Outline Advanced Integrity Preservation Cursors Problems
Fundamentals of Database Systems
[SQL – V]
Malay Bhattacharyya
Assistant Professor
Machine Intelligence Unit
Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata
December, 2020
Outline Advanced Integrity Preservation Cursors Problems
1 Advanced Integrity Preservation
Basics
Creating Triggers
Creating Multiple Triggers
Limitations
2 Cursors
3 Problems
Outline Advanced Integrity Preservation Cursors Problems
Advanced integrity constraints
The advanced integrity constraints can be specified with triggers.
It protects the integrity of data in databases and is also useful to
automate some database operations such as logging, auditing, etc.
A trigger (or database trigger) is a stored program that executes
automatically in response to a specific event. E.g., insert, update
or delete occurred in a table.
Note: An SQL trigger is a set of SQL statements that are stored
in the database catalog.
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Triggers in MySQL
One can define at most six triggers for each table. These are
activated in coordination with the following events.
BEFORE INSERT - before data is inserted into the table.
AFTER INSERT - after data is inserted into the table.
BEFORE UPDATE - before data in the table is updated.
AFTER UPDATE - after data in the table is updated.
BEFORE DELETE - before data is removed from the table.
AFTER DELETE - after data is removed from the table.
Note: For MySQL version 5.7.2+, one can define multiple triggers
for the same trigger event and action time.
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Triggers in MySQL
To display all the triggers in the database, the following SQL query
is used:
show triggers;
To delete a particular trigger from the database, the following SQL
query is used:
drop trigger <trigger name>;
Note: One must have MySQL SUPERUSER privileges for running
trigger.
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Creating triggers in MySQL
A trigger must be associated with a specific table and is written as:
create trigger <trigger name>
<trigger time> <trigger event> on <table name>
for each row
<Triggered SQL statement>;
The trigger time can be before/after.
The trigger event can be insert/update/delete.
The clause for each row says that the trigger activation will
occur for the rows of the table, not for the table as a whole.
The logic for the trigger is placed as a block of SQL
statements.
Note: Delimiters are required in some interfaces (e.g. MySQL
client).
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Creating triggers in MySQL – Compound statements
A trigger can accommodate compound SQL statements as follows:
create trigger <trigger name>
<trigger time> <trigger event> on <table name>
for each row
begin
<Triggered SQL statement(s)>
end;
Note: The begin-end block can take multiple SQL statements.
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Creating triggers in MySQL – OLD and NEW keywords
Due to the changes in a table due to triggering, there might be
some new attributes as well as some old ones. Therefore, within a
triggered SQL statement, attributes are explicitly referred to as
NEW.<attribute name> or OLD.<attribute name>.
With insert, only NEW is legal.
With delete, only OLD is legal.
With update, both NEW and OLD are legal.
Note: The objects NEW.<attribute name> and
OLD.<attribute name> are referred to as transition variables.
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Creating triggers in MySQL – OLD and NEW keywords
Table: FACULTY
ID NAME EMAIL AGE
1 Debasis Sengupta [email protected] 60
2 Debapriyo Majumdar [email protected] 40
3 Malay Bhattacharyya [email protected] 37
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Creating triggers in MySQL – OLD and NEW keywords
Table: FACULTY
ID NAME EMAIL AGE
1 Debasis Sengupta [email protected] 60
2 Debapriyo Majumdar [email protected] 40
3 Malay Bhattacharyya [email protected] 37
Consider the following table to keep the update details on the
FACULTY table.
create table FACULTY LOG(
ID int auto increment primary key,
NAME varchar(50) not null,
LOGTIME datetime default null,
ACTION varchar(50) default null
);
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Creating triggers in MySQL – OLD and NEW keywords
Triggers can be set to act on the FACULTY LOG table before
making updates on the FACULTY table as follows.
create trigger before FACULTY update
before update on FACULTY
for each row
insert into FACULTY LOG values (OLD.ID, OLD.NAME,
NOW(), ‘Update’);
Note: We use the OLD keyword to access ID and NAME attributes
of the tuples affected by the trigger.
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Creating triggers in MySQL – OLD and NEW keywords
Consider the following SQL query that makes an update operation
on the FACULTY table at 00:00:01 AM on February 02, 2021.
update FACULTY set AGE = 38 where NAME = "Malay
Bhattacharyya";
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Creating triggers in MySQL – OLD and NEW keywords
Consider the following SQL query that makes an update operation
on the FACULTY table at 00:00:01 AM on February 02, 2021.
update FACULTY set AGE = 38 where NAME = "Malay
Bhattacharyya";
This will make the following entry to the FACULTY LOG table:
Table: FACULTY LOG
ID NAME LOGTIME ACTION
3 Malay Bhattacharyya 2021-02-02 00:00:01 Update
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Creating triggers in MySQL – Variable declaration
Variables can be declared as follows.
declare Age, Experience int default 0;
declare Name varchar(50);
declare Today date default current date;
declare Var1, Var2, Var3 double(10,2);
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Creating triggers in MySQL – Variable assignment
Values can be assigned to variables as follows.
set var1 = 101;
set str1 = ‘Hello world’;
set v1 = 19.99;
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Creating triggers in MySQL – Handler declarations
The handler statements deal with one or more conditions. If one of
these conditions occurs, the specified statement executes. To
declare handlers, the following SQL query is used:
declare <handler action> handler for <condition value>
<statement>;
The <handler action> can be continue/exit/undo.
The <condition value> can be
mysql error code/sqlstate/sqlwarning/sqlexception/not
found.
