
points a given apoint
through given to point to
touch9.the
and determine
touch
Find
which1.
the the
co-ordinate
9.
the
Find
(0,
its equation
Show
0,the
co-ordinate
radius.that pianos
0), of
the line
(-a,theand
equation
the sphere
6,EXERCISES
pianos of
c),
sphere
ofpoints
the
find
(, and
which
the co-axal
for
-6,sphere what
find
c),has which
(a,
of the system
for what
-c) has its
b,positions
its centre thetheorigin
centre
of
positions
at
(D.U. Hons.
atofthe
point
1947)
the
andthe
169 point and
origin the

3
passes
and
which
spheres are
through
determinepasses
spheres
touches thetouches
are
through limitingthe points
limiting co-axal system Hons.
passs through
its
the line
radius. circles Exercises
of the faces of the (D.U.
tetrahedron OABC. 1947)
nine-point
(6) real, (6) coincident.
coincident. (P.U. 1944) (P.U. 1944)
The
5. Find Findsphere the centre
the
(a) real,
(Hi)the
equation andcuts
ofthe
(a)
theJC-axisdiameter
radius
atthe
of the ofpoints
of tho co-axal
circle
the
whose #-
sphere
2 co-ordinates
2
-f-?/ -|-2
2= 299 such are *r
and 1.
cuts
[The passes
and distances
every [The
cuts member
through distances
of member
the of
centre
limiting
the system
of transfer the from
ofthe centre
points
theorthogonally,
system from
co-ordinatethe co-ordinate
[Ans.system
whatever
planes 9 [Ans.
are
whatever
bo planes
the boarethe
all values
equal to
all equal to
ofvalues of
that a about every orthogonally,
thethe
ofradius

the roots rotation it will point to the point
thew.10. 3. the
radius Obtain
so that
10. equation
weso may
Find +
thatthe weequation
2?/H-2c=15,
equation suppose mayof
a x*of
that
the
suppose
a; + 2
yXaof
sphere + that
is
(4,
theX radius
z*~2y-4z=ll.
3, 2)
of the and
is radius
circumscribing which radius
the which
r (X, and(5, 0,
tetrahedron
touches
5)
is ^X,the the
X) isthree
the
v,along a Find
v,
greatw.
Obtain the
circlethe of tho
equation sphere.of
of Find
sphere
the also sphere
the radius r touches
angle through the tetrahedronwhich ^X,
the X)
the (X,three
sphere
whose
centre 3.
co-ordinate
mustHence be 4
facescentre
Xand
so
are X How
co-ordinate
being
axes.
deduce
Hence
cuts
;
rotated.
the beingaxes.
that
the
equation
parameter.]
many
deduce How
memberparameter.]
;
spheres
that many of the
sphere
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spheres
that system
circumscribing
can
so thatdrawn. be so[Ans.
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drawn.
y = limiting
(1, 3, 1
whatever
cos~ 4), V7.
the points bo the ofvalues of
whose faces
Find are every every sphere
that every
(L.U.)
sphere passes [Ar>s. through
orthogonally,
passes throughJz, 16/29).
limiting 1=
points of (

a104 2.
12.
The
co-axal a Show
104w. 12.
co-axal
system
roots
thethat Show
equation
cuts
of the
system
of the
ANALYTICAL
that
spheres
every
this cuts
[Ans.sphere
section
2(sHyH2
of
ANALYTICAL
everyspheres SOLID
that
[Ans. are
of tho GEOMETRY
2(sHyH2
of2
system thatsphere
SOLID
)4-2^2( system
2
GEOMETRY
)4-2^2(
fca;ydb)r+r
orthogonally.
1=
fca;ydb)r+r
as 0; do 0; eight. :
6.
v,Show that tho followingequation points sphereare constant, depending
concyclic orthogonally. they eight. :

OXYZ
:

upon 11.
2.the Prove
Show
(t) 2.
Hence
11. that
that
constants Prove
Show the
the deducethat
uthatand
equation
locus-6,
the
that
of
the the of
locus
c0),only. the
equation
every
(7, point
ofsphere
-3, sphere
the
of the
spheres
point
which
that
-9,
sphere
of lieswhich
the
passes
spheres
6).
inof
system
lies in
the octant
the
through system
thethe OXYZoctantpoints
limiting of
of
and which The
touches
4. a
aand
Obtain
given
thetouches
co-axal
spheres The
0,
the
2), (2,
(5, internal
co-ordinatethe
will
system be
co-ordinate
cuts
point
equationplanes of(x^the
Z24:X4:Qy
orthogonal
every beis
y^, of
planes
8),
the
is
Z24:X4:Qy
z^}
sphere
sphere if
(4,
tho
form
which
the of
182+225=0 the
centre.
is that
of sguare
passes form
182+225=0
system the
through
of (P.U. the 1939
distance
orthogonally. points between between
Suppl.)
ofsame
spheres will orthogonal if the sguare of twothe distance
theirThus Obtain 2, themeets (-7, 6,which (-4,
4. (tt) (-8, 5, 2), (-5, of
thesphere
equation 2), drawn
sphere the Jf-axis
6), 3,at 6). thethe
through the
touch centres
(The
common touchevery
plane
their
externally is
2. through
Show
and
equal
centres
externally that
find
is 1 (MI)
(.r and
to the
the
(1, the
?/j, sum
find
0,0), locus
point1 theofof
of
to (0,1,0),
the the
sum
the perpendicular
the
point of the
squares
contact.
(0,0,
,

of the
point
passes(

, to
of their
:
contact.
1), spheres )
line
theradii points
joining
system
their and this
points
radii this and this
is the to
and
point hence
and Show
requireshas its5
is the
the
6*41. centre
the
requires
that,
common
circle
result.
Spheres
Show
radius in as
of the
(0, 0, circle
that,
general,
equal
0)(1,
through
smallinas
of
two
of
system
tho
0,0),
general,
the
a
spheres
possible.
system
(0,1,0),
.sphere
giventwocan
determines
(0,0,
circle.
spheresbe drawn
on
1),The
squares
the
can be required
equation
drawn
through[Ana.
of section.)
athrough a(12/5,
[Ana. 20/5,9/6).
given
(12/5, point given point to
to 20/5,9/6).
and has
3. Obtain
radius tho as small
equations as of the circle lying the sphere
what
and theand what
its
touch the for which find for of the the point the
touch13. the co-ordinate
Find
the 13.common
the Find co-ordinate
centres the
pianos
circleof possible.
the
centres
of two
pianos
the offind
Exercises
spheres two spheres which
touch
positions the of the
touch
positions
plane the point
plane
w5.being is
v w that and system
v the parameters
arethe
2
+ +zof the
the parameters 2 d 2a constant.
and d a constant.
6z-h3-
cut
u,
spheres tare
u, Show
spheres being 2.T+4*/ 2/ the three
t
equation
a general sphere passing through the circle points
with
obviously
and 0,
5. Show
1.
having
3. Show represents
its
1, 3.
that
centreShow the
theat sphere
sphere
equation
that
(2,5, 3,
real, 4)the which
and 4).
sphere
sphere
the
ofcoincident.
cuts
having
real, which
spheretwo
its
passing
passing
centre
cuts
spheres
coincident. onthrough
two through
the
orthogonally
spheres plane
the three will
(P.U.
orthogonally points every
will
1944) cut every
(P.U. 1944)
or
(3,
at 2),
the point at
or the
v w 1, 1),
( (a)
and
(2,
the which (a)
(6)
and
and touch whichand
(6)
the touch
d a
sphere the sphere
on
member
equations the (8, point
5, 4) (8,
being
co-axal 5, 4)
parameters ^2+
determined 2^ them
constant.
centre
2_2.E4-4#-6z+3=-0=a?+5?/ the
them 7z-45.
[Themember
(3, 0, 2), of
u, 1, 1, 1),of (2,
t
theofsystem[An*.
co-axal
5,
the4) centre having
from itsby co-ordinate
determined
the from by orthogonally.
the plane ;:
system co-ordinate
and
distances
[The
(
distances of the centre areplanes
?y
orthogonally.
planes all equal are to all equal to
4. Find
Obtain the
is that
3.
the Show
we may and
thatwe A, the B, sphere
of =0,
are
the
that which
the
[7=0,
co-axal ison cuts
the two is spheres
Xradius of
the =QonateJ and
orthogonally
0^2.r and the cut every
will
the
passesradius
4.6.throughso
the radius
4. thethe
origin
Find
limitingthat
sosphere
limitingthe suppose
having
points
pointsmay C, of
its centre
the
suppose X
co-axal
of that
points
the the
system lino
co-axal
system 5?/-f 2~radius
spheres
system of ^X, X) is
3?/ (X, ^X, X) is the
6. X6
(X, spheres t>y
member
Obtain
being the
the
Xofbeing
the two
limiting
co-axal
having system
points determined
its centre on the
4), (2(4c, 4,
[Ana. by46).
lino them
[Ana.
(4,2,4). 2~ = (4,2,4).
0^2.r
(64/21,27/21,4).
orthogonally. and
3?/ (64/21,27/21,4).
centre
where
passing centre
through ; a the sphere the
(4,2apoints
parameter.] 46, parameter.]
4c), (0, (46,
2_20x+30(/-40s4-29-fX(2^ 2,4c, 4a),
Exercises 1, 1). Mr.
5?/-f
3i/-f4z)= N, 0.
Sreekanth
m
;
2_|_ 2_|_ 2
2_|_ 2/ 2_|_ 2_20x+30(/-40s4-29-fX(2^
Obtain
14. through theFind two
Obtain
the the the
2/
of spheres 4),that
of Exercises
(2 the 2 1, that
co-axal 1). 2 the3i/-f4z)= 0.
the 12-0.
Show
passing of +y2+s through -6a?-4y+ of
the14.
Mthrough
12.that Show 4. points
equations equations
(0, 2, [Ans. spheres pass pass
system points
lOc-f points
1,0), (4, 1,0),
and cuts Find
sphere
12. Show
the
S=*+f+z*+2**+2vy+2
that
member
and0,
that
spheres
touch
limiting
ofand the
the
the spheres
touch
system
points
2x + 2y-z=ll. 2 [An*.
+y2+s
td
+through
2xthat 2 (2, -3, 4);
whatever
-6a?-4y+ the bo
spheres
(-2,
the
-3,
(4,
values
12-0.
3, -4).
a-
of 3, 1934)
every the A the of the orthogonally,
that 2y-z=ll.
9
(2, -3, 1. 4),(1,
7. (2, -3,
sphere whose 0)Find
equation
0, 4),(1,
1. the
centre
a 2_|_ 0) of
equation 2 lies plane
sphere
sphere [Ans.
the
in theplane a-
passes
positive passespasses
2/ 2_|_ 2_20x+30(/-40s4-29-fX(2^ .Sc.(Maths)
through octant
through 0.
[An*. lOc-f
circle
(2, (P.U.
the 4); the(-2,
(P.U.
1934)
circle -4). O.U
3i/-f4z)= '

= C
*
v, w. 5.7. andThree Three
5. spheres A
whose of radii
centre
-\-my-\-nz U=lxr,
of;Slies
ri,#2+ p.
radiirin have
= = m ya+*)
the their
r3^ centres
have + ya+*)
4yoctant
their A,
centres at the points
B,50y-49*
through =+C
the
att the 86=;0.+
thethe
A + OABC.
[Ans.
origin cuts
sphere
a724-2/24_;j2_6z+22/-4z+5==0
[Ans. 2_2.r-f
spheres
planes
2/ 2_j_
;S
2_j_3z/-4z-f
#2+ Z24:X4:Qy
a724-2/24_;j2_6z+22/-4z+5==0
rr-0, 3, 2
yof the
2_2.r-f r,
6-0,
16(a?*-f
0,;ri,
3z/-4z-f ,;circles
0,positive
3of 5z
of
16(a?*-f
6-0, 15
xadii
passes
3^102a?-f
4y
tetrahedron \/2, A,
5z102a?-f
1526,
\/ 86=;0.
B,50y-49*
\/2c points
passs
and
(a, 0,cuts
origin
through
Hence
0),
15.
and
respectively(0,
the
and
Also,
(a,
deduce
cuts
6,
Find
the
0, show
0),
;15.the
cuts
0),
nine-point
the that
0, c)
that
Find
(0,
the 6,planes
equation
equation
(0, the
its
0),
and
every
circles
2/

of n*+fi*+r
rr-0, c) and
sphere
0,the
equation
equation
= n*+fi*+r
ysphere
of
is that
0, the
faces
Z24:X4:Qy
0, m *=a*+b*+c*.
=*=a*+b*+c*.
182+225=0
passes
23 inscribed
sphere
the
circles [An*.
182+225=0
inof the
3 through
inscribed
fourth
in
(2,
thetetrahedron
xadii \/2,
limiting
the
-3,A
sphere
\/fourth
26,
4); (-2,
t of
passes
whose
points
\/2c
tetrahedron
sphere
3, -4).
whose
passes
sphere
Find show
the 5. and
the and
Three sphere (0,
Bequation
of the Show
of
C. diameterBradii that the
r,
of r
tho have
3radical their
=the
2
centre centres
2 2
the A,
of-|-2 four =
29B,such at C
the
6z+ll =pointA(5,
a
touch
co-axal
through 5. touchorigin
system cuts
that
equation
the A,
findits
everythe
spheresand
and of
of the
is that
theC.point Show
ri,contact.
system
of thesphere
that radical centre of the points
spheres
four spheres
+A,
*r -f-?/
faces externally
arethrough
respectively faces are find
point
sphere ,
orthogonally.
contact.
lies on
that a the
rotation
externally
about
origina2+2/2
;

will
it 0), transfer
cz=0.
-2_|_2a+4#
0, c)a2+2/2
and +point
then*+fi*+r 6z+ll
-2_|_2a+4#
t

(4, 3 *=a*+b*+c*.
3, 2) to the fourth
t

sphere passes
a 7
orthogonally.
2. Show
lies onz0),
(a,plane
0,
A plane
(t)
=
that
orthogonally.
acircle
ax+by-\-
the (0, 6,
0,
the
the =
plane z0,= (0,
ax+by-\-
locus z=0,
0,
tho sphere.
of the
(t)
of= the
andthrough
0,
cz=0.
aB
z=0,
Findpoint
C.
also spheres
Show
the
of the
that
thecircle with
the
[Ana.
system
and
b,22 c)radical
(12/5,
which [Ana.
centre
cuts the
0, (D.U.)
5)
20/5,9/6).
(12/5,
theinfour
axes
the of
(D.U.)
20/5,9/6).
along through
6. great
8. Show A, 2/
point 2 angle through 2/
sphere
origin
passes through a fixed +i/(a,+
from equations bo spheres
general
that sphere of 2 which
represents
A
must B13.
be
8. C.
Find
A
so Showons=
the
6.
13.
rotated.
plane
(w)
lies theShowy
passes
that(w) =sthe
centres
Findthe 0,= locus
of
that thethe
centres
2-0, y
through
locus
two
=the
2a?- [Ans.
locus
of
acentre
2-0,
cz=0.
point
spheres
the
fixed
oftwo
2a?- awhich
[Ans.
f>(o:
point
the point
spheres
touch
(a, OABC
from
f>(o:which
b,%x +i/
c)
2
equal
= the
and
is+
=
which
)-13.};+19?/ 2 tangents
touch
plane
)-13.};+19?/
cutscos~the
the1 axes
equal may
plane in
tangents
t

may bo ;2 ;2

drawn the three 0, plane ax+by-\-

0, of 0, (L.U.)
of sphere
[Ar>s. y 16/29). (D.U.)
2. todrawn
Find OABC Jz, two (
t

B 6. the spheres
Find the is2 the
l =
of that the two points
y

A[Ana. Show 2. to the

equation the equation
three fl=0, of =
sphere
+ the '=(), l =
passes that through 2 points
is the C.
common
(i)Show
[Ana.6.
that
circle the
Show of
32(x*+y*+z*)-S(x+y+z) locus
the
that spheres
of
(i) 32(x*+y*+z*)-S(x+y+z)
the
the
system
centre
locus of the
0.
of a +
sphere
sphere
9(*2+
0. passes
2
from +z
9(*2+
(D.U. through
which
)-f
2
+z
6(*-2/-f
Hons., )-f 2=0.
6(*-2/-f
z)-f60) 2=0.
may bo
z)-f

t
tho following 2. (ii) (ii) 1958,
that a/a+6/7/+c/zpoints=are concyclic equal tangents
y
point 2/ 2/

(-2,-
:

atwhere
the point drawn and which touch
(0,3,0), the
(0,3,0), -4)
1, (-2,- -4)
1, (D.U. 2Hons.,
Let
16.
and cuts and
at
thethe
(8, 5,
Tangent
16. to 4)
point OABC
the
0, Tangent
sphere
(t) (5,
three
(8,
plane
2), 5,
the-6,
(2,
bo
at4)
two
and
a/a+6/7/+c/z
spheres
any which
at
0), (7,point
plane -3, any
sphere
touch
2.
of the
(4, -9,
8), point
the ofsphere
sphere
6). the # 2
+y
sphere + #
z*2 =r1958,
+y 22 moots
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radius
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let
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2 =:l,2 5. that thethe
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x =0 x*+y*+z*+2k
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equation
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hyperbola. Show
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whoselocus whose
of thebase is the
the locus of P isthrough
base is is circle circle the three
through points the three points
1. We
Find
have1. the have
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Find We
cono of the
the enveloping
(a, 0, 0), (0,
conosphere
0, 0), (0,
(a, 6,0),
of the sphere
6,0),
(0, 0, c) (0, 0, c)
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+c%s
r^kS+at.rf^kf+a*.
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1958}
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at equation
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(0,
planethez (a, Q cutsz =the
6,0), (0, 0, c)
enveloping oono of the
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2 = 11 which at (2,=4,
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at (2,=4, 1) in a rectangular (B.U.hyperbola.
1958}
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[Ans.Za(&
2
+c%s 0.
whose vertex is (1, 2, 3) and guiding (B.U. 1958}
6.
curve 7.7'14.The Quadric
7.
6.
plane
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Find
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plane+ lx+my
cones nz =with + nz
moves
Qcones
equation
=with
vertex
of in moves
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atcone
vertex such
a whose
in way
origin. To
a way
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at origin. itsisthat
prove To its and
(1, that
intersection
2, 3) the
intersection that
guiding
is the circle
withathe Quadric prove the
with the curve coneplanes
the circleits vertex at the in x, y, in
equationplanesof is
equation
ivith
of a cone ivith its vertex homogeneous
at theisorigin
origin is homogeneous z
x, y, z
and conversely.
and conversely. [Ans.Show that tho normal to the Page 38
Show that
are perpendicular. normal to the at the origin describes,
the origin
at piano
are perpendicular.
7. The We
take
plane up lx+my
the
take
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general
of
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Q second
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in a cono
in general, general,
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The plane up lx+my
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+
degree, and
nz = Qequation
degree,find its
moves in such
its
equation. Examine
equation.
a way that its the intersection
case which aa'+^'+cc'^O. + + +
l
which in (M.T. 1956)
caseaxin +aa'+^'+cc'^O.
cz~ +
l
(M.T.
 Conversely, it is obvious that if the result (2) be true then the
with direction ratios I, m, n is a generator of the cone whose
line
equation is (1).
Cor. 2.
But this But this The general
is the equation
condition of the cone with its vertex at
tliat the point (a, p, 7) should lie on
(,
the
is the condition tliat the
y) is
P, surface
point (a, p, 7) should lie on
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as can easily be the origin to the point

verified by transferring
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14
ExampleExample
or Example
or Find theFind the
equationequation of a right ofExamplethe auadric
circular cone whose vertex is at the origin
cylinder of radius 2 whose axis
Find and Find
which the
passes equation a and
through of has a the rightcurve circular
Example given cylinder
by the equations
whose 2
of2radius whose axis
passes through the equation
(/, 2, of 3) right circular direction cylinder cosines of radius proportional axis to
passes through and has direction cosines proportional to
3) and
which Find (/, 2, 3) has a right Example cosines U. 2 whose axis
passes
which
(2, -3,is, through
6).
therefore,
is,(/, the
therefore,
2,
theequationrequired
the of required direction
equationequation
circular
of thecylinder of theproportional
of(P. radius1940)
cylinder.cylinder.(P. U. 1940)
to
(2, -3, 6). Example
(2, -3,
Thepasses
6).axis The
Find Cor. the
ofthrough
required
theIf rightthe
equation (/, circular
equation
2, of
generators3) a right and is
cylinder thehas
becircular direction
homogeneous
is tosoZ-axis
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equation
of radius
so that
U. of
1940)
proportional the
2 whose axis second to

114Find
Cor. the
The the The
If
-3,
theaxis
equation
equation generators of the
of
of a circular
right
right
be circular
right circular
circular
parallel
and
parallel
to Z-axis
cylinder
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GEOMETRY
cylinder the oftwo
of radius
is that
= 2 whose axis U. 1940) We

axis
degree of satisfied
the ANALYTICAL
by SOLID has GEOMETRY given equations.
2,ANALYTICAL cosines
114 a through is
direction 3 (P. to
passes through
passes
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passes
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rewrite The
6).
(/, 2, "right
l-J^-S^-S
2,a 3)
" =
3) and
(/, points
of l-J^-S^-S
/
" 0--m hasr and
cylinder
satisfying
3)has / a~l.^y-2^z 0--m
direction
direction
SOLID
and
n a~l.^y-2^z cosines
I, cosines
n I, proportional
is proportional
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proportional to
to
(P. U. 1940)
'

(2, -3, ~2~

a 6). (/,
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l-J^-S^-S "-3 the" right 6 circular
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of the -3 "2/7" U. 1940)

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6 -{-my \~nz=pThe
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1940)
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point
6 ofExercises
circular
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a~l.^y-2^z
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r the
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any
h)-3
Find ~2~
aany h) from point with
6the cylinder. The and3 of square the
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(/, the
of 1.the
as
a
<7,
a
h) be
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Find
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point
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the "
l-J^-S^-S
<7,
the
(/, point
of
equation
g,
the ofcone "
the
ofthe
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from
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axis vertex
cylinder. with
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the origin
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is
"2/7" ==l at the 6/7 directionand direction
cosines
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'
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(/, <7,
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the required
6
equation
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6/7
The
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Equating
Let Let it to
be ANALYTICAL the
h) be
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16 of Exercises
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(/, <7,Equating
h) be anyitpoint
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any point to the of SOLID
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square cylinder.
of the radius y
The
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[Ana. seeof that the point
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(/ h)distance
Equatingsatisfies
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to the point
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the from radius
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2axis we y
that the point
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point
Find
satisfies
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to
equations the
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whoso generators
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(/ 0>
pass through
3. pass
satisfies
Thethe 3. curves
through
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Thethe equationcurves
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the
planes by the
to an generators
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points points
wel5 P 2
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at the l5

,
tangent planes ellipsoid Iy=j3
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so that the
a tetrahedron
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and (i)0>
or a=
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tetrahedron
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to
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= itthe
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the
where
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Iy=j3
squaretheA where of the
l radius
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y that is the
which
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of Provethe is
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Prove

h) satisfies equation x isthat
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the planes
2 = 3.
the required the
(/ h) (/
tangent satisfies
(ii) plane
0> (ii) .

2 = 3. P
0> x
(/ 0> h) satisfies the equation 0:2+27/2=1,
so(m)
17
that the required A,A
(m) A,A 2 P 21equation 0:2+27/2=1,
2 P
P 21 is
-M 3 -M3
2 A,A,P,
2 A,A,P, + 2(4?/2-za;) + G(a;-4y-33)-f24
= 0.
+ 2(4?/2-za;) + G(a;-4y-33)-f24 = 0.
,
3 3
[Ans.
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)

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radius 2 whose axis
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Find
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24) 2/4, 24)
of radius 2 whose axis
Find the equation + z<+c=^0 of thecp + z<+c=^0
v=l,
right circular v=l, cylinder
Exercises nfocH&y*) H-2to+2my-2p=0.
18
to the ellipsoid [Ans. ;

to the ellipsoid [Ans. [Ans.

cp
[Ans.
;
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the 2 whose 2 cwhose
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w an( j of the circular of radius of of radius axis axis
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homogeneous right
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linear 2 is with
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)
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)
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quadric
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cylinder
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generators join the O origin O
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X-axis and
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to passing through of intersectionof Scurve
the n!= and ofy S_^zl
=and
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are Show The a#this2 ~2~
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are Show that 2. [Ans.that
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show that this ~2~
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show
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prove fixed, that
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show thatshow its equation
that its equation isis ~3~
show that [The required cone, (7, is given by
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19
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Find the equation
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Find
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[Hint. Show the
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that the CE=
of
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cylinder whose guiding circle is
and
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radius
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rr
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4. so Obtain
2.] 4. the
that Obtain
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see the
that of the
equation
the cone ofC
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meets right (iv) circularin describeddescribed
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of C meets
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20
and
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the
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that the the points
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Siiif-o the Obtain
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4. 2/ =
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three A^4. points
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of the
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guiding
UNIT-III
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Wei.e., Find between in = which = x'2 -}-y z -\-z^xyyzzx^=.\.
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21
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frequently will conditions.
frequently be the in
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Find
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the angle
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1 determined
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so as to have 151
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if
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instance,
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ul-{-vm-{-wn=0 +f +f = (
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)
2
*=-4,
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Zavwmn +
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aZ
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2 we+
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en
2 2
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l)
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,

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meetwhich From
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pass
Show
Eliminating
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or quudric or
which
1.
these
the
From
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pass
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the
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these
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a
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it the
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enare and
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these
are wecone
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2obtain
planes which
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+cu*)=Q.
obtain (awall2 +cu*)=Q.
planespass all
passes
passes
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pass
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through
or three
the
the line
the three
axes
Eliminating
the
2 axes 2is
Eliminating
is I from
(av*+bu*)
(av +
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(
22
I
m ++ m + +=
u+2avw
Zavwmn
band 2
+ +
(i)
+= +
pianos
2 21 Zavwmn
2 ( obtain
we
( (aw
(n),2
cu
(aw
l 2 2~
(aw )n +cu*)=Q.
2
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m ++ m++ += + +++= +
line (av
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)
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bu 73-60-43 Zavwmn 0, 21
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73- a60 73-

2
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)
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(aw
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cu l
n that
;
,

i3 60/ i3+ 'W

2
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'W
)
plane (av*+bu*) (
(av*+bu*) + (+2avw
0. /(aw0.+cu*)=Q. 2
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,

...(HI)
The general its (aw +
a
or JV'2 ( QiQJ JV'2 of+2avwa coneQiQJ with
( vertex at the origin...(HI)

11,1
equation is

11,1
or 2.TheObtain (av*+bu*) (aw +cu*)=Q.
+
, ,

of a cone with vertex

,

(
,

general2. theObtain
equation
tangent the planes (
+2avw to the its
to the 2 at the is ...(HI)
(av*+bu*) (
'1\*.< ( 'Aj tangent
2
= 3fc r-7cz = 3fc 9,
C ((^.r planes
a&*+ by*+cz*+2fyz+2gzx+2hxy=Q.
73-60 73-60 '1\*.< 'Q^ (
'Aj
2 ellipsoid
( '-ft 2
C i(^.r .< 'AV
(aw 'Q^ +cu*)=Q.
ellipsoid ( '-ft
i .< 'AV
2 origin...(HI)
cosines 1, 0, ...(i)
i.e., i.e., 9, ...(i)
a&*+x*la* + y*lb*t**lc*~I,
r-7cz
+
by*+cz*+2fyz+2gzx+2hxy=Q.
x*la* y*lb*t**lc*~I,
through Since
the
through
given the
.Jf-axis
linegivenis a
will touch
line willthetouch
generator, given itsthe given surface
surface
direction satisfy (i).
which are
SinceHence which a the
CPi.dV
to t=
.Jf-axis
parallel
Thisthe
are
is
=
parallel
result.
a planeto t the
generator, CPi.dV
(^.C plane =
its direction
2 ^2 22bCl^.CJtz
-z +2i=0 c -z
cosines
^2
0. +2i=0
(^.C Cl^.CJtz1, 0, satisfy (i).
c=
Hence
=gives 0.
the result.
73 2
Ix \-30 =Exercises
Similarly 730.-30 2 2
This gives aie aconstants. bM0-f Ixnz~().
8 =l,
aie constants. 0. Similarly nz~().
\ M0-f
i.e., i.e., 2. Show that -i^ a cone + V+2\2-i^
can V+2\2
beExercises
+found
8
=l, so as to contain any two given seta
8*31. 1. 2r
2.
If 24
Show
Show
is the
Tangent
three
that
that
8*31.
If
1.
of comcoid Show
a
distance
the
2rlines
is
*
mutually
and
cone
the
Tangent
that ~between
can
distance
tangenttangent
the
beplanes
* found
lines two
and
~
between
plane
tangent
perpendicular
a
so
at at
the
astwo
parallel
tangent
ato
a
concurrent
planes
extremities
contain
point.tangent
plane
parallel
at the
atanyaof two
planes
tangent
point.
extremities
lines as
diameter
the
to seta
any given
ofplanes to the
any diameter
of a central
Let
if of three
ellipsoid, ifprove
a
mutually
of that
central
Let
ellipsoid, -are
17
the +
parallel.
comcoid
prove line
(
that
perpendicular
-
are
0)a
17
through
the +
line(
=
the
concurrent 0)a
throughorigin
(3fc-9) the
lines=
aand
as and
a
+f
perpendicular
origingenerators.,
(3fc-9)
generators.,
+f to
perpendicularthe to the
touches the conicoid
parallel.
Show
2. lies on thatcone the plane 21 17
2)lanes 2)lanes the Show
2. lies
= on s-a
the
that cone
7 21 12//
3o;-f
s-a 2-7
7
y-p of contact. 2-7
the .*
6-: .*
touches the conicoid
= -+ + =-y-p
17
3x- 2
i.e., if
2
-62/ 4-92
3x-
i.e.,
2
2 4-17 2 0,22
if 2x4-92
-62/
and find the
r 2x
(a 4-17
=2fc 2
2 0, 2and
)/ (ay\b*
point
'm"
-
5 2
r )the
r 2find
9fc+'1:=~0.
2fc
plane 3o;-f 12//
3 5 of2 contact.
+n2'point
9fc+'1:=~0.
(c r ) +r 2' 3
0. + +-
2
r[Ana.0.
6-:
= - == - = - (0 - (0
) ) ) y\b* 'm"
/ n (c (-1,2,2/3).
This This Hons. [Ana. (-1,2,2/3).
3. Find
givesthe equations
gives to the tangent planes to (D.U.
the surface
(D.U. Hons.
} 1947, 1959)
} 1947, 1959)
be a?i?/ line through
be 3. Find
the the equations
the thethe
to of surface
tangent of the surface
to surface
the
The tangent line point
The tangent
a?i?/
planes *=-4,to
through(a, p_,
parallel
7) -1.
*=-4,
point
the (a,
planes parallel
2
-1.
7)
top_,the
plane
planes
plane
ThereforeTherefore aor+tyHcz
the required
^3 aor+tyHcz
the pianos --!,
are
2
...(J) = =
required ^3 0,are--!,
0, pianos
...(J)
so that
are so
are that 73-60-43 + 21
73-60-43 = 0, 21 0, + =
-| 73-
a>.
2
Ilx=^YaV.
+cy
60/^ 73-
-|
+ a>.
60
2
=Ilx=^YaV.
/=l. / ==l.
/^ ++cy
...(m)...(1) ...(m)
i3 0.
i3
2
0.
...(1)
2 2 2

One The
root
2. ofObtain The
distance
the
One 2. the
equation between
distance
rootObtain
of the^4)
tangent the between
these
8*3
planes
equation to these
the
therefore,
is, parallel
tangent ^4)
planes 8*3
to zero.
planes
ellipsoid
parallel
is,
which is
planeszero.
thetherefore,
ellipsoid
twice isthe
which twice the
distance of either
distance
The line from
of thefrom
either the
(i) +will
touch is
(i) The
will linex*la* origin
the conicoid
touch +origin
y*lb*t**lc*~I,
x*la* the is at
(ii)conicoid
y*lb*t**lc*~I, 7) ifatboth
(a, p, (ii) the
(a, p, 7) if both the
whichofare
values r given
values by the
of equation the 8'3 are zero. 8'3 are zero.
which
parallel tor the
are parallel
plane
given by the(A)
to equation (A)
plane
TheThus
secondweThus
have we
value have
also be zero,
The second
will Ixvalue
\ M0-fwillIx if
also
nz~(). be zero, if
\ M0-f nz~().
Page 39
If 2r is the a/a+fcwtp-r-c/iy^-O,
is the between
distance
If 2r distance two
a/a+fcwtp-r-c/iy^-O,
between two tangent
parallel ...(iv) the
tangent toplanes
parallel planes the
...(iv)
to
which is thus
ellipsoid, which
prove condition
the that the line
thus
is prove the
that the line
forthrough
linethe(i)
condition
the for to
throughthe
origin and
bethea tangent
line and
line
be a
perpendicular
originto to the
to the
tangent line
perpendicular to the
to the
or ellipsoid,
or (i)
 the line [Ans.
[Ans. a 2 a-
8*72. Locus of midpoints of a system of parallel chords. Let
1 9 m, n be
8*72. Locus of midpoints of a system of ofparallel
a given chords. Let
Hence proportional to the direction cosines system of
parallel1 9 m, to n the
parallel
the
chords piano
result.
betoand the piano
proportional
let
to the be direction cosines
the of of aonegivenof system
them. of
parallel (a, p, 7) Exercises midpoint any
parallel chords and let (a, p, 7) be the midpoint of any one of them.
Find 1. theirFind
As Show
the chord
theirof points
contact ofalso.
contact also.
Aspoints
thethat chord the tangent planes at the extremities of any= diameter
of a central comcoid are parallel. \Ans. 4s+20i/-21*13
\Ans. 4s+20i/-21*13 = (1, =F4,(1, =p3).=F4, =p3). ;

Hence the result.

Find the equations to the two which
;

4.
2. Find
Show 4.
thethat the
equations to
plane the two
m
3o;-f planes
12//
which
n
6-: planes
'
17 contain contain
the
touches the the
line line given by
conicoid
given by
Exercises
3x- 2 -62/ 2 4-92 2 4-17 = 0, and find
I
the 30=0, m30=0,
of SySz-^Q
contact.
'
n SySz-^Q
25 7.e-fl0.y 7.e-fl0.y
I point
and
of the touch and
the touch
Show ellipsoid
that the
is bisected
theellipsoid
tangentat (a, at we thehave, as in [Ana.
extremities of any diameter
1. quadric planes
(3, 7), 8*71, (-1,2,2/3).
of a of the quadric
comcoid is bisected at (a, (3, 7), we have, as in
central
3. Find are
the equations to the tangent planes to the surface 8*71,
parallel.
= 0. = 0.
3x- 2 -62/
2.
Now
2
Show that the plane [Ana.
2
m,=anyn. andarefind fixed
the
two the
7j?+6y+32-30=O
3o;-f 12// [Ana.
locus
of on
6-:

a of
contact.
7j?+6y+32-30=O
17 touches
the midpoints
the14^+5^4-92-60
14^+5^4-92-60
Show
conicoid f

ofthe plane f

26 P, two
being on Show P, 7)
5. 4-92P, <9 are
4-17
5. any a central
point central
conicoid. conicoid. that
(a, the that
the parallel
through
Nowthe
I,

through chords
centre
0, <9
m,
I, the
and
points
n. being
centrethe
isthe and
line of
^
fixed
the
points
^ the
line
locus of the
of intersection
intersection of midpoints
of the tangent the[Ana.
tangent at(a,
plane
P, 7)
(-1,2,2/3).
of
at P, Q will
plane planes P, Q will
planes
bisec-tthe
3. PQ.
bisec-t
parallel
Find Also
the chords
PQ. show Also that the
is show plane
the if the planes
thatplanes the centre
through theparallel
centre to
tangent planes tangent
equations toalx
P, Q cut
at planes at the
+
the
if
P, Qchordcutalx
+
tangent
bmy
+ of the
PQchord
the +
through
planes
cnz 0,
in P',PQ Q', in
cnz
to the surface
P', Q', then
then
the
parallel to the
ENVELOPING
bmy CYLINDER
which ENVELOPING
which
CYLINDER
clearly passes through ENVELOPING the centre
PP'=QQ'.
the
CYLINDER
PP'=QQ'. of
0, 163
quadric and and is known> 163
is known>
163
as the clearly passes throughto the direction the quadric
centre
6. diametral
Prove
parallel to
6.that the
Prove
planepiano
the that the
conjugate
locus of the
locus of the
of thefoot of the m, n.
the foot central central perpendicular
I,perpendicular on varying on varying
bviously the the
asNote.
enveloping Note.
diametral coneplane
Obviously
Obviously
passes
the ENVELOPING
conjugate
through
Aellipsoid the
enveloping
cone
cone
points common
direction
to CYLINDER
the passes m, n.
through
I, the
the 163 common
points
common
1 x+
tangent tangent
planes
to the the ellipsoid
of planes
conicoid and the
of enveloping
the passes through the points
centre is the-
any By-\-Cz=Q
given
d and the Conversely plane ENVELOPING through
CYLINDER 1 of the vertex
polar
to the plane
conicoid
Find
Conversely and the
aoLX+bfiy-t-
their points
any cz*f
polarofplane
planecontactA
of the
polar
x+ plane
vertex aoLX+bfiy-t-
eBy-\-Cz=Q
aoLX+bfiy-t-
also. (a,
cz*f p, 1 y)of cz*f vertex
the
through the centre
(a, p, y)
(a, p, y) 163
is the-
diametral
e enveloping con e may
plane Thus the
be conjugate as to the
a cone condirection
may
whose be regarded isn theas a cone
m,4s+20i/-21*13 whose
byvertex=common vertex is the
27
Thus is the
enveloping
regarded
the con e may to be cone vertex
I, a
whose
I, m, n given
is the Note.
diametral
surfacetheObviously
enveloping
surface
plane enveloping
conjugate the direction
regarded as
\Ans.
passes throughcone the points by the =F4,
is (1,
=p3).
nd guiding curve
to thepoint given
is the
and4. section
point
and
Note. and
the of the
guiding curve
conicoid
the is the
by section
cone of the conicoid by
the its polar common
;

given conicoid Find

guiding curveplane
Obviously
polar
the
(*a+y2
to the conicoid andequations
is
+2
al bm +2
its
+
en
aoLX+bfiy-t-
S)2 to
the (*a+y2bm S)2
!=B0 the twothe
2 2 ofpolar
section
enveloping cz*f
!=B0
&2i,2
2c
planes
of the
2 conicoid
+ +
1plane.
passes
2,2.i;
+
which
&2i,2
vertex
through
by
c its polar
contain
2,2. (a,
(B.
i; p,the points
plane.
U.
y) line
plane.
U.
(B. given
1915) by
1915)
en as a cone

albe plane aoLX+bfiy-t-1 of the vertex
ThusFind
7. the 7. theFind
enveloping
Exercises locusthe con e
the
of locus may polar regarded
the
of7.e-fl0.y Exercises fromSySz-^Q cz*fwhose vertex
the from the is the
the tangent
to origin
(a, p, y)
Thus the Exercises
perpendiculars
con e may be30=0,
perpendiculars as origin
a cone whose
to the tangent
and curve
enveloping the section of the conicoid
regarded vertex is the
oint
given
P
planes
moves1.
to
point the
andthat
so A
planes
given
1.
guiding
surface
touch
to the A
the
P thesurface
and section
moves P
ellipsoid
point
is
moves
of
so that the
curvethe so that
enveloping
is the section the
section section
cone
ofofthe of
by of
its
the enveloping
polar plane.
the
conicoid by enveloping
cone cone of
of plane.
22 point 2 guiding
its polar
2 Thus 2 point P
is a isas some
-2 /c =l
2 2
with
# 2 /a P
2# as
/> /a
-f-2/ Thus
vertex
every2
-f-2-f-2/
central
22=l 2
/>by-f-2 the
with
central
2 =l with
P
/cplane
plane z=0
as vertex Exercises
is
diametral
aa vertex
by circle
the plane
diametral byplane
; show
the
z=0 that z=0 is; show
isconjugate
plane a circle a to
circle
tothat; show
some that
AP
/c
every plane the sum plane whoseconjugate
P
which from thewhosesum to= a
cutwhichoff on one axes
from of
of the conies
direction.
on one ofcut
lies theits
P off
conies of the
moves its axes intercepts
conies
intercepts Exercises
[Ana. of
7j?+6y+32-30=O
reciprocals is equal is
reciprocals a
to equal
14^+5^4-92-60

lies 1. so that the section of the cone 0.
direction.
constant point enveloping
f
of
Note.
constant
z 22 l/k.
#22 /a 2 -f-2/ 2 If 1. 2 P A
5. be
/c P =l
2 l/k.
P, x 2are
2 <9
2/any
with
point PP
z2
point any2
2/
22
as moves
ontwo
vertex 2 so that
thezpoints xon
conicoid,
by 2 a then
the the
plane2 2 xthe
central 2
z=0
section 2
is2 a of
conicoid.
plane the Show
bisecting
circle ; show
chords
that
envelopingthat the cone of
plane
28
2/ /> -f-2 be on then the chords
P lies onto
Note.
# 2
OP
through
one
2
/aof-f-2/
If 2the
called
isthe
2
/>conies
-f-2any
2
centre
the 2 =l
point
andwith
/c diametral P the
the plane
lineas of \Ans.
conicoid,
vertex
of OP. by
intersection \Ans.
the of planez=0
a*JC*+b*t/*+c*z*=k*(*+y+z)*.
the bisecting
planes show
is a circle ; at
a*JC*+b*t/*+c*z*=k*(*+y+z)*.
plane tangent P, Qthat
will
liesOP
parallel
parallel
8.
Note.
the
P
Show to
bisec-t 8.that
on
AnotherPQ.is called
Show
one the
Also
2 method.
the
the
the
ofthat show
lines diametral
the
conies
z 2theUse
through
of
that
lines if plane
xthe
through
(a,
of enveloping
the elements
of OP.
2 (3, y) planes
at
drawn
2
2cone (3,through drawnthe WeWe
perpendicular
y) the
(a,infinity. know centre the toto the
to parallel
that
perpendicular the the
e section of 2. the 2. 2/ cone
If of of
section
the cone of the of
tangent
enveloping
If
Note.
tangent
planesof any
section
Another
to line to P,
planes method.
ABAB
at enveloping
is 2/the
Use
ellipsoid
2Q cut 2 of
the
harmonic
z chordelements PQ inxellipsoid
at
P',of Q',the2then
2 infinity. 2 ellipsoid know
at infinity on
that the

mid-point tangent planes conjugate point
line w.r. to A any
of the harmonic
+ locus of the at on
and line
is conjugate
themid-point B. Thus a,*la* the of+the
PP'=QQ'. point
of a system
infinity
is P by the
whose
which the
chords
line
plane
If
2.vertex
is which
pass
the
whose z0
w.r.is P
thethrough
polar
6.
2.
to
section
pass
Aitrectangular
vertex
is a
by
Prove
plane
If
and
the
of
the
through
P
is the
of
B. by
plane
generate
that
section
z0
Thus
theenveloping
the
the
the
itpointof
the
cone
plane
hyperbola,
at
locus
the
generate
z0
a,*la*
is a cone
locus
rectangular
the
of the
infinity cone
of
show
of
mid-points
foot
the
thea rectangular
common
is
at infinity common to the
mid-points
that
ofellipsoid
cone
the
hyperbola,
theto
of the
central
the
of ashow
system
hyperbola,
chords of
of parallel
the ofshow
that parallel
the that the
system. on varying
locus of Plocus
chords
We
is
is
know
theof polarP is plane of the point enveloping
of the
perpendicular
chords of the
ellipsoid system.
tangent planes
that (I, m, the at on a line whose
whose We
vertex
j-know2
P is9.isP by
2
z that
the1 n.
n,
(I, m,
-plane
z0ellipsoid
n,
is
0)j- 2 is z 2the point
j- 2
0) is a rectangular
z0 point z 2 infinity lying
at infinity
hyperbola,
on a
show that the
lying line whose
direction
locus
9.
direction
Ifratios
of Pwhoseis ratios
is the from
are the
vertex
If
surface
areT-
/,P m,point
isis
/, m,P the on Its
Its
n. the
by
on j-
the
polar
point plane
polar T-
plane
on the
ellipsoid
plane
1w.r.
-
isw.r. T-
2 the
atorectangular
(Agra,
ellipsoidto 1938)
+2?/ the
at P is of
-f \z2 2 =\ 2 such
1 -2conicoid,
+2?/
2 that
-f \z =\ 1938)
(Agra,
hyperbola,
conicoid, show
suchthe that
that1938)
(Agra, the
the
perpendicular locus of P the
is fromoriginthe tho2 tangenton tho piano P
unit of unit show
29
perpendicular origin 2 tangent at
piano three is length, show
that P
the locus oflies
3. Find
points
oil the
3.
0110fromFind
orlocus which
P lies oil homogeneous
other the
of of three
locus
the
orpoints
of from z
mutually
(*a+y2 +2
points which from
^z. three
2 2which
perpendicular + +
mutually mutually
perpendicular
length,
perpendicular
(B. U. 1915)
expressed
drawn
can be tangent
that
tolines
expressed
in cartesian
the
tangent can
in beFind
conicoid drawn
cartesian
7. lines
0110
can
a:r
2 to
the
other
drawn
2
be locus
the
homogeneous
+&7/ -f-cz
planes
of
2 =l.
conicoid
to
of
T-
the
the
3^/ 1 -2
j- S)2
planes
co-ordinates, 2
co-ordinates,
the a:r
!=B0 2
z is
3^/
T-
+&7/ 2 -f-cz
conicoid
i;

a:ris
&2i,2
^z.
22 =l. 2
1 - +&7/
from
c 2,2.
2 =l.
-f-cz the
(Agra, 1938)
(Agra, 1938)
2 = 0, origin to the tangent
8-34.
3. Find
planes
Normal.
[Ans. 8-34.
the the Normal.
a(64
to locus
Find
c)z
surface
2 alx 4- bmy2+ cnz perpendiculars
of +6(c+a)2/
thetoto
points alx 4-from
[Ans. bmya(64
-f +which
[Ans.
c(a- cnz
w.
of points 2 from2 which
a(64
c)z +6(c+a)2/
w.three=c)z 2 2
+6(c+a)2/ 2
-f c(a- perpendicular
0, mutually -f c(a-
three mutually perpendicular

ir of perpendicular Def. A
lines 3.ofbe
The
can A drawn
normal ofat locus
thethe conicoid
alx+bmy-{-cnz=().
a:ra +&7/ to planes =l.
the 22ellipsoid the
tangent

i.e., 4. tangent
pair 4. planes
perpendicular any tangent planes
tangent to
linesThe
Def. pair perpendicular
normal
drawn ellipsoid
point
at of
alx+bmy-{-cnz=(). guadric -f-cz is
a guadric the line
2ellipsoid
through the
i.e.,
tangent can be to
[Ans. a(64 c)z
any
the conicoid
point 2 of a:r
+6(c+a)2/ +&7/ 2
2
-f-cz is =l. the line through the
which cut off to
point perpendicular from theits axes the
thereat. sum of -f c(a-
2 whose
30 tangent plane
intercepts 2
reciprocals is equal to a
to the [Ans. a(64 thereat.+6(c+a)2/
h the fixed
4.
The
Apoint
constant
pair
perpendicular
of
the Show
perpendicular
Afixed that their line
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Exercises
tangent Show
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Exercises
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plane
to
thatShow the
their
c)z
ellipsoid
line
-f
of intersection
c(a-
;passes pointthrough(0, 0,4.
;passes through
k). l/k. the
of point
the
of fixed(0, 0,
pointk). 0,intersection
at that
lies
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the line of intersection
theellipsoid lies lies
on the cone equation
on the The pair
coneequationon the
tangent
perpendicular
of the (0, tangent
plane
tangent
k). (a,planes
plane p, at
\Ans.
7) (a, surface
p, 7) to the surface
3, 2) is aispoint a*JC*+b*t/*+c*z*=k*(*+y+z)*.
1.
1.
;passes through 8.
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2)
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that
point
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atf+bif
the
(0,
the
0, k).
+
conicoid,
cz^l,
conicoid,
linesShow
atf+bifthrough +
that cz^l, their
(a, (3, liney) drawnof intersection
perpendicular lies
...(,') to the
onis the cone ;passes through the fixed point (0, 0, U.k). ffons.Show that their line
1949) (D. U. ffons.
of intersection ...(,')
U. ffons. 1949)
lies
tangent
is
on planes
cone to (D. (D. 1949)
Find thethe chords drawn OP.

Find
the locus
locus
the of theof
locus
locus the
of mid-points
the
theof locus
intersectionof of
the of chords
line of drawn parallel
intersection ofto to OP.
uired locus [The required
is line
[The required locus is mid-pointsis the locus
a,*la*
of + perpendicular
of the line ofparallel perpendicular
intersection of perpendicular
the enveloping
es to tangent cone
to theofenveloping
the cone of with the vertex at[Ans. x ffons.
with
U. vertex6e=(X at vertex at
cone given x
Theplanes
which
tangent to the given ellipsoid of the ellipsoid(D.
given 62/4- 1949)
with6e=(X
equations
The passplanes to the
through normal
it enveloping
generate atthe cone 7), therefore,
[Ans. ellipsoid
are U.
(D.62/4- ffons. 1949)
(0,0, [The
2.
A-).] Find
(0,0, Find
requiredthe the equations
locus
equation is thethe
of of
to
locus the
the
chordof normal
chord of (a,
the
the lineof
p, at
of intersection
quadric
the (a, 4#
p,
2
7),
4#
2 7
of perpendicular
2 therefore,
5y2-+-6z are
2 through
7
2. A-).]
[The equation
required locus is the locus of the quadric
line of intersection 5y2-+-6z of through perpendicular
(2, 3, 4) which
tangent isto the enveloping
bisected by thethe plane cone 2# of the given ellipsoid with vertex at
5y+3z=Q.
3, planeswhich
Enveloping (2,8'62.
(0,0, A-).]
4)
tangent
Cylinder. Enveloping
is bisected
If P
Def.
9. planes
8'62. toThe by
the
Cylinder.
is
Enveloping the
aa
locus plane
enveloping
point ofDef.
on
Cylinder.
2#
thecone
tangent The
5y+3z=Q.
Def. locus
linesof the
ellipsoid
[Ans.
The
to a 2given
of tangent
locus
+2?/
2 =\ with
lines
2 ellipsoid
\z tangent
-f of
(a:-2)-J(y-3)-(-4).
-
to alines
such vertex at
a
-
thatto the
llel to any given
quadric (0,0,line
perpendicular
parallel is
A-).] to from
any given
called the
enveloping line 6p
isaa on
called
origin cylinder. tho
line tangentenveloping
is called[Ans.piano at P is of unit length, show
(a:-2)-J(y-3)-(-4).
cylinder.
quadric parallel to any given 6p enveloping cylinder.
so that 8'62.
To findaa, P
thatEnvelopingc7 are
lies oil 0110the
Cylinder. other ofDef.
ordirection the
ratiosplanes Theof locus
the ^z.
The of tangent
normal. lines to a
the enveloping socylinder 8'62.
6(3,
that
the
To enveloping
aa, thec7 conicoid
Enveloping
of 6(3,the are
cylinder the
Cylinder.
of
directionthe Def.
conicoid
3^/
ratios of the
the conicoid
locus of tangent lines to a
normal.
quadric the find
to any enveloping
given line is called cylinder of
enveloping cylinder.
If. parallel
p, is
quadric 8-34. length Normal.of
to the
any perpendicular
given line is fromenveloping
called the origin to the
cylinder.
If. p, parallel
is the length of thethe from the
To find we of perpendicularconicoid origin to the
thehave
the (if),
enveloping cylinder
tangent
with plane To
Def. find The normalwe
envelopingthe have
at
line cylinder
any point of of
the a conicoid is the line
guadric
tangent
its generators
to the
rators parallel with its generators line plane
parallel (if), to
to the line through the
parallel
to the tangent plane thereat.
point perpendicular x
x _ _ y ~~ z y ~~ x
z
with its generators
m _m toofthe y ~~ z at
"~~ line
with"~~ The parallel the tangent
or I
its
m equation
generators n parallel
I
x
to the "~~ line
n plane n
(a, p, 7) to the surface

p, 7) be
Letpoint or
(a, p,on
_ _ +
be enveloping
any point on
"~~
y
the
I
x
atf+bif
z
~~ "~~ so y ~~ z
cz^l, so that the
anym
whichany 7)the enveloping
on the that the
cylinder, ...(,')
is shows
Let (a,aap,
p, 7) that
b$p, c?p are
point
I n mactual
the be
n direction
enveloping cosines
cylinder, cylinder, of the so that
which shows
of the that it are areI
the
are actual direction
,

f the generator
equations through
the normal it
at are
generatorof through
aap,
the b$p, c?p through it cosines of
equations
,

Let the (a,

normalbe
p, 7).
any
7) (a, at generatoron the cylinder, cylinder, the
so that
Let
(a, p, p, 7) be
(a,point any pointenveloping
p, 7). on the enveloping so that the
equations Thegenerator
of the it are
to the normal
through at
equations of the generator
equations
m m through
n n are p, 7), therefore, are
it (a,
m n
As in 8*61,
8*61, the line (i) will As touch
in
the linethe (i)
8*61, the
will touch the conicoid, if,
conicoid, (i) n m
if, will touch the
m -
6p n
line aa conicoid, if,
As inso that8*61, in the
As aa,locus line
8*61,
6(3, c7 are
the
(i) willthe
line touch
direction
(i) will the touch
ratiosthe
conicoid, of the normal.
if,
conicoid, if,
re the locus of (a, (3, the
Therefore 7) is thethe
of (a, (3, 7) is the surface
surface
Therefore
If. p, is the locus of
of 7) is the surface
length the
(a, perpendicular from the origin to the
(3,

Therefore
tangent theplane
Thereforelocusthe (if), we(3,have
of locus
(a, 7) is the surface
of (a, (3, 7)
is the surface
-which is the required equation of
of the enveloping the enveloping cylinder*
required equation -which is the required equation cylinder* of the enveloping
of Note. of deduced from that deduced
from thatcylinder*
of Enveloping
cylinder Enveloping
Equation cylinder of Enveloping
quation-which Enveloping of the deduced from
cone* Use the
is -which Note.
of elements
requiredtheat equation
Equation ofSince all the
Enveloping theparallel
oflines
enveloping
cylinder to the
cylinder* line that of Enveloping
elements at infinity. Since is all therequired
infinity.
lines parallelequationto the line enveloping cylinder*
cone* Use ofofelements
orEquation at infinity. Since all the lines parallel to the line
Note. Note. Equation Enveloping cylinder deduced
ofx\ly\m=*z\n
Enveloping cylinder from
deduced of Enveloping
thatfrom that of Enveloping
x\ly\m=*z\n
cone* Use
pass through
ofthe
elements
which
cone* Use ofat
shows
point elements
infinity.
(I, m,thatn, 0)
Since
at which all the
infinity. Since
in lines
is, x\ly\m=*z\n
fact,
are linesto
thepoint
parallel
allthe
theeach atthe lineto the line
parallel
actual infinity on each
the point (I, m, n, 0)
which is, in fact, the aap,point b$p, atc?pinfinity on direction cosines of
wethe m, n, we which is, inthe the pointcylinder is on each
at infinity
,

anember of
s system of parallel
thisthrough
pass
the system
normal of
at point
parallel
see that x\ly\m=*z\n
lines,
the
(I, see that
0) x\ly\m=*z\n fact,
enveloping
lines, (a, p, 7). enveloping
n cylinder
we is
the
anember
sthe enveloping theconeofwith
this
n t 0) the vertex
system
m, ofwhich
m,
parallel0) in
lines,
is, which the see that at enveloping
fact, the infinity
fact,is, in point on each
point at infinitycylinder is
on each
(I, m, n, 0)
with through n, 0)(I, .
g cone pass vertex m,point t
pass(I, through point
(I,
.
anember of sthe enveloping
anember
this system
of thisofcone with
parallel
system
vertexwe
oflines, m, n
parallel(I,lines, t we
see 0) . the
that that the enveloping
see enveloping cylinder is cylinder is
sthe enveloping cone with cone
sthe enveloping vertexwith m, n 0)(I, m, n 0)
(I, vertex t .
t .