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Creating triggers in MySQL – Conditional flow
The if-else construct works as follows.
if <condition> then
<statement>;
else
<statement>;
end if;
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Creating triggers in MySQL – Conditional flow
Consider the following table that stores names, ages and course
names of some students.
create table STUDENT(
AGE int,
NAME varchar(50),
COURSE varchar(50)
);
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Creating triggers in MySQL – Conditional flow
Triggers can be set to act on the Age attribute for non-negativity
check before making insertions in the STUDENT table as follows.
create trigger agecheck
before insert on STUDENT
for each row
begin
if NEW.AGE < 0 then
set NEW.AGE = abs(NEW.AGE);
end if
end;
Note: We use the NEW keyword to access the new values inserted
in the table.
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Creating triggers in MySQL – Conditional flow
Consider the following SQL query:
insert into STUDENT values (25, ‘Hemanth’, ‘PGDBA’),
(24, ‘Vemula’, ‘PGDBA’), (-26, ‘Sidhant’, ‘PGDBA’),
(24, ‘Hitesh’, ‘PGDBA’);
This will turn the STUDENT table as follows.
Table: STUDENT
AGE NAME COURSE
25 Hemanth PGDBA
24 Vemula PGDBA
26 Sidhant PGDBA
24 Hitesh PGDBA
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Creating triggers in MySQL – Repetitive flow
The loop construct works as follows.
<loop name>: loop
<statement>;
if <condition> then
<statement>;
leave <loop name>;
end if;
<statement>
end loop <loop name>;
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Creating triggers in MySQL – Repetitive flow
The while construct works as follows.
<loop name>: while <condition> do
<statement>
if <condition> then
leave <loop name>;
end if;
<statement>
end while;
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Creating triggers in MySQL – Repetitive flow
The repeat-until construct works as follows.
<loop name>: repeat
<statement>;
if <condition> then
<statement>;
leave <loop name>;
end if;
<statement>;
until <condition> end repeat;
Note: The repetitive block executes once irrespective of the
<condition>.
Outline Advanced Integrity Preservation Cursors Problems
Creating multiple triggers in MySQL
Multiple triggers are written as follows:
delimiter $$ -- The end delimiter is now ‘$$’
create trigger <trigger name>
<trigger time> <trigger event> on <table name>
for each row
<Triggered SQL statement> -- Works well with ‘;’
create trigger <trigger name>
<trigger time> <trigger event> on <table name>
for each row
begin
<Triggered SQL statement(s)> -- Works well with ‘;’
end;
$$
delimiter ; -- The delimiter is changed back to ‘;’
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Limitations of triggers in MySQL
A MySQL trigger cannot perform the following things:
Using SHOW, LOAD DATA, LOAD TABLE, BACKUP
DATABASE, RESTORE, FLUSH, RETURN statements.
Using statements that commit or rollback implicitly or
explicitly such as COMMIT, ROLLBACK, START
TRANSACTION, LOCK/UNLOCK TABLES, ALTER, CREATE,
DROP, RENAME.
Using prepared statements such as PREPARE, EXECUTE.
Using dynamic SQL statements.
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Basics of cursors
A cursor allows to iterate a set of rows returned by a query and
process each row accordingly. It is used to handle a result set
inside a stored procedure.
MySQL cursors have the following properties:
Read-only: Cursors cannot be used to update data in the
underlying table.
Non-scrollable: Rows can only be fetched in the order
determined by the select statement. One cannot skip rows or
jump to a specific row in the result set.
Asensitive: MySQL cursors are asensitive. It is often faster
because it does not need to make a temporary copy of data.
Outline Advanced Integrity Preservation Cursors Problems
Basics of cursors
A cursor allows to iterate a set of rows returned by a query and
process each row accordingly. It is used to handle a result set
inside a stored procedure.
MySQL cursors have the following properties:
Read-only: Cursors cannot be used to update data in the
underlying table.
Non-scrollable: Rows can only be fetched in the order
determined by the select statement. One cannot skip rows or
jump to a specific row in the result set.
Asensitive: MySQL cursors are asensitive. It is often faster
because it does not need to make a temporary copy of data.
Note: Cursors are of two types – asensitive and insensitive. An
asensitive cursor points to the actual data, whereas an insensitive
cursor uses a temporary copy of the data. It is safer not to update
the data used by an asensitive cursor.
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Creating cursors
To define a cursor, the following SQL query is used:
declare <cursor name> cursor for <select statement>;
To initialize the result set for the cursor, before fetching rows from
the result set, the following SQL query is used:
open <cursor name>;
To retrieve the next row pointed by the cursor and move the cursor
to the next row in the result set, the following SQL query is used:
fetch <cursor name> into <list variables>;
To close a cursor, the following SQL query is used:
close <cursor name>;
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Data handling with cursors
The entire life cycle of an MySQL cursor is illustrated in the
following diagram.
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Data handling with cursors – An example
Suppose we want to build an email list of all employees from the
FACULTY table.
Let us first declare some variables, a cursor for looping over the
emails of employees, and a NOT FOUND handler.
declare Var Done int default 0;
declare email varchar(500) default "";
declare email cursor cursor for select email from
FACULTY;
declare continue handler for not found set Var Done =
1;
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Data handling with cursors – An example
Now, open the email cursor as follows:
open email cursor;
Then, iterate the email list, and concatenate all the emails where
each email is separated by a semicolon as follows:
get email: loop
fetch email cursor into email;
if Var Done = 1 then
leave get email;
end if;
set email list = concat(email,";",email list);
end loop get email;
Outline Advanced Integrity Preservation Cursors Problems
Problems
1 Consider the following schema of an online code repository
system like GitHub:
Contributor =
hcontributor name : string , contributor id : integer i
Code-Group = hcontributor id : integer , code group :
string , count submissions : integer i
Write an SQL trigger to restrict all the possible events that
can make violations to the above schema.