Page 40
DSE-1E/B INTEGRAL CALCULUS BS: 506

Theory: 3 credits and Practicals: 1 credits

Theory: 3 hours /week and Practicals: 2 hours /week

Objective: Techniques of multiple integrals will be taught.

Outcome: Students will come to know about its applications in finding areas and
volumes of some solids.

Unit I

Areas and Volumes: Double Integrals-Double Integrals over a Rectangle-Double

Integrals over General Regions in the Plane-Changing the order of Integration

Unit II

Triple Integrals: The Integrals over a Box- Elementary Regions in Space-Triple

Integrals in General

Unit III

Change of Variables: Coordinate Transformations-Change of Variables in Triple

Integrals

Text: Susan Jane Colley, Vector Calculus(4e)

References: Smith and Minton , Calculus

Shanti Narayan and Mittal, Integral calculus

Ulrich L. Rohde , G. C. Jain , Ajay K. Poddar and A. K. Ghosh, Introduction to

Integral Calculus

Page 41
Unit-I
Unit-I

Page 42
 Unit-II
Unit-II

Unit-III

Page 43
Page 44
DSC-1F NUMERICAL ANALYSIS BS: 603

Theory: 3 credits and Practicals: 1 credits

Theory: 3 hours /week and Practicals: 2 hours /week

Objective: Students will be made to understand some methods of numerical analysis.

Outcome: Students realize the importance of the subject in solving some problems of

algebra and calculus.

Unit – I

Solutions of Equations in One Variable : The Bisection Method - Fixed-Point

Iteration - Newton’s Method and Its Extensions - Error Analysis for Iterative Methods
- Accelerating Convergence - Zeros of Polynomials and Müller’s Method - Survey of
Methods and Software

Unit – II

Interpolation and Polynomial Approximation: Interpolation and the Lagrange

Polynomial - Data Approximation and Neville’s Method - Divided Differences -
Hermite Interpolation - Cubic Spline Interpolation

Unit – III

Numerical Differentiation and Integration: Numerical Differentiation - Richardson’s

Extrapolation - Elements of Numerical Integration- Composite Numerical Integration
- Romberg Integration - Adaptive Quadrature Methods - Gaussian Quadrature

Text : Richard L. Burden and J. Douglas Faires, Numerical Analysis (9e)

References: M K Jain, S R K Iyengar and R k Jain, Numerical Methods for Scientific

and Engineering computation

B.Bradie, A Friendly introduction to Numerical Analysis

Page 48
 14. from Use (x, Newton’s method to approximate, to within 10 ,ifthe value 0. of for x that produces the point on the
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The following 2.2forFixed-Point Iteration b] and that 65
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be′ arbitrary.
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piterations, if possible, on each of the functions
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√ 2.2 Fixed-Point Iteration 65
16.
1. Use Newton’s the Bisection method method to solve to find thepequation
3 for f (x) = x3− cos x2 on [0, 1].
b. Which function do you think
1 gives
1 2
the bestPracticals Question Bank
x +
approximation
1 4x − 10 to 2.2the solution?
Fixed-Point
π Iteration 65
2. Let f (x) = 3(x + 1)(x"−021= )(x −+1). xUse − the x sin −
xBisection
x − cos method2x,1/3 with on thep0following = . intervals to find p3 .
3. UNIT-I The following! four methods 2
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− p221x n−1 − 9
3.
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Use
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n =
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complex
0
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=tan in n−1
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πxfor −3 06 ≤has x≤ a 1zero atb. (1/π) pn = pn−1 6−≈#50.447431543.
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does notaccurate 10−5 calculations.
reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
fixed-point iteration will converge. Estimate the number3 of iterations necessary to obtain approxima-
a. 2 + sin x − x = 0 use [2, 3] b. x − 2x − 5 = 0 use [2, 3]
tions accurate to within
Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be2copied, scanned,
10−5 , and perform the calculations.
x
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13. Find all 2the zeros x of f (x) = x + 10 cos x by using the fixed-point iteration method for an appropriate
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iteration function g. Find the zeros accurate to within 10−4 .
13. Find all the zeros of f (x) = x 2 + 10 cos x by using the fixed-point iteration method for an appropriate
iteration function g. Find the zeros accurate to within 10−4 .
Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
hat any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
hat any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Page 49
 2
c. f (0.18) if f (0.1)eh= −0.29004986,
≤ 10−6 . Thisf (0.2) = −0.56079734,
implies f (0.3)
that h < 1.72 = −3
× 10 −0.81401972,
. f (0.4) =
The formula, with
−1.0526302 8 h = 0.3, x0 = 1.6, and s = − 13 , becomes
d. f (0.25) if f (−1) != 0.86199480, ! be"an f (−0.5) " = a0.95802009, f (0) = 1.0986123, f (0.5) =
Because n = (1 − 0)/h must 1 integer, reasonable choice for the step size is
1.2943767
f (1.5) ≈ P 1.6 + − (0.3)
h = 0.001. 4
3 using the following functions. Use the error formula to find a
7. The data for Exercise 5 were generated
bound for the error, and compare the bound ! " ! the " actual error for the cases n = 1 and n = 2.
1 to 0.3
= 0.4554022 + − ((−0.5489460) + (−0.5786120))
UNIT-II
a. f (x) = x ln x
E S E T 3.1 b. f (x) = x3 + 4.001x2 + 4.002x + 1.101 3 2
11 ! "2
2 1
1. For c. the given
f (x) = xfunctions
cos x + − 2x f− + let
(x), 3x x− 0 1
(0.3)= 0, 2 x = 0.6, and x = 0.9. Construct interpolation polynomials
(−0.0494433)
1 2

PTER 3 of
d. degree f (x)at=
Interpolation most
and sin(e one
x
− and
Polynomial
3
2) atApproximation
most two to approximate f (0.45), and find the absolute error.
! generated" #! using " $
115a
8. a. The dataf (x)for = Exercise
cos x
√
6 1were 1 1 3.12 theInterpolation
following
c. =and
f (x) functions.
3
ln(xthe +Lagrange
Use the error
1) Polynomial
formula to find
bound for the error, +
and −
compare the −
bound to − the1 actual error for the cases + 0.0680685)
n = 1 and n = 2.
5. 12
b. f (x) = 1 + x 2 (0.3) (0.0658784
Neville’s method is used to approximate 3 3f (0.4), d. f (x) = tan x
giving the following table.
a. f (x) = e2x
2. For the given functions f (x), let x# 0 = 1, x 1 = 1.25, $ x2 = 1.6. Construct interpolation polynomials
and
b. degree =most
f (x) copied, x 4scanned,
−onex 3or+ !x2 − x"+ 2 1! " 2
of
ngage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not beat x0overall and at1
duplicated, most
= 0learning experience.
in two to1 approximate
P = 1 Learning reserves rights,
whole or in part. Due to electronic some third partyand
f (1.4),
4 additionalcontentfind
may bethe absolute
suppressed error.
from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).

a.
c. f (x) = sin x 2 the
med that any suppressed content does not materially affect
cos
π x x+− 3x− 0 Cengage − − 1 c.the(0.3) (0.0018251)
right to remove
f (x) = log − =1)
content at any
(3x 0.5118200.
time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
√ x1 = 0.25 3 P1 = 2 3P01 = 2.6 10

b.
d.
13 f (x) = ln(e3
xx2− x 1
+ 0.5
= 2) P2 P1,2 d. Pf0,1,2 (x) = e2x − x
3.
9. Use Let PTheorem3 (x) be the 3.3 3to =find0.75an error
xinterpolating 3 =bound
Ppolynomial 8 Pfor =the
forthe
2,3 2.4 data P
approximations
(0, 1,2,3 0),=(0.5, 2.96 P0,1,2,3
iny),Exercise
(1, 3), and = (2,
1. 3.016 2). The coefficient
P T E R 3 4. Interpolation of x 3
Use Theorem in P
Most3 texts (x)and is
3.3 Polynomial
6.
on to Find
find y.
numericalan Approximation
error analysis
bound written
for the before
approximations the wide-spread
in Exercise use
2. of computers have
Determine P√ 2 = f x(0.5).
P T E R 3 10. 5. Interpolation
extensive
Let
14
Use fappropriate
(x) = and
treatmentsx Polynomial
−Lagrange2 andof P Approximation
divided-difference
interpolating
2 (x) be the interpolation
polynomials methods. polynomial
of If
degrees a more on
one, x comprehensive
0 =
two, 0, x
and 1 and
three x2totreatment
=approximate
1. Find the of
6. this Neville’s
largest themethod
ofvalue
subject x1isinused
of needed,
is (0, 1) tofor approximate
which f (0.5),− P giving =the−0.25.
following table. good reference.
5. each following: is usedthe book byfHildebrand [Hild] the is a particularly
(0.5) (0.5)
Neville’s method to approximate f (0.4), 2giving following table.
11. Use a. the following values and four-digit
= 16.94410, rounding
= 17.56492, arithmetic to=construct a third Lagrange polyno-
5. Neville’s f (8.4)
! method "
if f (8.1) is used tox0approximate f (8.3)
= 0 The function P0 f =(0.4),
0 being giving the f (8.6)following table. f (8.7) = 18.82091
18.50515,
mial f
b. approximation
− 13 if xf0(−0.75) to f (1.09). = −0.07181250, approximated
= −0.02475000, is f (x) = log10 (tan x). Use this
= 0.33493750,
=0 x = P00.4 = 1 P = 2.8 P = 3.5 f (−0.5) f (−0.25)
knowledge to
f (0) = 1.10100000 find a bound 1for the error 1in the approximation. 0,1
xx01 = = 00.25 x = P1 = = 12 P P01 = 2.6 P P0,1,2 = 27
2 P00.7 2 1,2 7
E S E T 3.3 c. f (0.25)f (1.00) if x =
x1 = 0.1924
f 2 (0.1) 0.5 =
0.25 P1f = P
0.62049958,
2 2 =
(1.05) P f (0.2)
P010.2414
1,2 = P
−0.28398668,
= 2.6 f (1.10) = 0.2933 0,1,2 f (0.3)f (1.15)= 0.00660095, = 0.3492 f (0.4) =
0.24842440 x = 0.75 P = 8 P = 2.4 P = 2.96 P = 3.016
Determine P2 =x2f = 3 0.5
(0.7). P2 3 P1,22,3 P0,1,2
1,2,3 0,1,2,3

12.
1.
7. Use Use
d.
Suppose the
Eq.f (0.9)Lagrange
(3.10)
xj =ifj,or fxfor interpolating
Algorithm
=j 0.75
3(0.6) 1, 3.2P
==0, −0.17694460,2,3 polynomial
toand
3= construct
8 it P of
=
fknown
is2,3 (0.7) degree
interpolating
2.4that three
P
= 0.01375227, or 2.96
= less and
1,2,3 polynomials f (0.8)Pfour-digit
of degree chopping
= =0.22363362,
0,1,2,3 one, two,arithmetic
3.016 fand
(1.0) three =
to
forDetermine
approximate
the0.65809197
following P2 =cos data. 0.750
f (0.5). using the following
Approximate the specified values. value Find using an error
each of bound for the approximation.
the polynomials.
6. 15
6. Neville’s
Determine
a.
Use appropriate
f (8.4) method
Pif2 = f (8.1) Pused
fis(0.5).
Lagrange =(x)
0,1 =approximate
16.94410, 2x + f1,(8.3)
tointerpolating Ppolynomials
f0,2= (x)
(0.5), =giving
17.56492, x +of1,fthe and
degreesfollowing
(8.6) =one,P18.50515,table.
(2.5)and
1,2,3two, = 3.
three=
f (8.7) to18.82091
approximate
cos 0.698 = 0.7661 cos 0.733 = 0.7432 cos 0.768 = 0.7193 cos 0.803 = 0.6946
6. b. each
Neville’s of
Find fP(0.9) the methodfollowing:
0,1,2,3 (2.5).
is used to approximate
if f (0.6) = −0.17694460, f (0.7) = 0.01375227, f (0.8) = 0.22363362, f (1.0) =
f (0.5), giving the following table.
a. 0.65809197 1,x1,
=0.750 = 0 =P 0 = 0 f (0.5) = 2.71828, f (0.75) = 4.48169
8. The Suppose actual
f (0.43) xj value= ifj, ffor of(0) cos
j= 0, f0 (0.25)
2, and it1.64872,
is 30.7317 (to four decimal
is known that places). Explain the discrepancy between the
x =
= 0.4 P 1 = 2.8 P0,1 = 3.5
2. Use Eq. (3.10) orthe Algorithm x 0 3.2 to f 0 P 0 = 0interpolating
1 construct
actual
b. ferror
(0) ifand f (−0.5) error bound.
= 1.93750, (−0.25) = 1.33203, fpolynomials
(0.25) = 0.800781, of27degreef one, (0.5)two, and three
= 0.687500
(x)xx12==
P0,1Approximate =x 0.40.7
+ 1, the PP2specified
= (x) = 3x P1,2− 1, 3.5and P0,1,2
Pof 1,2,3= (1.5) = 4.
for the following data. P 1,2 2.8 P 0,1 =using
value each the 7polynomials.
c. f (0.18) if f (0.1) = −0.29004986,1 f (0.2) = −0.56079734, f (0.3) = −0.81401972, f (0.4) =
a.
Learning. All Rights Reserved.Find
May not P
f−1.0526302
be (0.43)
copied,(1.5). if f or(0)
scanned, = 1,inxfwhole
duplicated, =or0.7
2 (0.25) =DueP
in part. 1.64872,
2 electronic rights,
to P
f (0.5)
some =party
1,2third contentP
2.71828, 0,1,2
may = 277 from
fbe (0.75)
suppressed = 4.48169
the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
0,1,2,3
hat any suppressed content does Determine
not materially affect P2the= overallf (0.7).
learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
9. b. Neville’s if f if
Algorithm is=used
1.93750, to approximate =f (0)1.33203, using (−2), = 0.800781, and f=(2). 0.687500
f Suppose
7. d.
ff (0) (−0.5) f (−0.25)(−0.5) ff(0.25) f (0.5)
j = 0,=1,0.86199480, = 0.95802009, f (0) f=(1), 1.0986123, (0.5) =
(0.25) f (−1) f (−1),
Suppose
Determine x = j, for
= f (0.7). 2, 3 and it is fknown that
wasP2understated
j
3. Use f (−1) 1.2943767
Newton the forward-difference by 2 and fformula (1) wastooverstated construct by 3. Determine
interpolating the error of
polynomials in degree
the original one,
7. two, Suppose xj = j,the for = (x)0,
of 1,
j following =2, 3+ and it isP known that
7. 16 calculation
The and three
data % 1& for ofExercise
for value
the P 5
0,1 were the interpolating
2x data.
generated 1,Approximate
using0,2 polynomial
(x)the =following
the 1,to approximate
x +specified and value
functions. P1,2,3 using
Usef (0).
(2.5) =error
each
the 3.of the polynomials.
formula to find a
10. a. Neville’s
bound f for− Algorithm
the if
error,f P
(−0.75) is
and used
(x) =
compare to
2x approximate
−0.07181250,
+ the1, bound P to
(x) f
f (0)
the
=
(−0.5)x using
actual
+ 1,= f
error(−2),
−0.02475000,
and for P f
the (−1),
cases
(2.5)f f n(1),
= =
(−0.25) 3. 1and
and = f n(2). Suppose
0.33493750,
= 2.
fFind
(−1) P0,1,2,3 3
was(2.5).
0,1 0,2
overstated by 2 and f (1) was understated by 3. Determine the error in the original
1,2,3

8. Find a.Suppose (x)x =

ff (0) ==1.10100000
xj,lnfor x j = 0, 1, 2, 3 and it is known that
calculationP0,1,2,3j (2.5). of the value=of2−0.62049958, the interpolating polynomial to approximate f (0).
b.
b. ff (0.25) (x) = xif3 f+(0.1) 4.001x + 4.002x + 1.101 f (0.2) = −0.28398668, √ f (0.3) = 0.00660095, f (0.4) =
8. Suppose
11. Construct x a = j,
sequence for j = 0,
of 1, 2, 3
interpolating and it is known
values y thatto + 10), where = (1 + x 2 )−1 for
17 c. ≤fx(x)
−5
0.24842440
≤=
j
5, xascos follows:
P 0,1 (x) 2
x − 2xFor+each
= x + 1, P 1,2 (x) = n3x − 1, f (1 and
3x −n1= 1, 2, . . . , 10, let h = 10/n and yn = Pn (1 + 10), where Pn (x)
P 1,2,3 (1.5) f=(x) 4. √
4. Use the Newton forward-difference x P0,1 (x) = x + 1, formula P (x)to=construct 3x − 1, interpolating and P (n) (1.5) polynomials
= 4. of degree one,
d.Find P (x) = sin(e polynomial
is thefinterpolating
0,1,2,3 (1.5). − 2) for f (x)1,2 at the nodes x0(n) , x1(n) , . . . , 1,2,3 x and xj(n) = −5 + jh, for each
two, and three for the following data. Approximate the specified valuen using √ each of the polynomials.
9. The
8. jNeville’s
Find= 0, P1,
data 2, Algorithm
for
0,1,2,3 . , n. Does
.Exercise
.(1.5). is6 were
usedsequence
the to approximate
generated } appear
{ynusing the
f (0) to using
converge
following to f (1
f functions.
(−2), +Use10)?
f (−1), the
f (1), error andformula
f (2). Suppose
to find a
a. f (0.43) if f (0) = 1, f (0.25) = 1.64872, f (0.5) = 2.71828, f (0.75) = 4.48169
9. bound f (−1)for
Inverse
Neville’s was theunderstated
Interpolation
Algorithm error, and is used by 2toand
compare
Suppose the
ff ∈
approximate (1)C 1was
bound [a,tofb],overstated
the factual
′
(x) ̸ =error
using fby
03.5on3.for Determine
[a, the
b] cases
and the
nhas = error
1
oneand
and inn(2).
zero =the
p 2.
inoriginal
[a,161
Suppose b].
b. f (0.18)ofifthe f (0.1) =of−0.29004986, f (0.2)
(0)
= −0.56079734,
(−2), Cubicf (−1),
f (0.3) Splinef
f
=(0). Interpolation f (0.4)
(1),
−0.81401972,
f
=
a.
f calculation
Let (−1)xf0 ,(x).was
..= ne, be n + 1 by
, xunderstated
2x value the
distinct interpolating
2 andnumbers f (1) was polynomial
in [a, b] with by
overstated to approximate
f (x3. = yk , for each
k ) Determine
f the error k = in 0, 1, . , n. To
the. .original
P T E R 3 10. Interpolation −1.0526302 and Polynomial Approximation 3.5 Cubic Spline Interpolation 161
Neville’s
approximate
calculation
b. Algorithm
f (x) =ofxthe p 4 construct
−value is used
the
x 3 ′′+ xof2 − to approximate
interpolating
thex interpolating
+′′1 polynomial using of
polynomial to approximate f (0).
f (0) fdegree
(−2), n f on
(−1), the fnodes
(1), and
y 0 , . f
. . ,
(2).yn Suppose
for f −1
.
5. 18 Use
to
Since
f (−1)theykNewton
nearly was = satisfy
overstated
f (x backward-difference
) fand (x by
0 ) = 2= and
f f(p), (x
f it
(1))formula
= was
follows 0. Anto
thatconstruct
alternative
understated f −1 by
(y interpolating
) =3.to x the
Determine
and ppolynomials
natural = the f boundary
−1error
(0). of
in
Usingdegree
condition
the one,
original
iterated
10. Neville’s c. and f (x) Algorithm
= xfor 2
cos
k is
− used
3x to−1
0
x following approximate f (0) using f (−2), f (−1), f (1), and f (2). Suppose
n k k
two,
calculation three ofoverstated
tothe the
value
′′ of the data. Approximate the specified value using each of the polynomials.
6. to that
Use
f nearly
(−1) does
interpolation
the was not
satisfy
Newton require
approximate
x f (x0by
knowledge
)=
backward-difference 2 fandfinterpolating
′′ (0)
(xfn(1))isof
= called
was
formula 0.polynomial
the derivative
Aniterated
to alternative
understated
construct toof
inverse by approximate
to is the thenatural
interpolation.
f3. Determine
interpolating
√ not-a-knot
fpolynomials
(0). errorcondition,
theboundary in
of the condition
degree (see
original
one,
11. that
12. d.
a.
[Deb2],
Construct
Use f (x)
iterated
f pp.
(−1/3) =
a ln(e if
55–56).
sequence
inverse f + 2)
(−0.75) This
of = −0.07181250,
condition
interpolating
interpolation to find requires
values
an y that
approximation
f (−0.5)to S =
′′′ −0.02475000,
+to bethe continuous
10), where
solution f of at
x
(−0.25) − x =
e =
and
−x
= 0.33493750,
at
+0, x 2 −1
using . for
the
calculation
two, does and three of
not for therequire value of the
knowledge
the following interpolating polynomial
of the derivative
data. Approximate n f
the specifiedto
(1 approximate
(x)
of f√isvalue the using not-a-knot
f (0).f (x)
each of√condition,
1 (1
the polynomials. )
n−1 (see
9. Let −5 P
data ≤f3 (x)
x(0) ≤ be= 5, 1.10100000
the
as interpolating
follows: For polynomial
each n = 1, for
2, . .the
. , data
10, let (0,h ′′′ =0),10/n(0.5,and y), (1, y 3),
= Pand (1 +
(2, 2).10),
Thewhere coefficient
2 −1 P (x)
11. [Deb2], Construct
a. 3 f (0.43) a
pp. 55–56).sequence
if f (0) = of
This interpolating
1, fcondition
(0.25) = 1.64872, values
requiresfnthat y to
(0.5)S (n)f =(x)
(1 +
2.71828, 10),
be continuous where
n
f (0.75) =(n) n
f at4.48169
(x) =
x1√and at xn−1 .
(1 + x ) n for
of x fininterpolating
P3 (x)ifisf6.(0.1) Find =y.
(n)
b.
−5
b.
is the≤fx(0.25) ≤ 5,√asif follows: polynomial
For
=
−0.62049958,
each forn f=(x)
0.86199480, 1, 2, at the
. . , nodes
f .(0.2) 10,= let
=
xh0 =, x10/n
−0.28398668,
0.95802009,
1 , . .and . ,fxn(n)(0.3)
yf andP=nx(1
=
√
n(0) = += −5
j0.00660095,
1.0986123,10),+where forPeach
jh,f (0.4) =
n (x)
=
10. Let (0.25)
0.24842440 = x −f (−1)
x x 0.3
2 and P (x) be the interpolation polynomial f 0.4
(−0.5) 0.5 on 0.6
x = 0, x(n) and x = 1. f Find
(0.5) the
isj =the0,interpolating
f 1, 2, . . . , n. Does
(x) the sequence
polynomial 2 for f {yn }atappear
(x) the to converge
nodes x (n) (n)
, x to
, . .f. ,
(1 x +0 and
(n) 10)? x 1 = −5 2 + jh, for each
1.2943767
f has one zero p in [a, b].
0 1 n j
√
E S E T 3.5 largest = 0, 1,value
jInverse . . .of, n.
Interpolation
2, x1Does in (0,ethe 1)Suppose
−x for
sequencewhich
0.740818 f {y f (0.5)
∈ nC [a,−b],P2to
1 0.670320
} appear f(0.5)
′
converge
(x) = −0.25.
0.606531
̸= 0 on to [a,f (1b]0.548812
+and10)?
7. 19 a. the Usefollowing
Algorithmvalues 3.2 toand construct the interpolating polynomial of degree threeLagrange
for the unequally
S E T 3.5 11.
13.
Use
Inverse
Construct spaced
. . , xn , be n + 1 Suppose
Let x0 , . Interpolation
an points
algorithm given in
that the
can
four-digit
distinct numbers f ∈ C 1table:
following
rounding
in b],
[a, arithmetic
[a,fb]′ (x) with ̸= f0 (x to
onk )[a, construct
=b]ykand , forfaeach third
has k =zero
one 0, 1,p. in .polyno-
. ,[a, To
n. b].
1. Determine
Reserved.mial
May notapproximation the natural to cubic or inbe
spline used
part.S
The that for
function inverse
interpolates
being interpolation.
the
approximateddata =
beis 0, = =
log 1, and
0= 0, 1, n. .Use
x). = f2. this
−1
Learning. All Rights approximate
Let x 0 ,
be copied,
. . . , x p,
scanned,
n
construct
be n + f
1
or duplicated, the
(1.09).
distinct
in whole interpolating
numbers
Due polynomial
in
to electronic
hat any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove
[a, b]
rights, some
with
third ofparty
f degree f may
content
(x k )
(0)
= n on
y ,f the
for
f from
(x)
suppressed
k
−1 additional content at any time if subsequent
(1)
nodes
each the
k y
eBook
10 ,(tan
. .
and/or. f
, y(2) for
eChapter(s).
. , n.
−1 rights restrictions require it.−1
To .
2.
1. 20 knowledge
Determine
Since
Determine y = to
the find
thepnatural clamped a bound
and cubiccubic
0 = for
thespline the
spline error
its in
that
follows the
S that interpolates approximation.
interpolates
that the data= x
f (0)n = and = p0, = =
= 1,y0and 1, Using = 2
iterated
= f2. . and
x the data on0,the
approximate f (x )
construct f (p),
interpolating polynomial f (y ) f (0) f (1)
f (0). f (2)
k
′
k
fof(x) degree
k k nodes
f (1) , . . .f, y(2)
n for
satisfies
interpolation
Since
2. Determine yk s = thefto
(0) =clamped sk ′)(2)
(xapproximate and=cubic
01.= fspline
−1
f (p), (0)it sisthatcalled
follows iterated
that f −1inverse
interpolates the ) =interpolation.
(yk data fxk(0) and = p0, = f (1) f −1=(0). 1, fUsing(2) =iterated 2 and
12.
3. satisfies
Use iterated fthe (1.00)
inverse = 0.1924 f (1.05) = an 0.2414
−0.1 fdata.
(1.10) to
5.30000 = the0.2933 of x −=e−x
f (1.15) 0.3492
= 0, using the
Construct
interpolation s′ (0) natural
to
= (2)interpolation
sapproximate
′
=cubic
1. spline f −1 (0) to
forfind
isthe
called approximation
followingiterated inverse interpolation. solution
3.3
12.
Divided
a.
data iterated
Use
3. Construct x theinverse Differences
f (x) interpolation
natural cubic spline to find
for anof
the following
0.0b. 2.00000
approximation data. x to thef solution (x) of x −chopping e−x = 0,arithmetic using the

12. Use the Lagrange interpolating polynomial degree
0.2 3.19000 three or less and four-digit
a.data x b. Find x0.5an0.22363362
to approximate cos 0.750 using 0.3theinfollowing 0.4values. error bound for the approximation.
8.3 f (x)
17.56492 xwas 0.8 f (x) 0.6successively
Iterated interpolation used the previous 0.3 section 1.00000 to generate higher-degree
8.6 18.50515 1.0 0.65809197
polynomial
b. Add 8.3 cos f 0.698 approximations
17.56492 == 0.7661 x
e −x 0.3 at
0.740818
cos a specific 0.4
= 0.7432 point.
0.670320 Divided-difference
0.8 0.5
0.606531 0.22363362
= 0.7193 0.6
0.548812 cos 0.803 =introduced
methods in
c. 8.6 x 18.50515 (0.35) 0.97260 to 0.733
the table, and construct
d.
cos 0.768
x the 0.65809197
interpolating polynomial of0.6946
degree four.
this section are used −x successively generate the1.0
to polynomials
f (x) f (x)themselves.
8. The
13. a. actual Use Algorithm 3.2e to construct 0.740818the interpolating 0.670320 0.606531 polynomial 0.548812
of degree four for the unequally
c.Construct −0.5x an value algorithm offcos
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is 0.7317 inverse d. interpolation.
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0.1 Explain
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3.3 Divided Differences

0 affect the overall
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4. Construct the natural cubic spline for the following
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0.24842440
3.3 Divided a. Differences 0.1 −5.89483 Page 50
x f (x)
4. Construct the natural cubic spline for the following
Iterated interpolation was used in the previous section to generate successively higher-degree 0.3 b.−5.65014 data. x f (x)
 ofvalues
h needed
ations might be of t and obtain:
to reduce truncation error also !cause π the round-off error to grow. This is the first
1. Approximate
class!of unstable the following
methodsintegrals
wet have using the
encountered,
M = Trapezoidal
sinand rule. techniques would be avoided if it
these
PTER 4 Numerical1 Differentiation and Integration 1.00 1.01 1.02 !x dx.
0.5 1.03 1.0
were possible. However, in addition to being 0
used 2
a. 4
x dx " i# 3.10 3.12 b. 3.14 " # 3.18 dx3.24 purposes,
for computational " # the formulas
are Nneeded
0.5 for approximating h the solutions of ordinary h0 x − 4 partial-differential
and h equations.
1.5 = 1.570796, N1
!1 (h) = 1.896119, N1 ! 1 = 1.974232, N1 = 1.993570.
2 2⎡ 4 2 −x ⎤ 8
c.where t is x measured
ln x dx in seconds, i is in amperes, 2i−2 d.the inductance
x e dxL is a constant 0.98 henries, and the
1 ⎣ 4 the #
resistance
!1Step
Assuming M is 0.142
N ohms.
4 Set Rand
= (h) + K Approximate
2,1 1=h 2
+ K 2 1,1 + h
Rh + K hvoltage
6
+ K
f (ah 8!0 when
E(t)
4 + 0.35
+ O(h ),t =
(k −100.5)h) 1.00,
⎦. 1.01,
construct 1.02, 1.03, and
an extrapolation 1.04.
table to
2x 1
Numerical1.6Differentiation Integration 3
27. UNIT-III
PTER 4 2 the derivative off.a function f 2at x dx
E S E T 4.1 e.All calculus
determine N (h).students
dx know that
x −4 24
can be defined as
x −4
k=1 2
6. 21 !1 π/4
The following data can be used to approximate thef (x !0 h)
integral
+ π/4− f (x)
1. Use the forward-difference (Approximationformulasf ′and (x)from = lim Trapezoidal method.)
backward-difference . dx to determine each missing
formulas
g. x sin x dx ! 3π/2 h. e3x sin 2x
E S E T 4.3 entry inStep 0 the following
5 For j = 2, tables. . . . , i using M = Trapezoidal
h→0
0
cos x dx.rule.
h
2. Approximate the following integrals f , nonzerothe
a.Choose !x 0.25your f (x)favorite ffunction
′
(x) number
R02, j−1 b. − x,!R xand computer f (x) or f calculator.
′
(x) Generate approxi-
1. Approximate ′ the following
to2 fdx′ (x) setbyRintegrals
2, j = R2,using j−1 + the Trapezoidal " 01,#j−1 rule. . +(Extrapolation.)
a.mations ! 1 f(cos n (x)x) b. j−1 ! h x ln(x 1) dx
N1 (h) = 2.356194, 4 N1 − 1 0.00000
0.5
0.5 4 0.4794 0.0−0.5 = 2 −0.4879837,
a. !−0.25 1.3x " dx b. !−n 2e+1 dx
0.6 Step 6
0.5646 OUTPUT (R
# 12,j dx
# for j = 1, f 2,(x . +
. . 10
, i).
0.2 ) −x 0.74140
# 1 44.5dx
−
f (x)
c. !0.71.5 (sin
0.5
x) 2
− 2x sin "x + fn′ (x) = d. !"0−n , Romberg Integration 219
0.6442 h 10 0.4 h 2 x1.3718
1
ln−0.9709157.
x
c. Step
0.75 2
x ln7x dxSet hN= 1 h/2. = −0.8815732,d. N1
e
x e= −x
dx
2. Find
3. Use the a bound forward-difference
for the error in formulas 4Exercise 1and using backward-difference
the error formula, 8 formulas
and compare to determine
this to theeach actual missing
error.
22 for !n1=
entryainbound
1, 2, . . . , 20, and describe what happens. !0 0.35
the 3xfollowing tables. 1.6
π/4
1.6
Step 2x2 and row
e 8sin 2x For j= of′ 1,the2,type . . . ,given i2set R1,jExercise = error Rerror .5formula, (Update N41 2of this R.) to the actual error.
4. Find 2xfor the error in Exercise using the compare
e.Derive
28. Assume aa formula
method exists
for
dx dxapproximating f ′′′ (xin 0 ) whose f. 2,j andterm determine
is ofdx
22− 4 dx
order h(h). by expanding the function
a. x x −Taylor 41 using b. x
1 atxx − x ′
±x4hatand
2
5. Repeat f in!that 01 Exercise
a93.5
fourth f (x) Simpson’s rule. x0 and evaluating
f
polynomial (x) f (x) f (x)± 2h.
7. Show Step π/4 the STOP.five-point formula inabout Eq. (4.6) applied to!f0 π/4 (x) =0 xe x0 = x0 2.0 gives N2 (0.2) in Table
6. Repeat Exercise x 2 using Simpson’s rule. 2
29. 23 4.6Consider
g. when −0.3h√ =sin
xthe 0.1
function
1.9507
x dx and dxN2 (0.1) when h = 0.05. h. 1.0 (cos 3x
e 1.0000 sinx) 2xdxdx
7. The
8. Repeat 30 Exercise
−0.2
forward-difference
2 −34usingformula
x 2.0421 Simpson’s rule and the results 0of Exercise
1.2 1.2625 5. number of rows to be gen-
2. Approximate Algorithm the 4.2 requires
following tointegrals
acan preset be expressed
using integer
thethe nas
Trapezoidal εto determine h2 rule. the
8. Use Repeat
erated.
Romberg
! −0.1 Exercise integration
2.0601 4 using
We could also set an error tolerance Simpson’scomputerule R3,3and for the
e(h) = for+the
following
results 1.4of
! 0 M,
! integrals.
1.6595
Exercise 6.
h h ′′60.75approximation and generate n, within
! 10.25
3. The data in Exercise 2′
1 were 1 taken from the following b. functions. h2+ Compute′′′ dx the actual errors
9. a. a.
Repeat
some −0.25 Exercise
upper (cos
(cos x)bound, x)
2 dx
f1dxusing
(x0 ) until =the [f Midpoint(x0 + h)rule.
consecutive − fdiagonal (x0 )]b. − f entries x
(x0 )x− ln(x
ln(x
R +
f
n−1,n−1
1)1)(x dx
0 and
) + Rn,n3 ).agree
O(h to inwithin
√
Exer-
cise where 1,
! −1 and find
M" is a bound error bounds
forthe h using
theagainst
third# derivative the error formulas.
of a function. 2 ! −0.5
−0.75 6
Showconsecutive that e(h) hasrow a minimum at agree
3
3ε/M.
10. Repeat the ! 4Exercise
tolerance.1.3 2 using
To guard Midpoint the rule. possibility that
! e+1 two 1 elements
2e
ER 4 Numerical c.
a. extrapolation
Use " =
Differentiation (sin sin x) 2
x−to−and 2x
derive Integration
sin +O(h
xMidpoint
an # 3dx
1 formula for d.b. ′ 1 ex −dx2x 2 + 3x − 1
=Exercise
11. with
Repeat
c. feach Exercise
(x)
0.75
(sinother x) 23 but
using2x not thewith
sin x + 1 the dx )value rule and of the the d.fintegral
results
(x0f).(x)
e
ofbeing
x ln x
x0lnand x that
dxapproximated,
9. it
is common to
12.4. 24
9.
3. Suppose
generate
The data
Repeat
Find a 1bound that
inapproximations
Exercise N(h)
Exercise
for 4the iserror
using an
2 wereapproximation
the until
taken not
in Midpoint
Exercise from to
only
1rule the
using M and for
|R
following
the the every
n−1,n−1 results
error he−
functions.
formula,
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of |
Exercise
n,n is
and within
Compute 10.
compare the this tolerance,
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actual but
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P T E R 12. 4 13.
cise
|R
4.a.Numerical
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FindShow 2, and
Trapezoidal
a bound
n−2,n−2 that
R4,4
−find Rfor
for
Differentiation
errorthe integrals
ruleerror
the
n−1,n−1 bounds
|.and
applied Although using
to 0 the
in Integration
Exercise
2
fnot 2error
(x) adx1.
using formulas.
universal
gives the error the safeguard,
value
2formula, 4, 3and and this
Simpson’swill ensure
compare ruletogives
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the value
the actual differ-
error. 2.
Min=Exercise N(h) +2.K1 h + K2 h + K3 h + ··· ,
4.2
4. Calculate
ently
What
a. Richardson’s
isgenerated
5. Repeat Exercise 1 using Simpson’s
f f
(x) R =4,4 2for
(1)? cos the
sets
2x − Extrapolation
integrals
of x approximations
$2 rule. ! agree b. " within
1/h
f (x) the
= xspecified
2
ln x
$ h % 1 to within
+ 1 tolerance
$ h % 10−6 . Compute the
before R n,n , is
5. Use
accepted Romberg integration
as sufficiently to approximate the 2+ hthe value
integrals in 5, Exercise
14.
6.
5. RepeatThe
for
Usesome Trapezoidal
theExercisemostconstantsaccurate2ruleusingKapplied K 2accurate.
, Kto
1 ,three-point
Simpson’s 3 , .0 .formula .(x)
f.rule. Use
lim dxthe gives
to values
determine N(h),=each e. Nand missing3
the
, and Midpoint
entry N in rule gives theanvalue
to produce
9 the following tables.
O(h34.)
−6
Romberg table until either |R − Rn,nto | 2<generate− 10 h , or = 10. Compare
nhigh-accuracy your results tousing
the exact
E S E T 4.3 7. Repeat What Romberg
Richardson’s
approximation
a.
value
xof
does
Exercisef3(x) to integration
extrapolation
Simpson’s
M.using Simpson’s can
rule
n−1,n−1 be
is
give?
f ′ (x) rule and the results
performed
used h→0 with
b.
the
of
x Exercise f (x)5. f ′ (x)
Quadrature command
results whilein the Numeri- low-
values the integrals.
8. 25
15.
10. calAnalysis
Find order
Repeat the
SupposeExercise formulas.
degree
that N(h) subpackage
of Although
precision
is an approximation
4 using of
Simpson’s ofMaple’s the
the name
quadrature
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to M the
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attached package.
formula
forresults to
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,6.
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1.1
defining
F. approximations
Richardson integration
9.025013
the function
and J. toand
toA. ! e using
approximate
Gaunt interval, [RG] formula
the
thein integrals
%
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1927, N(h)
√ the&=
8.1 inideaExercise
2−h16.94410
%behind
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h within
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−6 and 0.01.
. isCompute
much the
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Approximate
Repeat Exercise the1 following
using the|R integrals
Midpoint 1
=f
using
rule.
R+
the
h3 2+10
Trapezoidal
+ −6 3 4
+
rule. 6 3· · · , with
+Compare
c. Assume An 1.2 1 table
!interesting euntil
that11.02318 = article
N(h) either K1M
+regarding h+
n−1,n−1 KN(h)
2(x)h−2the+
dx K
|3 h1<
Khistory
n,n = f − K· 2,. hUse
· ·and or8.3 n0.5K
!application
+ h10.
=f317.56492
extrapolation, of. extrapolation yourat least results 16can to the
digits beof exact
found
10. values Repeat Exercise 2 using the Midpoint rule. 3 2 3
rdson Quadrature(f
a.precision,
in 1.3
[Joy].
of the
x 4 integrals.
13.46374(x), x = a..b, method
3−1
to compute an O(h ) approximation tob.e 6with h = 0.04.
dx = romberg , output
8.5 =
18.19056
$ h
%information)
dxDo you think $ h
% the assumption 6
11. for some
Repeat constants
Exercise 3 data
usingK1 , K 2 , Midpoint
K3 , . . . . Use $ 5 the values N(h), of xN − 34 , and 9. N 9 to produce an O(h )
tothe rule fand (x)x the results Exercise
s the first person 1.4
is correct? 0.5 16.44465 8.7
!0 known 18.82091
7. Use
16. Let the = following
!Extrapolation
− can
= approximate
be applied
= + 1whenever
and dx= as it accurately
is
Find 1 the degree asthat possible.anprecision
of approximation technique
y apply 12.d. Repeat h
approximation
produces 1.5
(b the a)/3,
to
values M. x 0 shown a, x 1 in a
Table h, 4.11 together
2 b. with the information thatof6the quadrature
applications
c.Show
has
formula anxExercise
that x 2N(−h)
error fx4(x)
lnterm dxusing
=with N(h).thefMidpoint
a
′
(x)$ 2 ruleform,
predictable
and thed.results
1/h one that
ofx 2Exercise
x depends e−x fdx (x) on
10.
a f ′ (x)
parameter, usually the step
weather 11. The of calculus,
In the 1Trapezoidalwe learn rule rule that ewere
= to 1lim used and + 2dxh) 33 function
. the 0evaluations were required.
13. e. Use
size
Trapezoidal
!part (d)
Suppose to show that
xapplied
that for K each = !K0h→0 f (x)
b3 = K5 =
number
(1 gives
· ̸ ·
= · 0= 30 in
we
value
!the
have
4,4and Simpson’s
formula
a formula
5N (h) rule gives the value 2.
working in
26
a. Determine
What 2.9 h.
Romberg 1.6
is f (1)? 2x integration
−4.827866 approximations 1
applied to adx
to e corresponding h
function
=
9 f
hf
to on h =the
2.0
+
0.35 3 3.6887983
0.04,
hf
interval
20.02, and [a,1b] 0.01. relies on the assump-an
that approximates
Meteorological e. unknown constant dx f M, (x) and 2.4142
that
$ f
the (x) 2.6734
truncation f. (x
2.8974
error 1 ) involved3.0976 (x 2 ). dx
with 3.2804the approximation has the
14. The b. 3.0
tionTrapezoidal
that
Use x−4.240058
the 2 −
1 extrapolation Composite
4rule applied e= onN(h) Trapezoidal
the
to 0+
2
approximations,
a fK(x)
1h + dxruleKgives
2h +
24 has the an
assuming
K h32.1
3value Kerror
04 h5, 44 x 3.6905701
2term
that
and
+ K−5the 45 that
hconstants · · ·can
Midpoint
+ , K1be , Kexpressed
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2gives exist in
value the
with 4.
scientious form ! −3.496909 !
8. What e3.1
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value = Eq.
π/4
(1does +(4.33); 1/h
h)Simpson’s +that $
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2
+=Kchave 3h
3
+f· · ∈ ·+, C to 2.2
2k+2
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b]
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3
kth row
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be generated.
to e, where of
WarinI,17. he Rombergg. 3.2 integration
The x dx is used
sinformula fto(x) approximate c1 f2.3 +e3.6245909 2x is for all
3x
ious used
World x−2.596792 −1 0 f (−1) h. sin (1) dx
so that
h
General-purpose = the
0.04. formula reduces
algorithms to using Romberg integration include a check at each stage to
ay numerical
about the
15. 27
Find
degree the degree
0less than ofor precision
equal to of
2. the
Determine
M − N (h) =!the quadrature c 0 , c
K 1formula
, and
h+ 2 K2&
c 2 . 02
h +rule. K 3
h + ··· ,
2. c. Approximate
ensure that the following
this assumption integrals1 using
$ 2assumption 1 1% Trapezoidal %3are √ &known as cautious Romberg
f !(x)1isdxfulfilled. 2These methods
Do you think that the xis √correct?
yhat check 18.
of awarfare, is The quadrature
! 0.25 formula 0 e = N(h) + K
=inc0part f2 h(0) (b)
++Kc4 h13f43dx. (1)0K+
!
+ 6c f
6 h 2+ · 3 · · .is exact for all polynomials of
(2)
termine if the algorithms
for
degree
a. some less andx)
collection
than or are
2 equal described
of to (unknown)
2. in
Determinef (x) [Joh]. dx c =
constants This
,0f c 1, and+reference
−b. Kx c1 ,.K+ , also
K
f , . describes
. . . 1). bedx methods for using the
differential dx x ln(x 3 +may
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3 some third party content3 suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Romberg The technique
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−1
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formula = cconstructed x ln x
n technique 13. thatSuppose the following extrapolation tablef (x) has dx 0 f (0) + c1 f
0.75 e
been to(xapproximate
1) the number M with
3. Find a bound for the error − in Exercise ! b0 1≈using ! 3the error formula, and compare this to the actual error.
was the M = N1 (h) + K1 h2 + K2 h4M + K3 hN61: (0.1) 0.1K 91 , M − N31 (0.01) ≈ 0.01K1 ,
technique with 4. has Findthe a boundhighestfor the error
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f (x) dx
2 using the = hf
f (x) error
(xdx. + hf (xand
1 ) formula, 2 ). compare this to the actual error.
and, in general, M − N (h) a
≈ K h . 2 4 4
least as old as 20. 5. Find Repeat theExercise constants1 xusing 0 , x1 ,$Simpson’s
and
1
1 c1 so that
N (h) rule.
1 the quadrature formula
ens 17.6. If The
Repeat quadrature
The= object
0.51342,
Exercise formula fof(3)
2 using = f (x) !1dx
extrapolation
−1 0.36788,
Simpson’s !1rule.=
R" isc0 to f (−1) find+anc1 feasy
31 = 0.43687, and R33 = 0.43662, find f (2.5).
(0) + way c2 f to is exact for
(1)combine theseall polynomials
rather inaccu- of
Ed possibly
S E T 4.5 degree
f (2)
rate less than
O(h) or equal to 2. Determine
approximations in an $ c1 0 , c1 , and
hfappropriate 1 c.
way to produce 4.5 Romberg formulas Integration
with a
higher-order 219
10.7. 29 Romberg
Repeat Exercise integration 3 using for approximating
$Simpson’s N1 rule (x)and dx the = dx 2
(x0 )of
fgives +RExercise
c f (x ) 5. R22 = 5. Find f (1/2).
111 = 41 and
18. The quadrature formula 0 f (x) dx
2
0 2 = c$00bf (0) +
fN(x) 2 (h) 2results
c1 f (1) + c2 f (2) is exact for all polynomials of
7–212 b.c.e.).
8. truncation
Repeat Exercise error. 4 using Simpson’s rule and the results of Exercise
11.1. Romberg
Usethe
has
degree Romberg
! less highest thanintegration
integration possible
or equal fordegree toto2.compute
approximating ! R"3,3acfor
of precision.
Determine f (x)
0 , c1 , and
the
! dx following
" gives
c2!&. 1.6R11 = 8, R6.22 = 16/3, and R33 = 208/45.
integrals.
&
π/4
h h 2x
9. e. Repeat 31Exercise
3x
e sin 12xusing dx the Midpoint N1 thatrule. N2 f.
19. Find R .constants dx
1.5 1
Find the 0 , c1 , and x1 so the quadrature N3 (h)
10. a.
Repeat 0 x 2 ln x 2dxcusing
Exercise the Midpoint 4 rule. 2b. formula 1 x xe − dx
2 2−x 4
12. Use Romberg
! integration to compute ! the following approximations
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$ 2
DSE-1F/A COMPLEX ANALYSIS BS: 606

Theory: 3 credits and Practicals: 1 credits

Theory: 3 hours /week and Practicals: 2 hours /week

Objective: Analytic Functions, contour integration and calculus of residues will be

introduced to the students.
Outcome: Students realize calculus of residues is one of the power tools in solvng
some problems, like improper and definite integrals, effortlessly.

Unit – I

Regions in the Complex Plane - Analytic Functions - Functions of a Complex

Variable - Mappings - Mappings by the Exponential Function - Limits - Theorems on
Limits - Limits Involving the Point at Infinity - Continuity - Derivatives -
Differentiation Formulas - Cauchy–Riemann Equations - Sufficient Conditions for
Differentiability - Polar Coordinates-Harmonic Functions

Elementary Functions: The Exponential Function - The Logarithmic Function -

Branches and Derivatives of Logarithms - Some Identities Involving Logarithms
Complex Exponents - Trigonometric Functions - Hyperbolic Functions

Unit – II

Integrals: Derivatives of Functions w(t) - Definite Integrals of Functions w(t) -

Contours - Contour Integrals - Some Examples - Examples with Branch Cuts -
Upper Bounds for Moduli of Contour Integrals -Antiderivatives

Unit – III

Cauchy–Goursat Theorem - Proof of the Theorem - Simply Connected Domains -

Multiply Connected Domains - Cauchy Integral Formula - An Extension of the
Cauchy Integral Formula - Some Consequences of the Extension - Liouville’s
Theorem and the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra- Maximum Modulus Principle

Page 52
Text: James Ward Brown and Ruel V. Churchill, Complex Variables and

Applications (8e)

References: Joseph Bak and Donald J Newman, Complex analysis

Lars V Ahlfors, Complex Analysis

S.Lang, Complex Analysis

B Choudary, The Elements Complex Analysis

Page 53
 112 ElementaryciFunctions chap. 3
Brown-chap01-v3 10/29/07 3:32pm 33
etails showing
8. that
Givethedetails
zeros showing
of sinh z that
and the
cosh z areofassinh
zeros in statements
z and cosh (14)
z areand
as in statements (14) and
ec. 35. O x O u
(l5), Sec. 35.
FIGURE
92
the results proved 22
inElementary
Exercise 8, Functions
locate chap. 3
9. Using the results provedallinzeros and singularities
Exercise of theand
8, locate all zeros hyper-
singularities of the hyper-
w = exp z.
angent function. bolic tangent function.
differentiation formulas (17), Sec. 35.formulas (17), Sec. 35.
e reflection EXERCISES
10.
EXERCISES
sec.
principle
Derive differentiation
26
(Sec. 28) to show that (Sec. for all28)
Complex Analysis
z, to show that for all z,
Exercises 81
sec.
11.1.11 Use the reflection principle Exercises 33
!Practicals Question Bank Exercises 81
Show that sec. 23 Exercises 71
h z = sinh z;sec. 26(b) cosh z= cosh " #
1. By (a)referring
sinh z= tosinh z; z. 12(b)
Example in coshSec. z13, = find coshaz.2domain + π i in the ez plane whose image under
UNIT-I
the EXAMPLE exp(2 ± 3π
(a)transformation 5.i) w = We =−eznow 2; is the illustrate (b) exp
square one
Exercises
domain method in 71 the=ofwobtaining (1 +bounded
plane i); a harmonic by the lines con-
e results in ExerciseEXERCISES
12.1
jugate of 11 a to given show that
harmonic tanh z =
function. tanh z at
The points function 4
where cosh z2̸= 0.
uUse = 1,
(c)
EXAMPLE
theu results
exp(z =+ 2,πv i) in Exercise
5.==1,We −and expnow vz.= 112. to (See
illustrate
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since of2.)
the z at points
other
obtaining conditions where in
a harmonic
cosh thezcon- ̸= 0.
theorem are satisfied, the derivative f ′ (z) exists
epting that the 1. stated
13.
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Find and identity
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showing when
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corresponding replaced
determine
zidentity is valid by
at′ the
which each
when
orientations, real
are variable
zdomains:
2 point isthe where
replaced
images x f by (z)
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variable
hyperbolas The x theorem tells us, moreover, that
jugate a given harmonic function. 2 The function
f3 ze
ingconditions
the lemma (5)
in2.inthe
and
(a)
theorem
Sec.
State|zusing−27,
why 2 +the
are
verify
the
i| lemma
satisfied,
that in f
≤function
1; Sec.the
(z)u(x, derivative
=
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verify
(b) −= |2z
y−
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−(z)
3|
z 3x
>+exists
ey−z is entire.
4; ! "
2 2
eh2fz(z) is defined.
2 The theorem xtells − yus, =moreover,
c1 z(c1(d) < Im 0)that and1; 2xy = c2 (c2 < 0) 1 the θ 1 θ
− sinh
isz!3.
(5) =(c)(a)
readily1;
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cosh z>
the
seen
2(b) 1;−sinh
zCauchy–Riemann
tosinh be z 2+ = 1;z =equations
z cosh
harmonic e (b)
u(x, . y)
throughout sinh =zand yz+3= − the3x
cosh
the
2
theorem
z y= ezxy
entire . inplane. f ′ (z)21
Sec. = to
Since e−iθ show
a that
harmonic√ cos + i √ sin ,
(e) 0 ≤thearg ≤= (zz̸=isw0); 2 " (f) |zanywhere. − 4| ≥ |z|. r)22 3( 3 r)2
2
3
are with Exercise 56 under function
4(b),
Analytic Sec. fz(z)
transformation
34.]
Functions
π/4 exp not=u(x, zanalytic
. y)34.] 3(chap. 3 3
′ conjugate 1
[Compare v(x, y)
θ
with is related
Exercise 1 to
4(b), θSec. by means of the Cauchy–Riemann equations
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cos
in (b),
the two to+ (c) be
ways i are √
harmonic
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that throughout
sinfunction
2thez )component
, f (z) ≤the
= 0entire
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θ) ≤
≤ component is entire. What is its
by derivative?
s the function 14.sinh(e
3(
conjugate Why r))2isv(x, theregion
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y)
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are u =).
everywhere. z=
neither
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y , w
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nor= . −v
closed? x , Exercises 77
7. Use definition (2),that Sec.function15, of limit must to beproveharmonic that everywhere. e −iθ
1 1
15.5.3
4. Show that|exp(2z the lines
+ i)| = =
̸ 2 0) are mapped onto the spirals = exp(aφ) under
ng one of (6) the By Write
identities Ans.
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the and in|exp(iz
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uxus =35 (9))|
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iθ/3
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se 15, Sec.
the
34,
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find
of
all
these
transformation
roots of
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the ifw =
equation exp
lim tellsf z, (z)where = that
w w , = ρ
then exp(iφ). lim |f (z)| = |w |. 3( 3
r) 2 3( 3
re iθ/3 )2 3[f (z)]2
−iθ 3.
where Which
Exercise is sets
a real
15, in Exercise
Sec. constant. 34, find1 are
If all =
bounded?
roots 0, it
of 0 follows
the equation that = 0 everywhere
0 in If
0 1 + i) + exp(iz )| z→z
e c 1 c 2 f2x (z) −2xy D.
=|exp(2z ≤ e0 + e
′ z→z .
(z) = √the sec. e25iθ/3
5.̸=2 By
first of =fact
consideringthese 1√ the
equations images tells of horizontal
us that.Exercises line 77
segments, verify that the Exercises
image of the 77
h z = i; 3( 3cr) (b) 0, cosh
(a) sinh
the Ans.
z = z3(=
(a).3that
. iθ/3
i;re Observe
(see 2
)(b) Sec. 3[f 5)
z= v
(z)] y
1
(x,
2 y) = −6xy. Note that
(9), Sec. 4,aenables
when specificone point z is taken in the domain of definition of f, the
6.rectangular
Show Suggestion:
that 2 region
|exp(z 2a)| ≤≤xcosh ≤how
exp(|z| b, c2the ≤2 y.first ≤ dof under inequalities the transformation w =1/3 exp ztoiswrite the
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In each
1
" eacase, ≤ ρ sketch ≤ eb! , cthe ≤φ closure
≤ "d,vas
).
of shown
f (x,
the set:
(z)f y) =in
(z)
value
= Fig.
−6xy. c 2 f21 (z)(Sec. is one 14). value of z (see Sec. 9). Hence this last expression for f ′ (z) can
n a(a)
nstant.
ns. specific Holding
=2n
zIf=c where 4
point
7.0,
(a) xisisπfixed
zfollows
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that
< real
arg and
z(n in<=the
zconstant.
that
(a)|exp(−2z)| = πfof
integrating
0, (zdomain
(z)
2n ±1,+<
̸= =If10);
10||f
±2, = each
of
and
.(z)|
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i. .); 0, itside
definition
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in
Re
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z|
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±1,zD.
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value
see Sec. of z5)1/36. Verify
c ̸= (see 0, 2the
Sec. !the 9).
fact "mapping
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Sec. region
2 expression
5) and (n boundary
for f ′ shown
(z) can
. .);
in Fig. 7 of Appendix 2, where
tells 8. us
Holding Find "x all
that 1fvalues
fixed (z)and 1is of isz wsuch
integrating
never zero thatin each side here 2 with respect to y, we find that
!
(7)8. the Write
(c) transformation
1Rez!z =≤z −;z0!and show
= exp" z.
v(x, that D.
y)
√(d) =Hence −3xy
Re(z2 ) > +0.φ(x) d 1/3 1
(b) z = 7.2nfFind ± (a) ethe π= z
i image −2; 2(n 2 = (b)
0, ±1,e z 1=
±2, 1 +
. . .). 3i; (c) exp(2z
2 − 1) = 1. z =
(z)f (z)
, d φ3 is, at present, = (b) c = 2n ±
of the semi-infinitec2strip x ≥2 0, 0 ≤ y ≤ π under
f (z)f =
(z) 0,= ±1, c ±2,
!z) =of
z π i (n . . .). the transformation dz 3(z )2
1/3
(7)
where 1 lim f an (z) = 3w
arbitrary v(x,
0 =if and= −3xy
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of + φ(x)
x. lim
Using f (z
the0+ second w0equations
. (6),
w
5. Let 1/3 = exp
S be z, and
the (a) label corresponding
f (z) portions for all the
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D,
that. .|z| < 1 or |z − 2| < 1. State
5 Ans.
= zopen
z→z
= =
z 0the setln(Compare
consisting
2 + (2n cosh +this of
f1)π
all i points
(n = 0, z ±1,such
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ll rootszero
never of the 16.equation
we
in
tells D. have
why
dz uszHence
Find that all
Sis,
cosh
isat roots
fnot (z)
3(z 1/3ofis)−2.
connected. 2 equation
never zero ! 2in D.
(z)
"
exercise
=
zHence −2. when
with
(Compare Exercise
that value
16,
is taken.with Exercise of
Derivatives 16,such power functions will be elaborated on
4.) where
9. ShowSec.√
φ 34.)that present, an arbitrary function
1 2 of2 x. Using
′ the second of equations (6),
6. + Show that (b) = isi ln 2= √
+0, 3y 2n −+only 3x2 π= 3y
(nin= −
Chap.0,φ±1, (x), 3±2, (Sec. 33).
zafromset open ifff±1,and if 0each point in is.in
ns. we
and
z = Derivatives
± ln(2 have
itc2follows
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.); interiorThe main point. result in
taken. Ans. (2n = power ± ln(2 (n + lim
functions 3) +(z)g(z)
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will be .=1)π .). i (n = z→z limon
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=
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just2the all above z in D,
thus f
z→z (z)
0
3ypoints
ensures 2 =
3 − 3x that 2
of = f (z) for
3y of 2 all
is−the z ′
constant
φan in
(x),0 D,
throughout D.
3). or7.φfDetermine
′
(z) =
(x) .(c)Thus accumulation
z =φ(x)
1 =
+ nπxi (n+= fC, 0,where
(z) each
±1, ±2, C .is. .).
following
arbitrary sets: real number. Accord-
ing andequation
(a)
to z if = there i n
(n exists
(7), = 1,
then, 2,a2 .positive
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.); function number (b) z M =
n EXERCISES
i such
n
/n (n that = |g(z)|
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VERSE
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36.φisneighborhood
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′
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from of TRIGONOMETRIC
0φ(x)
zthis . that AND = fD.
in x(z)3 HYPERBOLIC
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ing
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Example
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Use FUNCTIONS
Show f3(z)
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just
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above then,
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throughout
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show =D.
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thatf (z)ifis
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(Compare
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the hyperbolic
theorem 2None; 4, Sec. 28.)
in functions
Sec. 0;22 to ±(1be+
verify 1thati).2each (a)3of f (z) = zfunctions
; z2 +is 1entire: (b) f (z) = z − z ;
mf in theSec.
trigonometric
Inverses and
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′ trigonometric
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isto
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show
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(a)
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Show f (z)
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=
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s. 8. (a)Prove
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z→∞ that = if
(z −
3xa1) +sety + i(3y −each
contains x);z→1 of (z its−(b) 1) f (z) = sinpoints,
accumulation x cosh ythen z→∞ + izitcos−must1x sinh be y; a closed
EXERCISES
(b) 7 f The(z)
(b) corresponding
=
If e z z− is z ;
pure analytic
imaginary, −1what function restriction is 2. Use
is placed the
−1 theorem
on z? in Sec. 22 to show that f ′ (z) and its derivative f ′′ (z) exist every-
der to2 define is athe set. Ininverse
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conjugate
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+ ixy
m in Sec. ; 22 11. (d)
to
1.
(c)
With
f (z)
verify
Apply
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=
that
the e=xaidee−iyof.sin
each
theorem ofthexthese theorem
in Sec. functions
22z in to
x;
Sec. x is
verifyiy17,
(d)
entire: show
that
f (z)where,
each that=
of whenthese
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and find
functions
. when
′′ (z)
isdomain.
entire:
(9)11.
9. The
Show Describe corresponding
that the
any
−1 ′
behavior
point f (z) z analytic
of
0= (y − −1 e
a 3 =
domainfunction
e
3x e 2
y)is as an
+ is
(a) x
accumulation
i(−3xy tends 2
+ to x −∞;
point
3
+ C). (b)
of ythattends to ∞.
m+ini(3y Sec.−22 2.
x);to (a) w
With
show =
f the
(b)
(z) sin
that= aid
ff (z)
3xz of
(z)
1/z =+ when
theand theorem
sin+xi(3y
y its
coshw z == in
derivative
− y x);+sin
sin Sec.w.
i cos azzfx 21, ′′
+sinh show
bwhen
(z)
(b) exist
y;
f (z) that
(a)
z =
every-
= each
fsin sin
(z) x =of
w.
cosh these
iz + y functions
2; i cos x(b)
+ sinhfis(z)
y; = e−x e−iy ;
nowhere
10.12.Prove Writethat Re(e a finite ) inset terms Tof(z)
of points x and y. Why is cannot
3 =z1 , 2z2 , . . . , zn (ad
this− function
bchave ̸=3 0), 3 ;harmonic
any accumulation in every domain
points.
f ′′ (z) −1when analytic: = (c) 2 (z) = (d) = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y.
x=−sin ie−y zcos (9)
The x; (c) that
form does
(d) f== e−y
not
f (z) =−1 = f(zx3(z)
contain 2
− the
+ 2)e −y (y
−x
e−
origin?
ofcos −iy3x
this + d+
y)
x;.czfunction
i(−3xy is easily
f
= (z2 −
+ xverified + C).−iy . is suggested
z
2)e−x eand
f (z)
by
2;
when
That
(b) noting
f (z)(a) is,
=that
f (z)
w
felim−x
(z) ewhen
(z)
−iy
= sin
xy; e+
i(z
sin z
iwiy;
when C)
ie
−iw (b) f y)(z)+= 2xy
(d) f (z)
+ i(x 2 − 2
yAns.);=in (c)
3′′+ fdomain
(z) =(z); y
eD. ix
. f ′′why
e State
= − 0, expression (9) becomes (b) = (d) (z) = −f (z).
e theorem (d)inThe
13.
Sec.
f2. 8
(z)
(a) Let
form
With =21,cos
z→∞
the
theshow
fx(z)
T
zaid
(z)
function
cosh=that
=ofyi(z
=
y
the
−
∞ f
each (z)e if = c
3 of these functions
+ C)
itheorem
sin x sinh
=
u(x,
.ofiny.
0;
this iv(x,
z =function
Sec. 21,
iw
e show is−nowhere
y) −iw
be
eisthat f
easily
.
(x)
analytic
eachverified
i(x f
some
of theseand
(z) C). f
is suggested
functions is nowhere by
the functions and 22, determine where f ′ (z) exists and find its
′′ (z) = f (z); (d)
3. State
noting analytic:
(b) that why
′′lim
when Ta(z) y= = 2i
composition a 0,
andexpression oflim twoT entire (z) (9)= becomesfunctions 3. From
∞ 2i if c ̸= fis(x) results
0.entire. = i(x obtained
Also, 3 +state C). inwhy Secs. any21linear
f (z) = −f (z). c2 );+=cz→−d/c value when
incombination c2U f1 y(z) ef(b) (z)fof (z)two eentire
y eix . functions, where
u(x,y)c1 and c2 are complex
z→∞
this equation
y; (b) fEXERCISES
If(z)we (a)=the 2xy
put
f (z) form+=i(x
this equation
xy 1−
+(x, iy;y) in 2the
u(x,y)
2(c)
form
f (z) cos =2xy
=v(x, y), + i(xV2(x, − yy)2 );= e (c)sin f (z)v(x, =y) ey eix .
tained in Secs. 12. constants,
State
21 and why 22,islimits entire.
determine involving where thef point ′ (z) exists at infinity and (a) aref unique.
find (z) = 1/z;
its (b) f (z) = x 2 + iy 2 ; (c) f (z) = z Im z.
osition of two 1.
3.
4. 9
EXERCISES
entire
Show
State
In are (e
each functions
iw
whythat
harmonic )
case,
13. Show that a set S is unbounded
2 u(x,
a− is
y)
in
composition
2iz(e
determine entire.
D is harmonic
iwand
) − Also,
why
the of
1 = iwV
two
(e ) − state
in
0,
singular 2(x,some
entire y)
(Sec. why is,
points
2iz(e any
domainin
functions
11) if) − linear
iwoffact, theand
and a
is
1= find
harmonic
entire.
function
only
Ans.
a harmonic
0, if(a)everyAlso,
and conjugate
f ′ (z)
statestate conjugate
whywhy
neighborhood
= −1/z
of the
2
U (x,
any v(x, y).
linear
function
̸=of0);
y)
the (b) f ′ (x + ix) = 2x; (c) f ′ (0) = 0.
z) + c2 f2 (z) ofis
14.=Show
two
when
combination
point
entire
analytic
2 at infinity
Establish
functions,
thec1identity
2 everywhere 1 (z) +except
fcontains where
c2at f2 (z) c1atof
least
and
those
onetwo are complex
c2 points:
entire
point infunctions,
S.and find where c1 and c2 are(zcomplex
. (b) f (z)1. x + that
iy ;u(x, y) (c) is f harmonic
(z) = z Im in z. some domain a
3 + 3xy 2 ; harmonic conjugate v(x, y)
(a) u(x, y)is=entire.
constants, 2x(1 − y); (b) u(x, y) 3 = 4.i 2x Use − xthe theorem in Sec.z2 23 to show that each of these functions is differentiable in
when 2z + 1 z + + 1
′
(z) =the
mine −1/z 2 (a)
singular
4.(z(a)(c)
In ̸=points
u(x,
0);
f
each (z) y) = of=the
(b) ′
sinh
fdetermine
2(x+ +x ix)
function sin
; y; =(b)
and 2x;
(e z n
f)state
(z) =(c)
(d) = nz
u(x,
ewhy ′ y)(n
fpoints
2(0) the==function=
0.y/(xthe
0,; ±1,2 + y±2,
indicated
(c) 2
f ). (z). .=domain
2.) of definition, and. also to find f ′ (z):
u(x,case, y) = z(z 2x(1 1)− y);the singular (b) u(x, z − y)3z=of+2x the
2 −function
x 3 + 3xyand ; (z state + why
2)(z 2+ the2zfunction
+ 2)
except 19. DERIVATIVES
mhere in Sec. 23attothose is
show
(c) in u(x,
points:everywhere except
analytic
the
Ans. that y)(a) each
= v(x, sinh of0, xy)these
sin x 2functions
=′ i;y; − yz2(d)
at those
+
points:
is 2differentiable
u(x, y) = y/(x (a) 2f+ (z)
iny)y−1
2=
=). ± 1/z− 4
3x 2 y(z+̸=y 0); 3;
3 following way. 2y; 2 ; 3 (c)(b) v(x, 2y
<θε< α + 2π );
1main of definition, z + i z = ± (b) = 1, z + 1 z = −2, √ i. 2
; (b) f Let
and
f be a function also (c) 2z to find
; +whose
f
1y) f=(z) (z):
−domain of y; z + (d)
definition i contains y)fa=(z) neighborhood 2
+2y ).z (r+
2 |z 1−0,zα 0| <
5. 10
(z) =
(a)zf
According (z)3z=(a)
2 Ans.
v(x,
to 2v(x,Exercise (c)
y) ;=4(b),x 2cosh
(b) = Sec.
− f(z
y 2x+
(z) cos=
23,2y; the
2 +function (b)
(b) v(x,
; .f(c)
v(x,
(z)
y) =
x/(x
2y = reiθ/2
− 3x y + y 3>; .
41) of a point z0 . The − + z(z derivative
2 + 1) +
of f at z0 zis − 2)(z 2 2z
the3zlimit +
+2 2) 2
(z ̸= 0); −θ 2 + 2)(z
(z 2 + −θ 2z + 2)
0, ± i; (b) z2.=Show 1, 2 ; that (c) (c)
ifzvv(x, = and −2, y)V−1 =are− cosh
±harmonic
i. √x cos y;
conjugates (d)(c) ofv(x, f (z)
u(x, y)y)= =in x/(x cos(ln
e a domain + y r) + then
).D, ie sin(lnv(x, y) r) (r > 0, 0 < θ < 2π ).
eiθ/2 (r > 0,and α <VAns. θ(x, <y) (a)
α+ canz2π = );0, ±g(z)
differ i;
at most = (b) zre by =iθ/2 1, 2additive
an ; f(r (c)
(z)>z− 0,=f−π
constant.−2,
(z0< )−1θ ± < i.π )
1 ′
′ f (z)
cise 4(b), Sec. (1)
2.
5.−θ23,Show
According thethat function iftovExercise and V are 4(b),fharmonic
(zSec.0) = 23, lim
conjugates
the function of u(x, Ans. y), (b) in af domain′
(z) = D, then ; v(x,
(c) fy) (z) = i .
cos(ln r) + √ ie is sin(ln
and V (x,
analytic r) y)incan (r
its > 0, 0 <
differ
domain atof θmost< 2π
definition,
z→z
by).an additive 0
with derivative
z − z
constant. 0 2f (z) z
g(z) =1 and re iθ/2 the function (r > 0, ff(z) −π is said <g(z) θ< to=πbe )√re iθ/2
differentiable (r >at 0, z−πwhen <θ < f ′π(z)0 ) exists.
′
(z) = ; (c) f ′ (z) = i . 1 0
(z) By with
′
2f definition, expressingz the variable z in g (z) definition
= (1)
. in terms of the new complex
omain of is analyticderivative in its domain of definition, with 2derivative g(z)

variable
1 composite function
Show that the
g ′ (z) = . !z = G(z)z ′− z= (z1̸=−z20 ),
0 g(2z
g (z) = .
+ i) is analytic in the half plane
x > 1, with derivative
2 g(z)
′
2 g(z)
1
mposite function Show = g(2z
G(z) that − 2 + i) is G
analytic (z)
in =
the half plane .
the composite function G(z) = g(2zg(2z − 2−+2i)+ i) is analytic in the half plane
tive
x > 1,Suggestion:
with 1derivative
Observe that Re(2z − 2 + i) > 0 when x > 1.
′
G (z) = . 1
g(2z − 2 + i) G′ (z) = .
g(2z − 2 + i)
Observe that Re(2z −Suggestion:
2 + i) > 0 when 1. Re(2z − 2 + i) > 0 when x > 1.
x >that
Observe

Page 54
 ! dz 1 iθ this result tells us that
(6)
n−1 Note that if a is a nonzero
= integer
iRen, dθ = i dθ = 2πi.
z dz = 0 (n = ±1, C ±2,
z . .
! −π .). Re iθ
−π
C
(5) zn−1 dz = 0 (n = ±1, ±2, . . .).
e zero, we have C
! EXERCISES
πIf a is allowed to be!zero, π
dz 1 iθ we have
= For the iRe dθ = !i dθ!= 2πi.
140 functions
Re Integrals
iθ f and contoursπ C in Exercises 1 !through 7, use parametric chap.
repre-4
C z
π
−π dz
−π 1
(6)
sentations for C, or legs = of C, to evaluate
iθ
iRe iθ
dθ = i dθ = 2πi.
C z −π Re ! −π
UNIT-II
Consequently, at points on CR , f (z) dz.
11 ! 1/2 ! C √
1. fC(z)
EXERCISES !through ! use parametric repre-
and contours in =Exercises ! z C is! 7,
(z + 2)/z1and R
legs of C,For to evaluate ! z2 + 1iθ! ≤ MR where MR = R 2 − 1 .
the the
(a) ! functions f and
semicircle z = contours
2 e (0 ≤Cθ in ≤π Exercises
); 1 through 7, use parametric repre-
sentations for C, or legs of C,
iθ to evaluate
Since (b)thethe dz.of CzR=is2the
semicircle
flength
(z) e (π ≤ θ ≤L2π
number );
! = πR, it follows from inequality (5) that
(c) Cthe circle z = 2 eiθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π ).
!"
!
!
z1/2f (z) !!dz.
z and C is Ans. (a) −4 + 2π i; !!(b) 4 +2 2π C i; dz(c)≤4π Mi.R L.
iθ
e z = 2 e (0 1. ≤ff(z)
θ(z)≤= = (z−+1 2)/z
π z); z +1 !
andis Ctheis arcCRfrom z = 0 to z = 2 consisting of
2. and C
e z = 2 eiθ But
(π ≤(a)θ ≤ 2π );
the semicircle
semicircle zz = = 12 +eiθeiθ(0(π≤√θ≤≤θ π
iθ
(a) the ≤);2π2); √
= 2 e (0 ≤ θ ≤(b) 2π the
). semicircle z = 2 eiθ (π πR ≤ R
θ ≤ 1/R
2π );real axis.π/ R
(b) the segment z = x (0
MRiθL = 2≤ x ≤ 2) of· the = ,
4 + 2π i; (b) 4(c) + 2π thei; circle =i.
z4π
(c) (a) 02; e (b)(0 ≤ 0.Rθ ≤−2π 1 ). 1/R 2 1 − (1/R 2 )
Ans.
d C is the arc
and fit(z)
3. from is z= =π0exp(π
Ans.
clear to
(a)
that =
z−4z)+
2and
the consisting
2πC
term i; is (b)
onthetheof + 2π
4far
boundary (c)
the 4π
i; ofhere
right i. to
square
tends with vertices
zero at the points
as R tends 0, 1,
to infinity.
2. 12
e z = 1 + eLimit
iθ (π 1f+ ≤ i,θ=and
(7)
(z) is,
≤z2π 1the
i,); andorientation
therefore,
− C established.
is the arcof C being
from z =in0 theto zcounterclockwise
= 2 consisting ofdirection.
π − 1).
z = x (0 ≤ x ≤ (a) 2) of Ans.semicircle
thethe
4(e
real axis. z = 1 + eiθ (π ≤ θ ≤ 2π );
) 0; (b) 0.4. f(b) (z)the is defined
segmentbyz = meansx (0 of ≤ xthe≤ equations
2) of the real axis.
EXERCISES "
z) and C is the boundary of Ans. the(a) 0 ; with
square (b) 0. vertices at 1the points when 0, y 1,
< 0,
orientation of1. Without evaluating the integral,f (z)show= that
3. Cf being
(z) = in the counterclockwise
π exp(π z) and C is the boundary direction. 4y ofwhen y > 0,with vertices at the points 0, 1,
the square
− 1). !" !
1 + i, and i, the orientation of C !being dz in the! counterclockwise
π the curve ydirection.
and C is the arc from z = −1 − i !to z = 1 +! i≤along = x3.
by means ofsec. the45 equationsAns. 4(e − 1). π ! z2 − 1 ! 3
Exercises 149
Ans. 2 + 3i. C
"
4. f (z) is1 defined by means of the equations
when isy an
<arc 0,
5. 13
fwhen
f (z) = =C1isand
(z) the Csame arbitrary
as the one contour from any1, fixed
in"Example Sec. 43.point z1 to any fixed point z2
in the 4y
z plane. when y > 0, 1 when y < 0,
Consequently,
2. Let C denote if the
the line point z + !z
segment (z)is=close
f from z = i to enough so that |!z|
z = 1.toByz observing that <of δ,allthen
the points
from z = −1 −on i to Ans.
z= −i!zalong
1z2+segment, 1. curve = 34y
. when
! toy the > 0,origin, show that
that line the
! F (z + !z) − F (z) midpoint y isx the closest
! 1
. 6. fand (z) Cis isthethebranch ! from z = −1 − i !to"−z f = (z)
!1 +!< ε|!z| = ε; 3
arc
! !z ! dz ! ! i √|!z| the curve y = x .
along
Ans. 2 +any ! ! ≤ (|z|
4 2>z20, 0 < arg z < 2π )
is an arbitrary contour from z3i.
−1+i fixed
= exp[(−1point z1+toi)log !any z]
C z
fixed
4 ! point
that is,
5. f (z) = 1 and C is an arbitrary contour from any fixed point ziθ1 to any fixed point z2
sec. of43
in thethe indicated
plane. power function,F (zand + !z) C is−the unit circle z = e (0 Exercises
F (z) ≤ θ ≤ 2π ). 141
1. without
Ans.
z evaluating
i(1 − e
the integral.
−2π ). lim = f (z),
ch 3. 14
ShowAns. that zif2 C − is z1the. boundary of the !z
!z→0
triangle with vertices at the points 0, 3i, and −4,
sec. 45
or4. ′ C denote the upper half of the circle |z| = R (R > 2), taken in Exercises
Let
oriented = in(z).the counterclockwise direction (see Fig. 48), then the counterclock-
149
1+i
= exp[(−1 6.F+ f(z)
(z)
i)log
Risz]f
the branch
(|z| > 0, 0 < arg z < 2π )
wise direction. Show that !" !
z−1+icircle !=" exp[(−1iθ
=2z
! i)log
2 !+ ≤ z θ z] ≤z)
! ! > 0, 02 < arg z < 2π )
).(|z|
!≤
power function, and C is the
Consequently, if unit
the point ! z+ e!z − is
(0 1 (eclose− 2π
!enough
dz to z so+that
60.
π R(2R 1) |!z| < δ, then
EXERCISES ! !
C C dz
! ≤! ! 2 iθ .
e−2π ). of the indicated!! Fpower ! function,
(z +C!z)
4
z + − 5z and
2
F (z) +4 is !the ! (R −1 1)(R − e4) (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π ).
unit circle z2 =
R
1. Use an Ans.antiderivative
i(1 −! e ! −2π ).to show that for−every !
f (z)!contour
< Cε|!z|extending= ε; from a4 point z1 to
aThen,
pointby z2 dividing
, !z |!z|
" the numerator and denominator on the right here by R , show that
thatthe is, value of the integral y n tends1to zero as R tends to infinity.
z dz = (z2n+1 − z1n+1 ) (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
5. 15 Let CR be the circle C 3i |z| = RF(R n + 1
(z + > !z)1), described
− F (z) in the counterclockwise direction.
2. By Show that an antiderivative,
finding
lim
!" evaluate each ! # = fintegrals,
(z),$
!z→0!
! Log z !z!! of these π + ln R where the path is any
contour between the indicated
! limits of
dz 2π
integration:
! < ,
or F ′ (z) "= i/2
f (z). C "CRπ+2iz2 # $ R" 3
z
(a)
and then euse dz
πz
;
l’Hospital’s (b) rule to cos show that ; value
dzthe (c) of this (z − 2)3 dztends
integral . to zero as
R
EXERCISES
–4
i
tends to infinity. O x
0 2 1
16 Ans. (a) (1 + i)/π ; (b)FIGURE e + (1/e); 48 (c) 0.
6. Let Cρ denote a circle |z| = ρ (0 < ρ < 1), oriented in the counterclockwise direction,
1. Use
3. Use an antiderivative to 44show that for every contour C extending from a point z1 to
and the supposetheorem thatinf (z) Sec. to show
is analytic inthatthe disk |z| ≤ 1. Show that if z−1/2 represents
a point z2 , " "
any particular branch of that 1power of z, then there is a nonnegative constant M,
independent of ρ, such zn dz =− z0 )n−1(zdz
(zthat n+1= 0 n+1 (n = ±1, ±2, . . .)
2 − z1 ) (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
C C0 !"n + 1 !
! !
17
2. when
By finding C0 is an anyantiderivative, ! ! √
closed contour ! evaluatezwhich
−1/2 does eachdznot
f (z) of
! ≤these
2π Mintegrals,
pass through
ρ. the wherepointthe z0 .path is any
[Compare
contour
with between
Exercise 10(b), the Sec.
indicated ! Cρlimits of integration:
42.] !
" i/2 " π +2i # $ " 3
4. Find
Thus an antiderivative
show πzthat the value F2 (z) of of
the the√ branch
integral z here of z1/2 in Example
f2 (z)approaches 3 4, Sec.
0(zas−ρ2)tends 44, to show
(a) e dz ; (b) cos dz ; (c) dz . to 0.
that integral
Suggestion:
i (6) there has
Note that since value
0 2 3(−1 2 + i). Note
f (z) is analytic, and therefore that the
1 value of the integral
continuous, throughout √of the
function (5) around the closed contour C − C in that example is, therefore, −4 3.
the disk Ans.|z|(a) ≤ (1 1, + it i)/π
is bounded; (b) ethere + (1/e);(Sec. 18).
2 1
(c) 0.
5.
7. Show that 43,"toto1show that for all−πvalues of x in the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1,
3. Apply
Use theinequalitytheorem (1), in Sec.Sec. 44 show that
1+e
the functions∗ " zi dz = (1 − i),
" π −1n−1 2 (n = ±1, ±2, . . .)
1 (z − z0 ) % dz =20
Pn (x) = C0 (x + i 1 − x cos θ)n dθ (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .)
where the integrand denotes
π 0 the principal branch
when C0 is any closed contour which does not pass through the point z0 . [Compare
satisfy the inequality |Pexp(i
zi =Sec. n (x)|Log ≤ 1. (|z| > 0, −π < Arg z < π )
with Exercise 10(b), 42.] z) Page 55
8. Let iCN denote the boundary of the square formed by 1/2 the lines
4. ofFind z an andantiderivative
where the path F2 (z)# of of the branch
integration
√$ f
is 2 (z)
any of z
contour# in Example
from $z = 4, −1Sec.to 44,
z =to1 show
that,
that integral
except for its(6) endthere points,has liesvalue above21 3(−1 the real + i). Note
axis. that the value
(Compare of the integral
1 Exercise
with 7, Sec.of42.)
the
 sec. 42 f (z)unit
where m and n are integers and C is the dz.circle |z| = 1, taken Exercises 135
counterclockwise.
C
9.
1. Evaluate
f (z) = (zthe
+ integral
2)/z andI CinisExample 1, Sec. 41, using this representation for C:
Note that if a is a nonzero
(a) the semicircle z = 2z e= iθ " integer
(04≤
n,);this result tells us that
! −θy 2≤+πiy (−2 ≤ y ≤ 2).
170 (b) Integrals eiθ (π ≤ θ ≤ 2π );
the semicircle z = 2 n−1 chap. 4
(5) (See Exercise 2, Sec. iθ39.)z dz = 0 (n = ±1, ±2, . . .).
(c) the circle z = 2 e C (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π ).
10. Let C0 and 3.
C denote the circlesa function f is analytic inside and on a positively
If
170 a isTheorem
136 Integrals
Ans. (a)
allowed
Integrals beSuppose
to −4 + 2π i;wethat
zero, (b)
have 4 +4 2π i; (c) 4π i.
chap. chap.4 4
chap.
oriented circle C!R , centered !(−π at z0 and with radius R (Fig. 69). If M denotes the
2. f (z) = z −z 1=and z0 + dzCRe is iθthe πarc ≤ from
1 θ ≤zπ=) 0 and to z =z!2=πconsisting
Reiθ (−πof≤ θ ≤ Rπ ),
maximum
(6)7. (a) value of |f (z)| on C
=1 + eiθR (πiθ ≤ , then iRe iθ
=i dθ = 2πi.
f (z)
Theoremtheis semicircle
the3.principal zz =branch θ ≤ dθ 2π f );is analytic
respectively. CSuppose thatRe
−π a functionExercises
n!M 135 −π inside and on a positively
z =i|f x (0 ≤ R
oriented
(2) (a) (b) the circle segmentCR , centered (n) at0x)|
(z z≤0≤and2) ofwith the realradius
(n axis.
= R2,(Fig.
1, . . .).69). If M denotes the
−π < Use these parametric z = exp(iLog representations z) n(|z|to>show 0, −π that< Arg z < π) R
z) (|z| > 0, maximum Argvalue z <ofπ
Ans. (a) )|f0(z)| ; on (b) C 0.R!, then R !
is a nonzero EXERCISES
he semicircley3.z =
integer
fof(z)
eiθthis
= n,πthis
(0 power
≤exp(π
result
θ ≤ function,
πz)).−π and tellsC andusthe
is Cthatis the
boundary
f n!M
(z semicircle
− z of
) dzthe = z = feiθ
square (0dz≤vertices
with
(z) θ ≤ π ).at the points 0, 1,
! (n) R0
(2) 1 + i, Cand R i, 1 the+ e |f
orientation (z )|
ofCC ≤
C0 being (n = 1,
n in the counterclockwise
2, . . .).
For the functions − ±1, f and z
contours 0
in RExercises C
1 through 7, usedirection.
parametric repre-
zn−1 dz = 0 Ans. Ans.
(n 4(e = π −2 R1).±2,(1. .−.).i).
C y 18
sentations when for fC,isorpiecewise legs of C, to evaluate
continuous on C.
4.8. evaluate
fWith is thethe aid of the result
zresult in(a) !integrals
Exercise 3, Sec. (5)38, andevaluate the integral
cise 3, Sec. 38,
e zero, we have (b)(z)Apply CRdefined the 0by means
integral in partof

the toequations (6) in Sec. 42 to show that
z "
f! (z) dz.
! ! ! R! π Exercises 135 !
dz zm z nπdz, 1 f (z) =C 1 zm when z n dz, y < 0, dz
= iRe iθ
dθ =(z i− z0 )n−1 dθ dz
= =
2πi.0 (n =4y ±1, when
±2, . .y.) > and
0, = 2π i.
C0 z − z 0
C
zC 1. Re iθ = (z + C
f (z) 2)/z
0 z0 and C is
C −π O integer n, this result−πtells us that FIGURE 69 x
isisathe
nonzero where and n are |z| =curve xC,3 . which has a
unit11. circle and
(a)
(a) |z|
the ism1,the
C=semicircle
Suppose takenarc
thatfrom za =integers
2z e=
counterclockwise.
function
iθ −1(0and
f≤−(z)θiC≤ isπzthe
tois );= 1unit
continuous+ icircle
alongon athesmooth
1, taken =counterclockwise.
yarc

!
e 1, Sec.zn−1 41, dz using19
9.(b) Evaluate
the Ans.
this
= 0the (n
Inequality
2 +integral
the
semicircle
parametric
representation
=(2)
3i. z = I2for
representation
±1,is±2, called
iθ
einC: Example
(π z≤=θ z(t)
. . .).Cauchy’s
≤1,2π Sec.
(a);≤41,
inequality
t ≤usingb); that thisis,representation
andτ is≤ an
for C: on
f [z(t)] is continuous
immediate consequence
C O5. (c) f (z) the=circle 1 andzC=ais2≤ean
interval t≤
iθ
(0b.≤ Show
arbitrary θx"≤contour
2πthat ).2 iffrom
FIGURE φ(τ69 (α ≤
)any fixed point β) iszthe function described
1 to any fixed point z2
2
y + iy of the
(−2in≤the expression
y≤
in z = 4 − y + iy (−2 ≤ y ≤ 2).
zSec.2).39, then
plane.
eand contours
zero, we have C inAns. Exercises(a) −4 1+through 2π i;! (b) 7, use! parametric
n! 4 + 2πinequality i; (c) !4π
f (z) dz βand
repre-
i.
legs of!C,π to evaluate (See Ans.
Inequality Exercise z2(2)− 2, z(n)
is1!.Sec.
called 39.) bCauchy’s is=an1,immediate consequence
2. f1(z) f
= z − 1 and C is the 2πi (z 0
π ) = arc from (t)
f [z(t)]z ′ z =dt0 to =n+1z = 2f [Z(τ (n
consisting 2,
′
)]Z (τof
. . .),
dz !expression CR (z − z0 )
) dτ
= of10. 6.the fLet
(z)iReCis0iθthe
anddθbranch
C=denotei dθ
thea = iθ 2πi.
circles α
C z −π Re (a)iθ the semicircle
f (z) dz. −1+i−π z = 1 + e (π! ≤ θ ≤ 2π );
which Ciswhere aiθ slightly different
= exp[(−1 n!form+ of equation
f (z) dz axis.(6), Sec. 51,argwhen n )is a positive
θ ≤ π ) andinteger. (b)
z = the Re segment
(−π
Z(τ
zf =z)(n)
≤ z=θ0 +
(zz[φ(τ
≤ xRe
)π (0
=),
iθ)].
0apply the theorem
= ≤ x
(−π ≤ 2)i)log
≤ θof≤the πz]) realand(|z| z> =0,=
(n Re0 iθ<
1, 2,(−π z≤ < θ2π
. . .), ≤ π ),
We need only 2πi in
−isz0the
the(zidentity Sec.
n+1
) obtained 43, which gives upper bounds for
z and C is
the 20
(b)
of the
moduli
Point Ans.
of
out (a)
indicatedthe
how 0 ;it follows
power
values (b) 0. thatCand
function,
of contour R C
integrals, unit
to see circle
that
in zpart = e(a)
iθ remains valid when
(0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π ).
respectively.
C is any contour, −2π ).not necessarily a smooth one, and f (z) is piecewise continuous
e z = 2 eiθ which(0 ≤
3. θ is≤=Ans.
aππC.
);slightly
i(1 −z)edifferent
exp(π and that C is the form
the of of
boundary equation
of integral (6), ofSec.
the square 51, when n the is points
a positive
f (z)
(a) onUse Thus
these show
parametric value
n!
representations M the toSec.
show that fwith
(z) vertices
along C atis the 0, 1,
same when
tations 2toeiθshow
z =contours (π 1≤
integer. Cthat
+ i,≤
We need only apply the theorem Rininthe 43, which
eand θin and
2π
Exercises);i, the orientation
1 through of
7, use
C being
parametric repre- instead of the original one. for
counterclockwise gives upper
direction. bounds
(n)
|f
the representation z 0= Z(τ!) (α ≤n+1 (z )| ≤ . 2πR
τ ≤ β) is used, (n =
! that
1, 2, . . .),
2 eiθ of
=legs ≤the
(0 C, θto≤ !evaluate
moduli
2π Ans. of4(e
).Suggestion: theπ − values1). of(a),contour 2π integrals,
Rresult in to see
In part use the Exercise 1(b), Sec. 39, and then refer to
f (z − z0 ) dzwhere !fM(z)
= expression dz
is as in the statement of f (z − z0 ) dz3.=Thisf (z)
Theorem dz
inequality is, of course, the
4 + 2π i; (b) 4. f4 (z) + 2π
C is i;defined
R (14)
(c) 4π in
by i.meansthat section.
of then! Cequations
0 MR C
(n)
same as inequality f (z) dz. |f (2). (z0 )| ≤ . "n+1 2πR (n = 1, 2, . . .),
dusConis C.the arc fromCzwhen = 0 to f zis=piecewise 2π
of R 1on C.
2 consisting continuous
f (z) =
when y < 0,
4y when yThis 0,inequality
> (6)
and
zeintegrals
C is
z = 1 + e (π where
(5) iθ and ≤ θR≤ 2π );
EXERCISES
(b)M
(6) Apply
in isSec.asthe in
42 the
result
to statement
showin part
that (a) of
to Theorem
integrals (5)3. and in Sec. 42is, to ofshowcourse,
that the
same as inequality !! (2). !
ze = 2 e≤ (0
z =x (0 iθ x ≤≤2) C is the arc from
and θ≤ of πthe ); real axis. dz z n−1 = −1 − i to z = 1 + i along the curve y = dz x . 3
)e0z=
(n ; =±1, ±2,
eiθ 1.. .≤ .)θ ≤
Let and
C denote (z −
the z0 )= 2πdz
positively i. = 0 (nboundary
oriented = ±1, ±2, of .the and whose sides =
. .) square lie2π i. the
along
2(b) 0.(π UNIT-III
lines x
2π
=
);
Ans. 2 +CC03i.
± 2
z−z
0and y 0= ± 2. Evaluate each of these integrals: C0
z − z0
=z) 2andeiθ C(0is≤EXERCISES
θ≤
the
5. 21 2π!).
fboundary
= of the
1 and square
is an with vertices
arbitrary ! contour at the points any 0, 1, !point z1 to any fixed point z2
is continuous
)orientation 11.
of C
(z)
(a)
on aSuppose
being e−z
smooth
in the
Cthat
arc a function
C,
dzcounterclockwise which has a isz from
cos
fdirection.
(z) continuous fixed
on a smooth z dz arc C, which has a
+ 2π(ai; ≤ t(b)
4 z(t) 1. in
≤ 4b);(a)
Let the
+ that
2π z plane.
i;is, f(c)
denote
Cparametric the ;
4πrepresentation
[z(t)] positively (b)
i.is continuous oriented = boundary
on2 z(t) dz ;
(a ≤ tof≤the (c)
b);square
that 2zis,whose ; sides lie along the
− 1). C z − (π i/2) C
zz(z + 8) C +f 1[z(t)] is continuous on
dthat
C isif the
φ(τarc
) (αfrom ≤xthe=
≤ τ!Ans.
lines
!z = to2−the
z±2is
β)0interval zand
z=1 .function
a2y≤ =t ± ≤2.b.
consisting !Evaluate
described
Show
of that
! tan(z/2)
each of these
if φ(τ ) (α ≤ integrals:
τ ≤ β) is the function described
!
by means of6. thef equations
(z) isin cosh
Sec.
thee −zzdz 39,
branch then cos z z dz
e z = 1 + e (π iθ (d) ≤ θ
(a) " z4 ≤ 2π ); dz ; ; (e)
(b) (z −2x )2 dz ; dz (−2 <(c) < 2). ;
x 0
! β − ! + 8) ! 2z +1
z = x (0 ≤ x ≤ 2)=of
C z
C 1the real (π
wheni/2)
−1+i C
y < 0, b C + i)log z]
′ z axis.= exp[(−1
z(z 0 β
(|z| >f 0, 0C< arg
′ z < 2 2π )

z′ (t) dt = f (z) ! Ans.
f [Z(τ )]Z (τ ) dτ ! [z(t)]z ′
= [Z(τ
) 0 ; (b) 0. α 22 4y
cosh when
(a)
z 2π ;
y > (b)0, π i/4f ; (c)
tan(z/2)
(t)
−π dt
i/2; (d) 0 ; (e))]Ziπ (τ ) dτ
sec (x 0 /2).
(d)the indicated ;
dzpower (e)a dz (−2 α < x < 2). iθ
0 z = e (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π ).
and zC=is−1
z)from 2.−of
the Find the
z =zvalue
i toCwhere
boundary
4
1+
of the i ofalong
square
function,
the integral
the
with curve of
(z
vertices
C y
and C
g(z)
− x
= x
at
0
23 is thethe
around
) .
the
unit
points
circle
0, 1, |z − i| = 2 in the positive sense
circle
Z(τ
Ans. i(1 − e ). ) =
−2π z[φ(τ )].
orientation
.he of Cwhen
identity obtained being
(b) in in
Ans.
Pointpart the
(a)out 2π
(a) counterclockwise
; it
remains (b)followsi/4 ; that
πvalid whendirection.
(c) −πidentity
i/2; (d) 0 ; (e) partsec
in iπ
2
(a)(xremains
0 /2). valid when
1how the 1 obtained
−ily1).
is an a smooth
arbitrary2.one, (a)
Find g(z)
and
contour Cfis
the =
(z)
fromany
value is2any
piecewise
contour,
of ;
fixed
the (b)
not
point
integral g(z)
continuous
necessarily
z
of to=
g(z) any a
around
2 smooth
fixed the
2
.
point one,
circlez and
|z − f (z)
i| = is
2 piecewise
in the continuous
positive sense
z +4 1 (z + 4) 2
ue
by of means
sec. 52of fon
the integral
of thewhen (z)C.along
equations ThusCshow is thethat same thewhenvalue of the integral of f (z) along CExercises is the same 171
when
α. ≤ τ ≤ β) sec. 23
is used,52 " Ans.representation
instead
the (a)of1π/2 the; original(b)z π/16.
= one.
Z(τ ) (α ≤ τ1 ≤ β) is used, instead of Exercises
the original 171
one.
1
he result in Exercise (a) g(z) 1 = Sec.
1(b), when
Suggestion: 39, y;In and (b)(a),
0,then
< part g(z)
refer
use =to
the result in . Exercise 1(b), Sec. 39, and then refer to
ch f
3.(z) Let=C 4y be the 2 + 4y >
z circle |z|0,= 3, described 2
(z in+the 2
4) positive sense. Show that if
expressionwhen (14) in that section.
1+i 3. Let CAns. be (a)
the π/2 circle ; |z| (b)=π/16. !
3, described 2 3)in the positive sense. Show that if
from = zexp[(−1
= −1 −+i i)log to z = z] 1 + i(|z| along > 0,the 0< arg zy<
curve =2π
2s x−.s − 2
g(z) = ! ds (|z| ̸= 3),
.
power function, and C is the unit circle z = e iθC 2s s−
(0
2
≤ −
θ s≤z−2π
2 ).
g(z) = ds (|z| ̸= 3),
eis−2πan).arbitrary contour
then g(2) from= 8π any fixed point
i. What 1Cto any
is thezvalue s −g(z)
of z when
fixed point |z| z2 > 3?

4. 24
thenCg(2)
Let = 8πsimple
be any i. What is thecontour,
closed g(z) whenin|z|
value ofdescribed 3?
the>positive sense in the z plane,
1.
4. and
Let write
C be any simple closed contour, !described in the positive sense in the z plane,
ch s 3 + 2s
and write g(z) = ! 3
ds.
1+i
= exp[(−1 + i)log z] (|z| > 0, 0 < arg z < 2π ) C (s s 3− +z)2s
g(z) = 3
ds.
Show that g(z) = 6π iz when iθ is insideCC(sand
z − z)that g(z) = 0 when z is outside.
power function, and C is the unit circle z = e (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π ).
−2π
e ). 5. Show that ifg(z) = analytic
f is within
6π iz when z isand on C
inside a simple
and that g(z) =
closed contour
0 when C zand z0 is not on
is outside.
C, then
!
5. Show that if f is analytic within and on a !simple closed contour C and z0 is not on
f ′ (z) dz f (z) dz
C, then ! z′ − z = ! (z − z )2 .
C f (z) dz 0 C f (z) 0dz
= .
6. Let f denote a function that is z − z
C continuous0 − z0 )2 closed contour C. Following
onC a(zsimple Page 56
a procedure used in Sec. 51, prove that the function
6. Let f denote a function that is continuous on a simple closed contour C. Following
!
 = 2
.
occurs
thenatg(2)
the =
boundary point
8π i. What is the z −of
z C=value z01)
(π/2, and
g(z) C at
when −
(z no
|z|zother
) 3? point in R (Fig. 72).
0>

2.
4. Show
6. Let fC thatbe any
denotefor R sufficiently
asimple
function thatlarge,
closed contour, the polynomial
is continuous described on a in the inpositive
simple
P (z) Theorem
closed 2, Sec.
sense
contour 53,
inC.the zsatisfies
plane,
Following
atheprocedure
and inequality
write used in Sec. 51, prove that! the function
y 3
|P (z)| <g(z) 2|an= ! + 2s ds. |z| ≥ R.
||z|n swhenever
1 f (s)3 ds
1 g(z) = C (s − z)
[Compare with the first of inequalities (5), Sec. 2π i C 53.]s −z
25 that g(z) =Observe
ShowSuggestion: 6π iz when z is inside C
that there is a positive number and that g(z) = R 0suchwhen thatz is theoutside.
modulus of
is analytic at each point z interior to C and that
each quotient
5. Show that if finisexpression
analytic within (3), Sec. and53, on is less than
a simple |an |/n
closed when C
contour |z|and > R. z0 is not on
O3. C, then x !
Let a function f be continuous ! ′ on ′ (z) a closed1 !bounded
FIGURE f (s) 72dsregion R, and let it be analytic
gf(z) =dz f (z) dz
and not constant throughout the interior 2π i C (s − z)2 2 . that f (z) ̸= 0 anywhere in
=of R. Assuming
sec. 54
When
R, provethe thatfunction
|f (z)| has f in theC corollary
a minimum z −value z0 ismwritten R−
in (z
C = u(x,
zf0 )(z)occurs
which ony) the +boundary
Exercises
iv(x, y),179 ofthe
R
26
component
at such function
a point. u(x, y) also has a maximum
and never in the interior. Do this by applying the corresponding result for maximum value in R which is assumed on
6. boundary
the Let f denote Ra function
of 54) andthe never that in isthe continuous
interior, on a simple
where closed contour
it is harmonic (Sec.C. Following
26). This is
values
7. aLet C be
procedure
(Sec.
theusedunitto circle
in Sec.
function
= eiθ
z 51, (−π
prove
g(z) ≤=θ 1/f
that ≤ π(z).
the ). First show that for any real constant a,
function
2. Showthe
because thatcomposite
for R sufficiently function large,g(z) the=polynomial
exp[f (z)]P is in Theorem in
(z)continuous 2, Sec. R and 53, analytic
satisfies
the function f (z) = z to show!thatazin Exercise
4. Useinequality ! 3 the condition f (z) ̸= 0 anywhere
and the not constant in the interior. Hence eits 1 modulus f2π (s) |g(z)| = exp[u(x, y)], which is
in R is necessary in order to g(z) obtain = the
n dz result
= ofi. ds
that exercise. That is, show that
continuous in must |P (z)| <its2|a
assume ||z|z whenever
maximum value in |z| ≥ R.
on thetheboundary.
R,
|f (z)| can reach its minimum value n
C at2π ani interior
C s − point
z R when minimum In view
value is
of the increasing nature of the exponential function, it follows that the maximum
sec. zero.
54 Exercises 179
value Then
[Compare
is of writewith
u(x,
analytic y)this
at also
eachintegral
the first of
occurs
point in terms
on theofboundary.
z inequalities
interior toθ2Cto (5),derive
and thatthe
Sec. 53.]integration formula
5. Consider
Properties theof
Suggestion: functionObserve
minimum =
f (z)values
! π(zthere
that +of1)|f is and the
andclosed
a positive
(z)| number
u(x, triangular
y) areR such region
treated thatinthe Rthe with vertices
modulus
exercises. of
points zin=expression
at thequotient 0, z = 2, and =cosi.θ53,
zSec. Find !
points in dsR|anwhere |f (z)| has its maximum
each
2. Show that for R sufficiently large, (3), a 1 is less f (s)
than |/n when |z| > R.
and minimum values, thus illustrating ge′ (z)the =polynomial
cos(a
results
Pdθ(z)=inπ.Theorem 2, Sec. 53, satisfies
sininθ)Sec.
the inequality
3. Let a Suggestion:
function f be continuous 0
on a 2π i Cbounded
closed (s − z)54 2 and Exercise 3.
region and let itz and
R,between be analytic
EXERCISES Interpret |f (z)| as the square of the distance −1.
27
and
8. at(a)suchnot
With constant
the |P
throughout (z)| <
the 2|a
interior||z| n
of whenever
R. Assuming |z| ≥
thatR. f (z) =
̸ 0 anywhere in
Ans. z =aid
a point. 2, zof=the 0. binomial formula (Sec. 3), show that for each value of n, the
n
1. R, prove
Suppose function that f|f(z)
that (z)|ishas a minimum
entire and that value m in R function
the harmonic which occurs u(x, y) on = theRe[f boundary
(z)] hasof anR
7. Let
6. and
upper Cf (z)
never
[Compare be the
bound =in
withunit
u(x,
the
u ; y)
0 the that+ is,
circle
interior. zof
iv(x,
first =
Do
u(x, eiθthis
y) 1be≤by
y)(−π
inequalities aud≤ n θ ≤ π ).that
function
for 2 all
0applying
(5), First
points
Sec. the
n 53.]
is show y) that
continuous
corresponding
(x, in theforon any
result
xy real
aplane. forconstant
closed bounded
Show
maximum a,
that
region Rmustand54)
beanalytic Pn (z)
constant and =not constant
throughout =
the(z1/f −(z).
1)
throughout
plane. (n =interior
the 0, 1, 2,of. . R..) Prove that the
values
u(x, y) (Sec.
Suggestion: toObserve
the function
thatn!there g(z)
2 !dz az
n is
n a positive number R such that the modulus of
component
Suggestion: functionApply u(x, has aSec.
y) (3),
Liouville’s e53, is(Sec.
minimum
theorem value 53) in to R
|a which
the|/n occurs
function |z| on =the boundary
exp[f
4. 28
each quotient in expression less than when
= 2π i.3 the condition f (z) ̸= 0 anywhereg(z) > R. (z)].
∗ that in dz
Use the function f (z) = z to show Exercise n
of Risand a polynomial
never in the of interior.
degree n. (See Exercise
z 3.)
3. inLetRa isfunction
necessary f bein continuous
order to obtain onCa closed the result boundedof that exercise.
region R, and That let is,
it beshow that
analytic
7. |fLet be the function = z and the rectangular region 0 ≤ ≤ 1, 0 ≤ ≤
and f
(z)|not can reach
constant its f
throughout (z)
minimum e
thevalueinterior
Then write this integral in terms of θ to derive the integration formulaR
at an ofinterior
R. point
Assuming when
that the
f (z) x =
̸
minimum 0 y
value
anywhere in.
πis
∗ These are Legendre polynomials, which appear in Exercise 7, Sec. 43, when z = x. See the footnote
Illustrate
R, prove results
zero. that |f (z)| in Sec. has54 and Exercise
a minimum value 6 by m infinding
R which points in R on
occurs where the the component
boundary of R
to that exercise.
function y) = Re[f (z)] ! π
neveru(x, Doreaches byθ2its maximum the and minimum values.
region R with vertices
and in the interior. thisa cos applying corresponding result for maximum
5. Consider the function f (z) = (ze+ 1) cos(a
and the sin closed
θ) dθ triangular
= π.
values
29 Ans. (Sec.z =54)1, to
z =the1 function
+ π i. g(z) = 1/f (z).
at the points z = 0, z = 2, and 0 z = i. Find points in R where |f (z)| has its maximum
4. and
8. Use minimum
Let the
the function
function values,
f (z)
f (z)==
thusz tou(x, show
illustrating
y) + that in Exercise
results
iv(x, y) inbeSec. 3 the54 condition
continuous and Exercise
on fa (z) 3.̸= 0 anywhere
closed bounded
8. (a)
in RWith isR, the aid of
necessary intheorder
binomial
|fto formula (Sec. 3),the show that for each value of−1. the
n, that
region Suggestion: and supposeInterpret that itobtain
(z)| thethe
isas analytic result
square andofof notthat exercise.
distance
constant in That
between zis,and
the interior show of R.
|f function
(z)| can reach its minimum value at an interior point when the minimum value is
ShowAns. thatz the= 2,component
z = 0. function
1 d nv(x,2 y) has maximum and minimum values in
n
zero.
R which are reachedn on the boundary P (z) = (z − 1) (n = 0, 1, 2,
of R and never in the interior, where it is . . .)
6. Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)n!be 2n adzfunction
n
that is continuous on a closed bounded
the
harmonic.
5. region
Consider the function f (z) = (z + 1) 2 and the closed triangular region R with vertices
R and analytic and not constant throughout the tointerior of R. g(z) Prove = that
−if (z).
at theisSuggestion:
component a polynomial
points z = Apply
0, zof= results
degree
2, and in
n.
z
∗Sec. 54 and Exercise
= i. Find points
function u(x, y) has a minimum value in R which occurs on the boundary in R 6where the function
|f (z)| has its maximum
andRzminimum
9. 30
Let
of 0andbe never
a zero values,
inofthe thus
theinterior. illustrating
polynomial (See Exercise results 3.) in Sec. 54 and Exercise 3.
∗ These areSuggestion:
Legendre Interpret which
polynomials, |f (z)| as
appear the in square
Exercise of7,the Sec. distance
43, whenbetweenz = x. See −1.
z and footnote
7. Let f be the function f (z) = ez and R the 2 rectangular region 0≤ x ≤ 1, 0the ≤ y ≤ π.
Ans. z = 2, zP =
to that exercise. (z)0.= a0 + a1 z + a2 z + · · · + an z n
(an ̸= 0)
Illustrate results in Sec. 54 and Exercise 6 by finding points in R where the component
6. function
Let f (z)u(x, = u(x,y) = + iv(x,
y)Re[f (z)]y) be a function
reaches its maximum that and is continuous
minimum on values.a closed bounded
of degree
region ≥ 1). Show
n (n analytic
R zand and in the following way that
Ans. = 1, z = 1 + π i.not constant throughout the interior of R. Prove that the
component function u(x, y) has a minimum value in R which occurs on the boundary
8. Let
of Rthe andfunction
never in fthe = u(x, (See
(z)interior. y)P (z)+ Exercise
iv(x,
= (z y) − z3.)be
0 )Q(z) continuous on a closed bounded
region R, and suppose that it z is analytic and not constant in the interior of R.
7. Show
Let f that be the function f (z) function = e andv(x, R the rectangular region 0≤ x ≤ 1, 0 values ≤y≤π in.
where
Illustrate Q(z)the is acomponent
polynomial degree n −
of Exercise y)1. has maximum and minimum
R which results are reached in Sec.on 54theand boundary 6ofbyRfinding and never pointsininthe R where
interior, thewhere
componentit is
function u(x, y) = Re[f (z)] reaches its maximum and minimum values.
harmonic.
Ans. z = 1, Apply
Suggestion: z=1+ π i. in Sec. 54 and Exercise 6 to the function g(z) = −if (z).
results
8. Let
9. Let zthe function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be continuous on a closed bounded
0 be a zero of the polynomial
region R, and suppose that it is analytic and not constant in the interior of R.
Show that the component P (z) = a0 function+ a1 z + av(x, 2 y) has maximum n
(aand minimum values in
2 z + · · · + an z n ̸= 0)
R which are reached on the boundary of R and never in the interior, where it is
harmonic.
of degree n (n ≥ 1). Show in the following way that
Suggestion: Apply results in Sec. 54 and Exercise 6 to the function g(z) = −if (z).
9. Let z0 be a zero of the polynomial
P (z) = (z − z0 )Q(z)

P (z) = a0 +
where Q(z) is a polynomial ofadegree z2−+1.· · · + an zn
1 z + a2n (an ̸= 0)

of degree n (n ≥ 1). Show in the following way that

P (z) = (z − z0 )Q(z)

where Q(z) is a polynomial of degree n − 1.

Page 57
DSE-1F/B VECTOR CALCULUS BS: 606

Theory: 3 credits and Practicals: 1 credits

Theory: 3 hours /week and Practicals: 2 hours /week

Objective: Concepts like gradient, divergence, curl and their physical relevance will be taught.
Outcome: Students realize the way vector calculus is used to addresses some of the problems of
physics.

Unit I
Line Integrals: Introductory Example : Work done against a Force-Evaluation of Line Integrals-
Conservative Vector Fields-Surface Integrals: Introductory Example : Flow Through a Pipe-
Evaluation of Surface Integrals
Unit II

Volume Integrals: Evaluation of Volume integrals

Gradient, Divergence and Curl: Partial differentiation and Taylor series-Partial differentiation-
Taylor series in more than one variable-Gradient of a scalar field-Gradients, conservative fields
and potentials-Physical applications of the gradient

Unit III

Divergence of a vector field -Physical interpretation of divergence-Laplacian of a scalar field-

Curl of a vector field-Physical interpretation of curl-Relation between curl and rotation-Curl and
conservative vector fields.

Text: P.C. Matthews, Vector Calculus.

References: G.B. Thomas and R.L. Finney, Calculus

H. Anton, I. Bivens and S. Davis, Calculus

Page 58
 and (1,1,0).
The curve can be written in terms of a parameter t as x = t, Y = t 2 , Z = 0,
o t 1, so dr = (1, 2t, 0) dt. The value of the integral is therefore
30 Vector Calculus

fax + y2 dr = 10 (t + t 4 )(1, 2t, 0) dt

1
37
2. Otherandforms
Line, Surface
2.2.4 Volumeof line
Integrals integrals
Vector Calculus
The line integral =Ie F· t + most
el dr is the
z
(1
+ e2
t 4 dt)important
1
5 dt) = 0.7el + e2.
2t2 +of2tline
Practicals Question Bank
type
1
(1
integral, but there
are two other forms of the line integral which can occur.x These are
UNIT-I
1 Example 2.13 and
fa F x dr
Evaluate the line integral
Fig. 2.9. A point on the cylindrical surface x 2 + y2 1 can be denoted by the
where
parameters and (). field and F is afavector
¢ is az scalar F x dr,
field. Note that in each of these cases
the result of the integral is a vector quantity. These integrals can be evaluated
using aF parameter,
where is the vector as field
in the(y,following C is the curve y = sin x, z = 0, between
x, 0) and examples.
= 0parameters
xtwo and x = 1r.describing the surface are the height z and the angle 0 around
theThe
cylinder
2 Example curve2.12(Figure
can be 2.9).
written as x =
In terms y =parameters
of t,these sin t, Z = 0, the0 position
t vector
1r. Thenis
F
2. Line, Surface
=and
r = (x, y,t, z)
(sin
Evaluate
=lineIntegrals
t, 0)
the
Volume
(cos 0,
arid o=0,(1,z),cossot, 0) dt, so F x dr = (0,0, sin t cos31t - t) dt and
drsin
integral
the integral is or o . y2 dr, or
y
2. Line, Surface and Volume Integrals 00 = (- sm 0,fax cos B,+0), az = (0,0,1) 31
EXERCISES Fig. fa = e3107r of y, z2 runs =the line z2= =line z = 1.
+ (0,0,0)
_7r 2y/2
where2.10.
CF isxFordr each
the value sin
parabola y = t xcos int or tfrom
-the dtplane
or 1/2
z =[sin t -0 up toe3the
0 connecting the points e3.
and (1,1,0). and 00 x az = (cos 0, sin 0,0).
EXERCISES
2.1 Evaluate the line integral
The
3 ofThe
valuescurve can
forof zthe
value 0be written
is integral -inyterms
z is1 therefore of a2.10).
(Figure parameter
The outer t, Y = tthen
t as xy =integral 2, Z = 0,
has
o t of 1,0the
limits
2.1 Evaluate fa
and dr1. =
so line This
F· dr integral
JIs
(1, 2t, 0) dt. Thetovalue
corresponds
where
11 127r
covering
F = (5z 2 ,2x, x + 2y)
strips. The value of the integral is (cos 0, z, - sin 0) . (cos 0, sin 0,0) dO dz
of thethe integral
triangular is therefore
area
(2.lO) with vertical

andfax the+curve fa
y2 F·
u·ndS
drCdris= given
10 10
1 1 V
Y dz
1
10where (tby+xt 4=)(1,
dy t 10r
=
t,1F Y
27r
==0)(5zt 2dt2, ,2x,
2t, Z =x
dy =10
t2+ 2y) t:S 1. (2.lO)
, O:S
1
FYdz - y2 dy in =(2.10)1/6.
(1 (1
2.2 Evaluate the line integral of -
io1theio same cos 2vector
0 + z sin field0 dO given
and the curve C is
along the straight=lineeljoiningt the given by x =
+ t points
t, 4 Y =
dt) + e2
t 2 , Z = t 21, O:S t:S 5 1.
(0,0,0) and 2t2 +(1,1,1).
2t dt) Is = F0.7el + e2.
2.2 4
aEvaluate
along
2.3 Find
The integral
conservative
whichthe case
the
the line
line the
straight
could
vector
limits
integral
integral
line for
of
alsoofhave
field?
y are
joining
the
11
the been
1rdz
vector
same evaluated
0thefield points
vector field
y= 1r.u1 -=(0,0,0) andx,the
z(y2,
by Fdoinggiventhe
limits
andalong
z) (1,1,1).
integral first, in
in y(2.10)
for curve
the zIsare F 0 S z S 1.
Example
aThis
given ordering
conservative 2.13
by z = y corresponds= eX from
vector field?x to = 0covering
to x = the 1. region of integration in Figure 2.10

2.3 with
Evaluate
Find
2.4 5 Example
2. Line, Surface
horizontal
the the
line
the line 2.14 line strips.
integral
and Volume Integrals
integral
of The
the value
vector of
fieldthe
integral fc r x dr where the curve C is the ellipse u =
integral (y2, x,is z)the same:
along the curve
31
xgiven21a2 + byy21bz[1=2[1-Z y==1eX frominx an
taken = 0oftoufax= F=(y,1.x xdr,
Evaluate the surface integral( anticlockwise 2 , direction.
Z2), [1 over the What do you
surface S, where S is
2.4 notice
Find the about
the triangular 10 10
linethe integral
y dy dz
magnitude
surface
fc r x= dr
on=x of 10 [y2
0thewith
where
answer? the 10
dz =curve(1C- isZ)2the
y 2: 0, z 2: 0, y + z 1, with the normal
/2 dz = 1/6.
ellipse
21a2 +F y21b
xwhere is the2 =vector
1 taken field in (y,
an x,anticlockwise
0) and C is direction.
the curve y =
What sin do
x, you
z = 0, between
EXERCISES n directed in the positive x direction.
notice =
x 0 and x 1r.
6 Example
about
In this2.15
the = magnitude of the answer?
example n = (1,0,0) and so u . n = y. When the surface is not
2. The
2.1 Evaluate Line, curve the care
Surface linecan
and be
integral
Volumewritten as x = t, y = sin t, Z = 0, 0
Integrals t 1r. Then 29
rectangular, must be taken whenthe setting the limits of the zintegration. If
39
Find
2.
F =
Line,theSurface
surface
t, t, andintegral
Volume
dr = of(1, = rt, over
Integrals
'Ucos dt, part
F of
dr the= paraboloid t =- 1-
t t) x 2 _and
dt y2

fa
we (sin
choose to 0) doarid the z integral 0)
first, thenso for x any (0,0,
given sin
value cos
of y, the range
z > 0, with
withintegral is drthe normal pointing upwards.
the
Conservative F· vector where fields are Fof=great (5z 2
,2x, x + 2y) since many
importance, (2.lO)physical ex-
2.3 Surface 7 2.amplesSince
Example
Line, of
integrals
the2.16
vector
surface
fields
is curved,
are Integrals
a
conservative.
description
Consider
of the
for on
surface
example
in terms of two
the Earth's
parameters Surface
dr C=
is and
needed. Volume
Using simply
= x
= andt=, experiences
y, a
Z =[sin
point the
t - at:Sforce =
surface is (x, y,grav-
1-
27
If
and S fathe Fcurve
is the
itational xfield,
entire g. e3107r
isx, given
A sin
plane,
y particle byt xcos t t,- Yt dt
evaluate
of mass the
m
2 1/2
integral 2 2
t , O:S 1.e3 mg, _7r 2 /2 e3.
so the work
2.3 Surface
lis
x 2 - y2) integrals
andthe the linetwo tangent vectors invector
the surface, obtained by differentiating
2.2 Evaluate
done
in terms in moving
of the
integral
the
parameter particle of the
0 along
as
same
dr =a (dx,
pathdy, Cfieldfrom=F point
dz)
given Ain to
sin
(-Taking 0, cos
(2.10)
point
0, 0) dO, Bproduct
is just
so the
with
2.3.1 Introductory
along respect
the to
straight x and
example: y, are
line joining (1,0,
flow
I the -2x)
= through
points and
e-
X2 (0,1,
y2
(0,0,0)
-
-2y).
adS,pipe and (1,1,1). the Is cross
F
minus
value ofthethe line
line integral
integral of is mg along C. However, we know physically that the
aof these two vectors,
conservative vector the quantity n dS is (2x, 2y,_ 1) dx dy. Note that this has
field?
done only depends on the position of the points A and B - in fact the
awork
positive component, sovector
is27rdirected =potential
aupwards as along
2.3.1 2.3
Suppose by
Introductory
thatFind transforming
fluid flows
workthe doneline z integral
J the velocity
example:
with
F.drof
is simply
integral
thethe
uinto
10
flow
difference
throughpolar
through
field ucoordinates.
in the
pipe.
(y2, What
z) required.
a.x,(-sinO,cosO,O)dO
pipe is the
energy the Taking the dot
total
curve
of2 the particle at A
volume of8 fluid
given In
product with
polar
passing Ie
z = y = eX from
byEquivalently, gives
coordinates
through
'U 'Uthe. (r,
n B),
dS
x =
pipe =x (SinO,
22X2 +
0 to x is=moved
per + cosO,
unit
y2 =
2y2
1. r2
time+0)and
z dx dS
dy
(Figure == 1 r +dB
2.4)? xdr. +
ThisThe
y2 dxrangesdy. The of
and B. if the particle around but returns to its starting
Suppose 2.4that limits
the
Find fluid on
variables
the the
flows
line integral
to cover
with velocity
integral r
are
the determined
whole
fc r isxuzero. plane
drthrough wherein a
are similar
0
athepipe. ::; r
curve <
manner
What 00 and
C isisthe to 0 ::; B
Example
theellipse <
total 2.14.
211", so The

1 00 121r r\ io - 00 1
27r
point,of the total work done Therefore,
sin 2 0 + cos 2the Earth's
0(Figure
dOcircle 2 gravitational
+do field is
volume of xedge fluid +
21a2 passingthe
y21b surface
2 = through
1 is given
taken thein as anticlockwise
pipe
an z =per 0, which
unit is
time the
direction. Whatx2.4)? y2This= 1. Choosing
you
an example of
1= the magnitude a conservative
e- vector
dBofdrthe= answer? field.27re- r \d1· == 11" == 11".
notice about
9 Example 2.11 ior 27r
cos 20 dO = [1/2 = 0.

This answer can be used to show that r2
e-: dx = y1f, a result which cannot
By considering the line integral of F = (y, x 2 - X, 0) around the square in the
The
be line integral
obtained by standardof a vector field Fofaround
methods integration. a closed curve C is often called the
x, y plane connecting the four points (0,0), (1,0), (1,1) and (0,1), show that
circulation of F around C.
F cannot be a conservative vector field.
Example
10 This line 2.8integral consists of four parts (Figure 2.3). On the first section
2.3 Surface integrals
Evaluate
Fig. 2.4. Fluid the velocity
flows with line integral of athe
u along vector
pipe. The field
rate atu which it crossesalong
= (xy,z2,x) the the curve
surface S at given
the end of
by x the pipe is an =
1 + t, Y 0, z t ,
example of
2 a surface
y
= integral.
t ::; 3. = °: ;
2.4First
Fig. 2.4. Fluid
2.3.1
Volume
flows write
Introductory
u andintegrals
with velocity
example:
dr in terms
u along of t:The
a pipe.
flow through
, 1 + t), dr
u rate(0,att 4 which
a pipe it crosses the
=
(1,0, 2t) dt. The =
surface S at
volume flow value
the endof the
of integral
the pipe is is
an therefore
example of a surface integral.
rate is often called the flux of fluid through the pipe, or the flux
of fluid across the surface S that forms the end of the pipe. We will consider
Suppose that fluiddr
2.4.1
f F. = f3with
flows (0, t\velocity
Introductory 1 + t) u through
example:
. (1,0, =a pipe.
2t) dtmass of+
f3 2t What
an dtis=the
2t2 object [t 2total
2t 3
+with = 27.
volume
volume flow
of fluid ie
rate passing
is often through
variable density io
called thetheflux of fluid
pipe through
per unit timethe pipe, or
(Figure the This
2.4)? flux io
of fluid across the surface S that forms the end of the pipe. We will consider
Example 2.9
Suppose that an object of volume V has a density Page p. 59If p is a constant, the
Find the line integral of F = (y, -x, 0) along the curve consisting of the two
mass M of the object is simply M == p V. Now suppose that the object has a
straight line segments (a) y = 1, 0::; x ::; 1, (b) x = 1, 1 ::; y ::; 2.
 determining the correct limits for the integrals when the shape of the object is
complicated. It is often helpful to sketch the region of integration in order to
find the limits on the integrals. Also useful is the rule that in general, the limits
f= constant \If
on an integral can depend only on the variables of integrals that lie outside that
integral. For example, if the integrals are evaluated in the order x, y, z then
the limits on the y integral may depend on z but not on x.
UNIT-II
11 2.17
3. Gradient,
Example Divergence and Curl 55
dr
A2. cube x, y,and
Line, 0Surface z, Volume a variable density given by p = 1 + x + y + z. What
1 has Integrals 41
A similar argument
is the total mass of the cube? can be used to approximate the contribution to the
2. Line, Surface and Volume
surface integral Integrals
from 43
Example
The total 2.18
mass is S2, which is located at (x - 8x/2, y, z). The unit outward
12
normal Volume
2. Line, Surface
Findand
and and
2. Line, Surface
EXERCISES
the volume
integral is M
(-1,0,0)
for S2 isIntegrals
c). Integrals
(0,0,Volume
IlipdV
so U . n = -U1 and the contribution to 43 the surface
of the tetrahedron with vertices at (0,0,0), (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0)
43
13
Fig. 3.2. Grad f is
2. Line, Surface and Volume Integrals
EXERCISES =
ffs2
U . n dS -U1 (x - 8x/2, y, z) 8y 8z.
perpendicular to any vector dr
2.5 Evaluate the surface integral of u = (xy,x,x + y) over the surface
1111 11
lying in the
1 + x + y + zdxdydz
43

surface f = constant.

Adding the contributions 43 of the defi-

EXERCISES
2. Line, Surface
SEvaluate
and Volume
defined the
Integrals
by zsurface
= 0 with z 0 from these two surfaces and making use
::; xof::;u 1,=0(xy,x,x
::; dly ::; 2,+ with thethe
normal n
2. Line, 2.5
Surface and Volume Integrals
nition of the partial derivative integral
1111(3.1), the- combined y) over dydz surface
contribution 43
to the surface (3.10)
EXERCISES directed
Sintegral in
definedisthe the positive
z = 0 with
by surface z direction.
x ::;u 1,= 0(xy,x,x
=Vf·u. n
2.5 Evaluate c 0 ::; of
integral ::;dsy ::; 2,+ y) with thethe
over normal
surface
2.6
EXERCISES Find
14
directed the surface
in the integral
positive z of u
1 =
direction. r over the surface
of0I::;Yin+Z)d
of the unit cube
S defined This by is z the
= 0 rate
with of change
01 ::; x ::; =
ur 1, y the
::; +2,Ydirection
with of
dz overthethe n vector u, and is
the unit
normal
2.5 oFind::; x,the
2.6 Evaluate y, zthe
::; 1,surface = pointing
nintegral 1\3/2+
of= surface
EXERCISES
2.7
directed
oFind
SThe ::;defined
surface
x,
surface
called
inbythe
y, zthe
ffsl+S2
with
the integral
zsurface
::; S1, =
is
directional
positive
u·ndS
0 with
defined
with
of
nintegral
pointing
u
xof
to::; be
outward.
derivative
z 0direction.
(U1(X+
::;
that
over (xy,x,x
1, 0part
=
outward.
the
::;
surface y)
2, with
yof::; the
+ y)plane
of the
of f. This can also8;,y,z))
8;,y,z)-U1(x- the
unit
normal
=
zthe
cube
be written
0surface
lying
as
n 8y8z
2.5 Evaluate
2.6 directed the surface integral of u
=zx 0direction. = ur over (xy,x,x
=1,=+y2. the surface
+ the
over
of the unit cube
2.5 between
2.7 Evaluate
oSThe
2.6 15 ::;defined
in
the
x,surface by
the
the z positive
curves
::; S1, is
=
surface0 ywith
defined 211
nintegraltoand
::;be
of u =
[3y/2
x x::;
aUl
of that
u ds
y2/2
::;Find
part
0(xy,x,x the
y=of::;IV
dz the
surface
+2,IIy)with
plane integral
over zthe
cosO, = of
0 lying
normal
surfacen (3.11)

11
Find they, zsurface with
integral pointing ax2outward.
r 8xover 8z surface of the unit cube
8y the
. n overin
udirected
between theSthe where
curvespositive y == z(z,
uwith xy,
and
x02direction. )=
xx ::;xthat and y2. nFindy=of ::;(0,0,1).
the surface thez integral nof
2.7 So defined
::;
The surface by Sz 0=with
isis0defined to::;between
be 1, 0part ::;
I
2, with
the plane normal
= 0u.lying
2.8 Find
u
Find
2.6 directed . nx, the
over
thein z
y,where ::;
surface
S
surface 1,
where the
integral
u
integral n = angle
pointing
(z,of
of xy, u (2 .x +
noutward.
2 ) over
z)dzand V
u = r over the surface of the unit cube
S
n and
where
= the
(0,0,1). S unit
is the vector
part of Since
the -1 cos 0 1,
between the thecurves
Sx1, +
positive y = zx direction.
2 and
<be.0nthat x = y2. Find
>V f the the
a surface x integral of
y,it follows that theto z magnitude xof is uequal toz part
the
2.7 The = 0maximum rate of change
2.8 Find
2.6 ::;. nx,surface
ouFind
surface the
the =
zzsurface
surface
::;
S with
iswithdefined
y2
integralwith
uy n=
integral = pointing ofof uu =
and 8V.part
over
outward.
xx2r )= over Sthe of
-1,
where
= surface
Splane
isisofthe thevector
the unit of
lying
field
cube the
between
u
ouThe =
surface (2y
over
::;. nx,surface of+
theIx,
where
curves
-1,0)+ position.
and =
nwith
xn(z,2[2zxy,
and
z <be0
has + a z2negative
and
and y2.= nFind
x y,> zof 5/2.
z
(0,0,1).
the
component. surface integral of
2.7
2.8 16 Fig.
Hence
Find y,the
2.12.
the
zz =::;For Sx any
1, is y2
with
contribution
surface defined
given
integral pointing to
values
to of u x.of
div nthat
uoutward. andpart
) defined
xover nSFind in-1,
=where
the
ranges
(3.14) isfrom
u plane
asxS2avertical
is
thethe
from vector
thez part =plane
surfaces 0 of field
lying
zthe = 0and
Sl up toS2the is
2.9 Find
u
between
Noteplane= over
the
(2y x/a
that + Sx,
the
in
The
volume
+ where
-1,0)
curves
Sthis
symbol
+ z/c
uand
integral
exampley
= V
= = (z,
n
x of can
xy,
the
has
2This
the and abe
is
2
scalar
beintegralsx
and
interpreted
=
negative
indicated y2. field
were z ¢>
by
(0,0,1).
=
component.
the
the
carried + y2 +column.
vector
surface
out z2differential
over
integral
zinvector
=the order the ofx,operator,
y, z,taking
but
2.7 The
2.8 surface
Find auI/ax. surface
the z Note
=
V surface
y/b x +
is
that defined
y2
integral this
with 1. isto
ofz now <
u 1, 0 that
exact
.xnscalarand
over
part
xsince >
S::;
of-1,
where the theudivergence
plane
is
::;xSz2surface
is y2the
the+part is 0 defined
lying
field
of the by
region
Find
2.9 between
uu
any .=nother the
over
(2yzthe +
specified
volume
Sx,curves
choice
8V where of by
integral
uand =
O. yordering
0 ::;
= x(z, of xand
n2z hasxy, ::;
theis the 1)=
x2negative
aequally
::;y2.
and YfieldnFind
valid. 2,¢>(0,0,1).
=
z-1,
0=the +
::; 3. z2
integralover theoftwo surfaces
2.10 60
Find
the
surface
region
2.8 u . n over surface
limit
the V =
volume x
specified +
-1,0)
-t y2
of by
Similarly,
with
the
integral 0 section
::; x
ofxy, <::; 0
1, of
u x. 2n) overand
1 the
contribution
::; Yx >
cylinder
::; 2,
S =where
component.
0 ::;
xu to
2
z +
is::;
div
the
3.
y2
u
=
S2 is the part of the
from
vector
1 that
the
field
Vector
lies Calculus (3.12)
S where u = (z, and n (0,0,1).
¢> + +
z+
2.9 uFind the
perpendicular volume to integral
the y-axis of the
is scalar
aU2/ay field
and that = from the surfaces over the
perpendicular
°
x y2 z2
2.10
2.8 Find
= A(2y
between
Find
surface sketch
the
the the= planes
volume
surface
of+the
x, x-1,0) of and
y2
integralzthe = nsection
tetrahedron
with x of zhas
+ u<
1 and a0of
::; y.1,n
is and zshown
negative
the
over =xcylinder
S-x
in
z--1,
>where Figure
component.
l. xuS2 is +
is
2.12.
the
y2
the
The
=vector1 that
part
faces liesof
field
ofthe the the tetra-
2.9
2.11 17
region
Find
A
to the
hedron the
(2yz+
circular
where
Vz-axis
specified
volume
are the
pond
istheaU3/aZ.term
by 0x::;operator
integral
planes
with =
radius =
of x 0,
These
+has
xn z8U3 the 1 and
are
scalar
= 1means
8U2 0,
z =xa8Ul =
::; zYfield
found ::; that
2,¢>and
simply
8U3
Vxthe
0= ::; zby
2 +
only
::;plane
8U2 y2 +
3. has
permuting z2 aover
which
8Ul)
meaning the
passesX-, y-whenanditz-acts on
through
2.10 surface
=
ubetween =x,
the xplanes+
-1,0) zwith
and 0amof
<::;1contributionsand
negative
and maximum
-x
> - component.
z-1, l. ux 2is+ depth
the of
=vector
1 mfield has
curlu= ::;(section 2,- - - - - of(3.22)
y2
Find
2.9 uregion
the
axes.three
the the
shape Vsome
Finally,volume
points
specified
of
other
a
adding of
(a,
byquantity.
paraboloid,
the all0),
. six
0,0radius x8y(0,
so 1,
b,
-that 0)18z the
::;and
its'8z cylinder
::;
Yfield (0,0,
depth
together
¢> 0=c). ::;
8x
z xis z2The::;
+
'8x gives
y2equation
3.
= +
1 -
18ythat
the
_of
lies
2definition
. has this plane div isu
2.11
2.10 Find
A
Find =
between
circular
in terms
x/a
the
(2y
+the
+
y/b
x,
of+
the
pond
volume
The
volume
-1,0)
planes
the z/c
with
integral
gradientand
Cartesian
of
= z1,=which
the
n of
xhas
section +has the 1
1many
components a m
and
can
scalar
of
and
negative
be = a
zimportant
the -x
maximum
of u:
deduced
cylinder
z component.
- l.from 2 + the
zdepth
applications.
x
y2
y2 =
of
z2
general
1
xover
1
These
that
m y2.
the
formula
lies include for finding
the nor-
What
the
region shape isV the oftotal
specified volume
a paraboloid, ::;ofof
by a0 similarity so
x the the
::; 1,that pond? ::;itsYfield
1between How
depth
::; 0does
2,¢>this zx is
= ::; z this =compare
+::;change
3.
z y2 +1do - over x 2 _with y2.
2.9 Find
2.11 ANotice
equation
between
the
circular volume
that
mals
theofpond there
toplane
a
planes
integral
with
surfacesisz = radius
(1.3). x and + 1and mscalar
obtaining
Suppose
1 and
z = athe
that-x maximum
rates
-
we l. choose
2
formula
of depthto and
z2
ofof the m zthe
that
1functions has for the
in
integral cross
any direction,
first.
2.10 18 the
What
Find
region
product
the
case
the
shape Vaswhere
is the
volume
specified
of of
in twototal theof
aisvectors
the bypond
volume
paraboloid,
the
following 0 ::; (1.4).
has
xof
section the
.::;the
dexamples.
so
of
1,that
Curl 1same
_pond? the
uaUl
::; Ycan
its
radius
How
cylinder
::;depth
2,aU2
also 0doesand
::; x 2aU3
z+zisx
be +z 3.
depth
this
::;
written =but
y2compare
=. 1y,in
1 terms
- so
haswith
that
x1 2m
the
lies
of a determi-
of(3.15)
° +
2.11 A This circular integral pond carried
with radius out 1 form fixed
and a values
maximum of and
depth of _ has
the y2.range z is
3. shape
2.10 Find the
between case
Gradient,
nant, the of a
where
the hemisphere?
volume planes
Divergence the of pond
z
theand = x has
Curl
section + IVU
1 the
and of
- same
thez ax = radius
-x
cylinder
ay
- and
l. x + 2
az
depth =
y2 compare
but
1 thathas the
lies 53
What is the total =
volume of the pond? = How does this with
°
the from shape the of
plane a paraboloid,
z to the so that
plane its
z depthc(l - z x/ais 1
z - = y/b). - 2
xChoosing_ y2. to do the
shape
2.11 between
A circular ofExample
a pond
hemisphere? 3.4
with zof= radius + 1and m and zto= a-x maximum
-e2in depth of 1 m has
the The
case the
where planes
divergence the pond u xcan has 1the
also
thepond? be
same written
elradius l.and e3this
terms depth of the but differential
haswith the operator
°
What
the y integral
shape is the of total
next, a yvolume
ranges
paraboloid, offrom
so that its the
a How
depth line a doeszthat a
is =compare
zpasses 1 of x 2 _ y2.(a, 0, 0) and
- through
2.11 A the circular
V defined
shape case ofFind pondinthe
a hemisphere? with
isunit
(3.12), radius
normal
=since
curl 1 m
n tou and
= the aax maximum
surface ay and xrange
2 + y2 of- but
depth 1
xZ =ishas
m
0from has
atthe the to point (1,1,2).
is where the ypond has the same radius 8zdepth
19
What(O,b,O),
EXERCISES
which
the total volume b(l- ofsothe x/a). pond? Finally Howthe does this = compare- x 2 _ with
a. The
the
shape
What volume
the case
shape of a
V of Definea paraboloid,
hemisphere?
where is therefore f(x, y, z) = that
x 2 +its y2 Ul depth
- Z U2 = z0,is U3 so z the 1surface y2.I = O. Then V I =
is
. is (2x,2y,
the aUlthe
total pond
aU2 has
ofaU3 thepond? same
(a radiusa Vf a)and this depth but haswith the
provided
shape 3.1
dlVU a=
of Findthat axthe
hemisphere?the +volume
-1). ay
gradient
At +
determinant the az
of
the
point
the
a lb(l-x/a) = (1,1,2),
is scalar
expanded
ax' lay'
How
field az
does
so
c (l-x/a- f =that
= . (2,2,
compare
the
(U1,U2,U3) -1).partial
Y /b) and evaluate
xyz,
This= is au.vector
it at (3.16)
derivatives
V· theact
normal to
the case
on the components where
the surface. the V Topond find
u.
of= Hence has
lThis the
the can same
unit also radius
normal and
we needas
be written depth but
to dzdydx
divide
the crosshas the
by product
the magnitude, of the which
shape ofisapointhemisphere? (1,2,3). find the directional derivative of f at this point
(22 .+u 22will + 1be2)1/2
r = to30 so n0 =u, V f /IV fl = (2/3,2/3,of u in -1/3). Note that the
The form Voperator used0 indicate the divergence the remainder
differential in the direction of the(btl-x/a) V and the vector
vector (1,1,0). so
20 unit normal is not uniquely defined: the vector -n = (-2/3, -2/3, 1/3) is also
of this book.
UNIT-III 3.2 Find the unit
a unit normal to the surface.
normal10 10 to the
curlu = V x u. surfacec(l - yx/a = x- + z3
y/b) at
dydx the point (1,2,1).
3.3 Show 3.7 that the gradient of the scalar field ¢ r Ir I is r / r and = =
21 Example
The notation interpret V xthis
Find the divergence of the vector field u = r.
u =will result r
cbe used
10
[y(lhenceforth.
geometrically. - x/a) _ y2/2b]b(1-x/a) dx
3.4 Find the angle between the surfaces of the sphere x 2 + y2 + z2 = 2
0
64
64
22 Example The 3.8
components
and the cylinder
of
= cb
u =
r rare
x 2 + y2
10
(1 = u _ x/a)= (x,
1 at 2a dx
y, z).
point
6
The
= abc. Vector Calculus
divergence
where they intersect.
Vector
of u is therefore
Calculus
64
The 3.5 vector Find field theugradientis defined 2of. the by uscalar ax= (xy, ayz +
field f az x,
= V). +Vector
yx 2Calculatey3 - YCalculus V xhence
and u and findfind
the
Notepoints that thewhere minima
this resultV xand isu consistent
=maxima
dlVU o. = ax
ofwith +
f. Sketch ay +
the formula az =
the contours 3. for thef volume = constant of a and
(3.17)
tetra-
EXERCISES
EXERCISES 23 The components
the vector fieldof V
hedron given in terms of the scalar triple product in Section 1.4. V f
x .u are found using (3.22):
3.9 Find3.6
EXERCISES a is a constant
theIfgradient V ¢8yand _vector,
8(zthe +Laplacian find
x) 8(xy) the gradient _ 8yforof
'\l2¢ 8(z f +=scalar
the a ._r and
x) fieldYinterpret
8(X ))
3.9 Find ¢ = xthe+ gradient
2 Vthis xu result
xy + yz2. V ¢8y
= (
geometrically.
and the8 Laplacian
z ' 8z '\l2¢8x' for the8xscalar field 8y
3.9 24
3.10 ¢Find = x3.7
Find 2the+Determine
gradient
+ yz2. and
gradient
xy V whether
(1- and
¢ Laplacian 1,0the
or not
- 0,Laplacianof the vector
1 - x) = (0,0,1- '\l2¢ field forFx). = (siny,x,O)
the scalar fieldis conser-
3.10 Find ¢ = xthe+gradient2 xy + yz2.and Laplacian of
vative.
3.10 Find Hence 3.8
the x u = ¢0 the
VConsider
gradient =onsin(kx)
and vector
Laplacian
the plane sin(ly)
field Vk
x of=Fexp( 1.= (y/(x 2+ 2+ z). -x/(x 2 + y2), 0). Show
[2 y2),
that F ¢can = sin(kx)be written sin(ly) as exp( Vkthe gradient
xy2 + 2yz
2 + [2 z). of a potential ¢. Show also
= 4 at the point
3.11 Find the unit normal
that the¢ line = sin(kx) to the
integral sin(ly) surface
of Fexp( Vk around2 +the [2 z).unit circle x 2 + y2 = 1 is
3.11 25 Find(-2,2,3). the unit normal to the surface xy2 + 2yz = 4 at the point
3.11 3.4.1
Find
3.12 (-2,2,3).
For ¢(x, the Physical
non-zero.
y,unit
z) = normal interpretation
Explain
X2+y2+z2+xy-3x, to the whysurface this result xy2
find ofV¢ +curl
does
and =
2yz not contradict
find4 theat the minimum
Theorem 3.1.
point
3.12 For (-2,2,3).
value ¢(x, of y, ¢.z) = X2+y2+z2+xy-3x, find V¢ and find the minimum
3.12 From
For they,equation
physical of definition V x ufind
of which isgiven V¢inand (3.20)
tofind theand
the Figure
minimum x 2 3.6 + it is clear
3.13 value Find¢(x, of ¢. z) = X2+y2+z2+xy-3x,
the the plane tangent surface
that
value V of3 ¢.x u is related
= 0 at theofpoint to the rotation or twisting of the vector field u.
3.13 Find y2 _ the 2z equation the plane (1,1,1). which is tangent to the surface x 2 +
3.13
3.14 y2 Find
Find Consider
_ 2z the
both3 = equation
the the three
theofpoint
0 atdivergence thesimple plane
and the
(1,1,1).
vector
which curlis fields theshown
oftangent vector to in the Figure
surface3.5.
fields x2 + For the first
of
y2 these,
_ 2z 3 = u 0 = at (x,the 0, 0),
point the vector
(1,1,1). field is expanding but there is no sense of
3.143.3 Find(a) uDivergence = (y,z,x);
both the divergence of anda vector
the curl of the field vector fields
3.14 (a) rotation,
(b) uv both
Find and
== (y,z,x);
computing
the divergence
(xyz,z2,x the curl
- y). and the curl of the vector fields gives V x u = o. APage 60
vector field u for which
V
(a) x u =
=that 0 everywhere is said to and the curl are linear operators, i.e. example,
be irrotational. Similarly, the second
3.15 (b) Show vu = (y,z,x);
both the- divergence
(xyz,z2,x y).
 3.9
3.9 Find
Find the
EXERCISES the gradient
gradient V
V ¢¢ and
and the
the Laplacian '\l2¢ for
Laplacian '\l2¢ for the
the scalar
scalar field
field
3.9
3.9 Find 2+
2the
¢ == xx the
¢Find + xyxy ++ yz2.
gradient
gradientyz2. V V¢ and the
¢ and the Laplacian
Laplacian '\l2¢ '\l2¢ forfor thethe scalar
scalar field
field
3.10
3.9
3.10 Find
Find
¢Find
¢ the
2
the
= xx the
= 2+ + gradient
xy +
xy + yz2.
gradient
gradient and
V ¢ Laplacian
and
yz2.and Laplacian of the of
Laplacian '\l2¢ for the scalar field
3.10 ¢ = xthe
Find the+ gradient
2 xy + yz2.and
gradient and Laplacian
Laplacian of of
3.10
3.10
Find
Find the gradient ¢¢ == sin(kx)
and sin(kx) sin(ly)
sin(ly)
Laplacian Vk
exp( 22 +
ofexp( + [2[2z).
z).
¢ = sin(kx)
¢ = sin(kx) sin(ly)
sin(ly) exp( Vk
Vk
exp(xy2 +
2 +
2 + [2 z).
[2 z).
= 4 at the point
3.11 Find
Find the the unit unit normal exp(xy2 +
Vk
3.11 normal to
to the
the surface
surface 2+ 2yz
¢ = sin(kx) sin(ly) [2 z). 4 at the point
2yz
3.11 26
(-2,2,3).
Find
(-2,2,3).
3.11 Find the unit normal to the surface xy2 + 2yz =
the unit normal to the surface xy2 + 2yz = 44 at at the
the point
point
3.12
3.11 (-2,2,3).
3.12 For
Find
For ¢(x,
¢(x,
(-2,2,3). they, z) == normal
y,unit
z) to the surfacefind
X2+y2+z2+xy-3x,
X2+y2+z2+xy-3x, find xy2V¢ V¢+ 2yz
and =
and find
find4 theat minimum
the the point
minimum
3.12 For
value ¢(x,
(-2,2,3).
value of
of ¢.
y,
¢. z) = X2+y2+z2+xy-3x,
3.12 For ¢(x, y, z) = X2+y2+z2+xy-3x, find V¢ and find the minimum find V¢ and find the minimum
3.12 value
3.13 27
3.13 Find
For
Find¢(x,
value of ¢.
the
the
of ¢.
y,equation of
of the
z) = X2+y2+z2+xy-3x,
equation the plane
plane which
whichfind isis tangent
V¢ andto
tangent the
tofind
thethesurface
minimum
surface xx22 +
3.13 Find the =
equation of the plane which is tangent to the surface 2 +
which is tangent to the surface xx 2 +
value
y2 _ 2z of33 ¢. 0 at the point (1,1,1).
y2 _ 2z
3.13 Find the equation 0 at theofpoint (1,1,1).
the plane
3 = 0 at the point (1,1,1).
3.13
3.14 y2
3.14 Find
Find
y2
_
_ 2z
2z
the
both
both 3 =equation
the theofpoint
0 atdivergence
the divergence the plane
and
and the which
the
(1,1,1). curlisof
curl oftangent
the
the vector
vectorto thefieldssurface x 2 +
fields
3.14 28
Find
3.14 (a)
both
(a) _uu 2z
y2
Find =the
the
== (y,z,x);
both
3 divergence
0 atdivergence
(y,z,x); the point and and the
(1,1,1). curl of the
the curl of the vector fields
vector fields
(a)
3.14 (b)
Find u
v =
=
both (y,z,x);
the
(xyz,z2,x
(b) uv = (y,z,x); divergence
(xyz,z2,x - y). - y). and the curl of the vector fields
(a)
3.15 (b)
Show v
(a) vu that
3.15 Show =
=
that (xyz,z2,x
both
both the
(y,z,x); - y).
the- divergence
divergence and
and the
the curl curl areare linear
linear operators,
operators, i.e. i.e.
(b) = (xyz,z2,x y).
3.15 Show
(b) v that
3.15 V·(cu+dv)
V·(cu+dv)
Show
that both
= (xyz,z2,x
both= cV·u+dV·v
the divergence
the- divergence
cV·u+dV·v y). andVx
and
andVx
and the (cu+dv)
the (cu+dv)
curl are linear
curl are linear
operators, i.e.
== cVxu+dVxv,
cVxu+dVxv,
operators, i.e.
V·(cu+dv)
3.15 29
where
Show
where that
V·(cu+dv) uu and
and =
=
both cV·u+dV·v
vv cV·u+dV·v
are
thevector
are divergence
vector fields
fieldsand and
and
and andVx
Vx cc and
the (cu+dv)
curlddare
and
(cu+dv) are =
arelinear
=
cVxu+dVxv,
constants.operators, i.e.
constants.
cVxu+dVxv,
3.16 where
V·(cu+dv)
3.16 ForFor what
where what u and
u and =
v cV·u+dV·v
values,
values,
v are
areif vector
any,
any, of
if vector fields
theand
the
offields andVx
constantsc and
constants
and c and (cu+dv)d are b=
aadand
and constants.
iscVxu+dVxv,
is the
the vector
are bconstants. vector field
field
3.16 uFor what values,
xx + axz, if any, of the constants a dand b is the vector field
where
u == what
3.16 For u
(y cos
(y and
cosvalues, v are
axz, sin xxof+the
vector
sin
if bbany, fields
z, 2
2 + y)
and
z, xxconstants c and
y) irrotational?
irrotational?are constants.
a and b is the vector field
(y cosvalues,x + axz, sin x + z, x 2 ++ y) irrotational?
3.17 uFor
3.16 30
3.17 u(a)
= Show
(a)= what
(y costhat
Show x + axz,
that uu = = bbany,
if sin xof+the
(y2z,-z
(y2z,-z 22siny
z, 2 + y)2xyz,
x constants
siny 2xyz, and
a 2z
2z
irrotational? cosbyyis+the
cos yy22x)vector
x) is field
is irrota-
irrota-
3.17 tional.
(a) Show that+ u = (y2z,-z siny
+
2
2 + + 2xyz, 2z cos y + y 2x) is irrota-
3.17 (a) Show that u = (y2z,-z siny + 2xyz, 2z cos y + y x) is irrota-
tional.
u = (y cos x axz, b sin x z,
2 x y) irrotational? 2
tional. 2 siny + 2xyz,
3.17 (b)(a) Find
(b)
tional. Show
Find the the u = (y2z,-zpotential
thatcorresponding
corresponding potential function.
function. 2z cos y + y 2x) is irrota-
(b) Find the corresponding potential function.
tional.
(c)(c) Hence
(b) Hencethe
Find find
find the
the value
correspondingvalue of the
the line
ofpotential integral
integral of
line function. of uu alongalong the the curve
curve
(c) Hence find the22value of the line integral of u along the curve
x(b)
x(c) Find
sin-rrt/2,
sin-rrt/2,
== Hence thefindcorresponding
x = sin-rrt/2, y = t - t, z = t4, 0::; t ::; 1.
=
-- t,t, zz of
yy ==thett2value potential
t4, 0::;
t4,
the 0::;
line function.
::;::; 1.1.
tt integral of u along the curve
x(c)= Hence
sin-rrt/2, findy =thet 2 value
- t, z of = t4,the0::;
linet ::;integral
1. of u along the curve

x = sin-rrt/2, y = t 2 - t, z = t4, 0::; t ::; 1.

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MOOCs Resources

Page 62
 A set of MOOCs resources for ICT based learning and teaching

NPTEL: nptel.ac.in

COURSERA: www.coursera.org

MITOCW: ocw.mit.edu

ACADEMIC EARTH: www.academicearth.org

EdX : www.edx.org

KHAN ACADEMY : www.khanacademy.org

ALISON: www.alison.com

STANFORD ONLINE: www.online.stanford.edu

VIDEO LECTURES: videolectures.net

INTERACTIVE REAL ANALYSIS: mathcs.org

VISUAL CALCULUS: archives.math.utk.edu/visual.calculus

MOOCS CALCULUS: mooculus.osu.edu

Few Math Softwares

Useful for Classroom teaching: Geogebra (Freeware)

Type setting software: LaTeX

High end commercial softwares: Mathematica , Maple , Matlab

Answering search engine: www.wolframalpha.com

Group theory software: group explorer 2.2 (Freeware)

Visualization software: Mathematics Visualization Toolkit (freeware)

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Appendices

Page 64
Page 65
 Appendix-II

UGC GUIDELINES ON ADOPTION OF CHOICE BASED

CREDIT SYSTEM

UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION

BAHADURSHAH ZAFAR MARG NEW
DELHI — 110 002

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 UGC Guidelines on Adoption of Choice Based Credit System

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Preamble

The University Grants Commission (UGC) has initiated several measures to bring equity,
efficiency and excellence in the Higher Education System of country. The important measures
taken to enhance academic standards and quality in higher education include innovation and
improvements in curriculum, teaching-learning process, examination and evaluation systems,
besides governance and other matters.

The UGC has formulated various regulations and guidelines from time to time to improve the
higher education system and maintain minimum standards and quality across the Higher
Educational Institutions (HEIs) in India. The academic reforms recommended by the UGC in
the recent past have led to overall improvement in the higher education system. However, due to
lot of diversity in the system of higher education, there are multiple approaches followed by
universities towards examination, evaluation and grading system. While the HEIs must have the
flexibility and freedom in designing the examination and evaluation methods that best fits the
the curriculum, syllabi and teaching–learning methods, there is a need to devise a sensible
system for awarding the grades based on the performance of students. Presently the
performance of the students is reported using the conventional system of marks secured in the
examinations or grades or both. The conversion from marks to letter grades and the letter
grades used vary widely across the HEIs in the country. This creates difficulty for the acadamia
and the employers to understand and infer the performance of the students graduating from
different universities and colleges based on grades.

The grading system is considered to be better than the conventional marks system and hence it
has been followed in the top instutitions in India and abroad. So it is desirable to introduce
uniform grading system. This will facilitate student mobility across institutions within and
across countries and also enable potential employers to assess the performance of students. To
bring in the desired uniformity, in grading system and method for computing the cumulative
grade point average (CGPA) based on the performance of students in the examinations, the UGC
has formulated these guidelines.

2. Applicability of the Grading System

These guidel

ines shall apply to all undergraduate and postgraduate level degree, diploma and certificate
programmes under the credit system awarded by the Central, State and Deemed to be
universities in India.

3. Definitions of Key Words:

1. Academic Year: Two consecutive (one odd + one even) semesters constitute one
academic year.
2. Choice Based Credit System (CBCS): The CBCS provides choice for students to
select from the prescribed courses (core, elective or minor or soft skill courses).
3. Course: Usually referred to, as ‘papers’ is a component of a programme. All courses
need not carry the same weight. The courses should define learning objectives and

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 learning outcomes. A course may be designed to comprise lectures/ tutorials/laboratory
work/ field work/ outreach activities/ project work/ vocational training/viva/ seminars/
term papers/assignments/ presentations/ self-study etc. or a combination of some of
these.
4. Credit Based Semester System (CBSS): Under the CBSS, the requirement for
awarding a degree or diploma or certificate is prescribed in terms of number of credits to
be completed by the students.
5. Credit Point: It is the product of grade point and number of credits for a course.
6. Credit: A unit by which the course work is measured. It determines the number of hours
of instructions required per week. One credit is equivalent to one hour of teaching
(lecture or tutorial) or two hours of practical work/field work per week.
7. Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA): It is a measure of overall cumulative
performance of a student over all semesters. The CGPA is the ratio of total credit points
secured by a student in various courses in all semesters and the sum of the total credits
of all courses in all the semesters. It is expressed up to two decimal places.
8. Grade Point: It is a numerical weight allotted to each letter grade on a 10-point scale.
9. Letter Grade: It is an index of the performance of students in a said course. Grades are
denoted by letters O, A+, A, B+, B, C, P and F.
10. Programme: An educational programme leading to award of a Degree, diploma or
certificate.
11. Semester Grade Point Average (SGPA): It is a measure of performance of work
done in a semester. It is ratio of total credit points secured by a student in various
courses registered in a semester and the total course credits taken during that semester.
It shall be expressed up to two decimal places.
12. Semester: Each semester will consist of 15-18 weeks of academic work equivalent to 90
actual teaching days. The odd semester may be scheduled from July to December and
even semester from January to June.
13. Transcript or Grade Card or Certificate: Based on the grades earned, a grade
certificate shall be issued to all the registered students after every semester. The grade
certificate will display the course details (code, title, number of credits, grade secured)
along with SGPA of that semester and CGPA earned till that semester.

4. Semester System and Choice Based Credit System

The Indian Higher Education Institutions have been moving from the conventional
annual system to semester system. Currently many of the institutions have already introduced
the choice based credit system. The semester system accelerates the teaching-learning process
and enables vertical and horizontal mobility in learning. The credit based semester system
provides flexibility in designing curriculum and assigning credits based on the course content
and hours of teaching. The choice based credit system provides a ‘cafeteria’ type approach in
which the students can take courses of their choice, learn at their own pace, undergo additional
courses and acquire more than the required credits, and adopt an interdisciplinary approach to
learning, It is desirable that the HEIs move to CBCS and implement the grading system.

5. Types of Courses:

Courses in a programme may be of three kinds: Core, Elective and Foundation.

1. Core Course:-
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 There may be a Core Course in every semester. This is the course which is to be
compulsorily studied by a student as a core requirement to complete the requirement of
a programme in a said discipline of study.

2. Elective Course:-

Elective course is a course which can be chosen from a pool of papers. It may be:

• Supportive to the discipline of study

• Providing an expanded scope
• Enabling an exposure to some other discipline/domain
• Nurturing student’s proficiency/skill.

An elective may be “Generic Elective” focusing on those courses which add generic
proficiency to the students. An elective may be “Discipline centric”or may be chosen from an
unrelated discipline. It may be called an “Open Elective.”

3. Foundation Course:-

The Foundation Courses may be of two kinds: Compulsory Foundation and Elective
foundation. “Compulsory Foundation” courses are the courses based upon the content that
leads to Knowledge enhancement. They are mandatory for all disciplines. Elective
Foundation courses are value-based and are aimed at man-making education.

6. Examination and Assessment

The HEIs are currently following various methods for examination and assessment suitable for
the courses and programmes as approved by their respective statutory bodies. In assessing the
performance of the students in examinations, the usual approach is to award marks based on
the examinations conducted at various stages (sessional, mid-term, end-semester etc.,) in a
semester. Some of the HEIs convert these marks to letter grades based on absolute or relative
grading system and award the grades. There is a marked variation across the colleges and
universities in the number of grades, grade points, letter grades used, which creates difficulties
in comparing students across the institutions. The UGC recommends the following system to be
implemented in awarding the grades and CGPA under the credit based semester system.

6.1. Letter Grades and Grade Points:

i. Two methods -relative grading or absolute grading– have been in vogue for awarding
grades in a course. The relative grading is based on the distribution (usually normal
distribution) of marks obtained by all the students of the course and the grades are
awarded based on a cut-off marks or percentile. Under the absolute grading, the marks
are converted to grades based on pre-determined class intervals. To implement the
following grading system, the colleges and universities can use any one of the above
methods.
ii. The UGC recommends a 10-point grading system with the following letter grades as
given below:

Table 1: Grades and Grade Points

Letter Grade Grade Point

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 O (Outstanding) 10
A+(Excellent) 9
A(Very Good) 8
B+(Good) 7
B(Above Average) 6
C(Average) 5
P (Pass) 4
F(Fail) 0
Ab (Absent) 0

iii. A student obtaining Grade F shall be considered failed and will be required to reappear
in the examination.

iv. For non credit courses ‘Satisfactory’ or “Unsatisfactory’ shall be indicated instead of the
letter grade and this will not be counted for the computation of SGPA/CGPA.

v. The Universities can decide on the grade or percentage of marks required to pass in a
course and also the CGPA required to qualify for a degree taking into consideration the
recommendations of the statutory professional councils such as AICTE, MCI, BCI, NCTE
etc.,

vi. The statutory requirement for eligibility to enter as assistant professor in colleges and
universities in the disciplines of arts, science, commerce etc., is a minimum average
mark of 50% and 55% in relevant postgraduate degree respectively for reserved and
general category. Hence, it is recommended that the cut-off marks for grade B shall not
be less than 50% and for grade B+, it should not be less than 55% under the absolute
grading system. Similarly cut-off marks shall be fixed for grade B and B+ based on the
recommendation of the statutory bodies (AICTE, NCTE etc.,) of the relevant disciplines.

6.2. Fairness in Assessment:

Assessment is an integral part of system of education as it is instrumental in identifying and

certifying the academic standards accomplished by a student and projecting them far and wide
as an objective and impartial indicator of a student’s performance. Thus, it becomes bounden
duty of a University to ensure that it is carried out in fair manner. In this regard, UGC
recommends the following system of checks and balances which would enable Universities
effectively and fairly carry out the process of assessment and examination.

i. In case of at least 50% of core courses offered in different programmes across the
disciplines, the assessment of the theoretical component towards the end of the semester
should be undertaken by external examiners from outside the university conducting
examination, who may be appointed by the competent authority. In such courses, the
question papers will be set as well as assessed by external examiners.
ii. In case of the assessment of practical component of such core courses, the team of
examiners should be constituted on 50 – 50 % basis. i.e. half of the examiners in the
team should be invited from outside the university conducting examination.
iii. In case of the assessment of project reports / thesis / dissertation etc. the work should be
undertaken by internal as well as external examiners.

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7. Computation of SGPA and CGPA

The UGC recommends the following procedure to compute the Semester Grade Point
Average (SGPA) and Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA):

i. The SGPA is the ratio of sum of the product of the number of credits with the grade
points scored by a student in all the courses taken by a student and the sum of the
number of credits of all the courses undergone by a student, i.e

SGPA (Si) = ∑(Ci x Gi) / ∑Ci

where Ci is the number of credits of the ith course and Gi is the grade point scored by the
student in the ith course.

ii. The CGPA is also calculated in the same manner taking into account all the courses
undergone by a student over all the semesters of a programme, i.e.

CGPA = ∑(Ci x Si) / ∑ Ci

where Si is the SGPA of the ith semester and Ci is the total number of credits in that
semester.
iii. The SGPA and CGPA shall be rounded off to 2 decimal points and reported in the
transcripts.

8. Illustration of Computation of SGPA and CGPA and Format for Transcripts

i. Computation of SGPA and CGPA

Illustration for SGPA

Course Credit Grade Grade Credit Point
letter point
(Credit x Grade
Course 1 3 A 8 3 X 8 = 24
Course 2 4 B+ 7 4 X 7 = 28
Course 3 3 B 6 3 X 6 = 18
Course 4 3 O 10 3 X 10 = 30
Course 5 3 C 5 3 X 5 = 15
Course 6 4 B 6 4 X 6 = 24
20 139

Thus, SGPA =139/20 =6.95

Illustration for CGPA

Semester 1 Semester 2 Semester 3 Semester 4

Credit : 20 Credit : 22 Credit : 25 Credit : 26

SGPA:6.9 SGPA:7.8 SGPA: 5.6 SGPA:6.0
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 Semester 5 Semester 6

Credit : 26 Credit : 25
SGPA:6.3 SGPA: 8.0

Thus, CGPA = 20 x 6.9 + 22 x 7.8 + 25 x 5.6 + 26 x 6.0 + 26 x 6.3 + 25 x 8.0

_________________________________________ = 6.73
144
ii. Transcript (Format): Based on the above recommendations on Letter grades, grade
points and SGPA and CCPA, the HEIs may issue the transcript for each semester and a
consolidated transcript indicating the performance in all semesters.

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