Asymmetric cryptography

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 Asymmetric Encryption Terms
• Asymmetric Keys
Two related keys, a public key and a private key, that are used to
perform complementary operations, such as encryption and decryption
or signature generation and signature verification.
• Public Key Certificate
A digital document issued and digitally signed by the private key of a
Certification Authority that binds the name of a subscriber to a public
key. The certificate indicates that the subscriber identified in the
certificate has sole control and access to the corresponding private key.
 Asymmetric Encryption Terms
• Public Key (Asymmetric) Cryptographic Algorithm
A cryptographic algorithm that uses two related keys, a public key and
a private key. The two keys have the property that deriving the private
key from the public key is computationally infeasible.
• Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
A set of policies, processes, server platforms, software and
workstations used for the purpose of administering certificates and
public-private key pairs, including the ability to issue, maintain, and
revoke public key certificates.
Why Asymmetric
• Key distribution
❖Two communicants already share a key
❖The use of a key distribution center
The second requirement negated the very essence of
cryptography:
The ability to maintain total secrecy over your own
communication
 Why Asymmetric Cont.
• Digital signatures
❖The use of cryptography was to become widespread, not just in
military situations but for commercial and private purposes.
❖electronic messages and documents would need the equivalent of
signatures used in paper documents
❖Finding a method that would bring satisfaction to all parties, that
a digital message had been sent by a particular person
Diffie and Hellman achieved an astounding breakthrough in 1976 that
addressed both problems
Public-Key Cryptosystems
• Asymmetric algorithms rely on one key for encryption and a
different but related key for decryption.
• These algorithms have the following important characteristic:
❖It is computationally infeasible to determine the
decryption key given only knowledge of the cryptographic
algorithm and the encryption key.
❖Either of the two related keys can be used for encryption,
with the other used for decryption.
Public-key encryption scheme ingredients
• Plaintext: This is the readable message or data that is fed into the
algorithm as input.
• Encryption algorithm: The encryption algorithm performs various
transformations on the plaintext.
• Public and private keys: This is a pair of keys that have been
selected so that if one is used for encryption, the other is used for
decryption.
• Ciphertext: This is the encrypted message produced as output. It
depends on the plaintext and the key. For a given message, two
different keys will produce two different ciphertexts.
Public-key encryption scheme ingredients Cont.
• Decryption algorithm: This algorithm accepts the ciphertext
and the matching key and produces the original plaintext.
 The essential steps
• Each user generates a pair of keys to be used for the encryption and
decryption of messages.
• Each user places one of the two keys in a public register or other
accessible file. This is the public key. The companion key is kept
private
• If Bob wishes to send a confidential message to Alice, Bob encrypts
the message using Alice’s public key
• When Alice receives the message, she decrypts it using her private
key
Encryption with public key
Encryption with private key
 Conventional and Public-Key Encryption
Conventional Encryption Public-Key Encryption
Needed to Work:
The same algorithm with the same One algorithm is used for
key is used for encryption and encryption and a related algorithm
decryption. for decryption with a pair of keys,
one for encryption and one for
decryption.
The sender and receiver must share The sender and receiver must each
the algorithm and the key have one of the matched pair of
keys (not the same one).
 Conventional and Public-Key Encryption
Needed for Security:
The key must be kept secret. One of the two keys must be kept
secret
It must be impossible or at least It must be impossible or at least
impractical to decipher a message if impractical to decipher a message if
the key is kept secret. one of the keys is kept secret.
Knowledge of the algorithm plus Knowledge of the algorithm plus one
samples of ciphertext must be of the keys plus samples of ciphertext
insufficient to determine must be insufficient to determine the
the key. other key
Public-Key Cryptosystem: Confidentiality
Public-Key Cryptosystem: Authentication
Authentication function and confidentiality

Z = E(PUb, E(PRa,X))
X = D(PUa, D(PRb,Z))
Cryptosystem: Authentication and Secrecy
 Public-key cryptosystems Category
• Encryption/decryption: The sender encrypts a message with the
recipient’s public key, and the recipient decrypts the message with the
recipient’s private key.
• Digital signature: The sender “signs” a message with its private key.
Signing is achieved by a cryptographic algorithm applied to the
message or to a small block of data that is a function of the message.
• Key exchange: Two sides cooperate to exchange a session key, which
is a secret key for symmetric encryption generated for use for a
particular transaction (or session) and valid for a short period of time
 Requirements for Public-Key Cryptography
• It is computationally easy for a party B to generate a key pair (public
key PUb, private key PRb)
• It is computationally easy for a sender A, knowing the public key and
the message to be encrypted, M, to generate the corresponding
ciphertext:
C = E(PUb, M)
• It is computationally easy for the receiver B to decrypt the resulting
ciphertext using the private key to recover the original message:
M = D(PRb, C) = D[PRb, E(PUb, M)]
Requirements for Public-Key Cryptography Cont.
• It is computationally infeasible for an adversary, knowing the public
key, PUb, to determine the private key, PRb
• It is computationally infeasible for an adversary, knowing the public
key, PUb, and a ciphertext, C, to recover the original message, M.
• The two keys can be applied in either order:
M = D[PUb, E(PRb, M)] = D[PRb, E(PUb, M)]
Applications for Public-Key Cryptosystems
Public-Key Cryptanalysis
• As with symmetric encryption, a public-key encryption
scheme is vulnerable to a brute-force attack.
Solution: Use large keys
• Way to compute the private key given the public key
To date, it has not been mathematically proven that this
form of attack is infeasible
• Probable-message attack
RSA
• C = M e mod n
• M = C d mod n
 Example RSA
• Select two prime numbers, p = 17 and q = 11.
• Calculate n = pq = 17 * 11 = 187.
• Calculate ϕ(n) = (p - 1)(q - 1) = 16 * 10 = 160.
• Select e such that e is relatively prime to ϕ(n) = 160 and less than ϕ(n); we
choose e = 7
• Determine d such that de ≡ 1 (mod 160) and d < 160. The correct value is d =
23, because 23 * 7 = 161 = (1 * 160) + 1; d can be calculated using the
extended Euclid’s algorithm
• The resulting keys are public key PU = {7, 187} and private key PR = {23,
187}
 Example RSA Cont.
• 887 mod 18 7 = [(88 4 mod 187) * (88 2 mod 187) * (88 1 mod 187)]
mod 187
• 88 1 mod 187 = 88
• 88 2 mod 187 = 7744 mod 187 = 77
• 88 4 mod 187 = 59,969,536 mod 187 = 132
• 88 7 mod 187 = (88 * 77 * 132) mod 187 = 894,432 mod 187 = 11
Example RSA Cont.
• For decryption, we calculate M = 11 23 mod 187
• 1123 mod 187 = [(11 1 mod 187) * (11 2 mod 187) * (11 4 mod 187) * (11 8
mod 187) * (11 8 mod 187)] mod 187
• 11 1 mod 187 = 11
• 11 2 mod 187 = 121
• 11 4 mod 187 = 14,641 mod 187 = 55
• 11 8 mod 187 = 214,358,881 mod 187 = 33
• 11 23 mod 187 = (11 * 121 * 55 * 33 * 33) mod 187 = 79,720,245
• 79,720,245 mod 187 = 88
Example RSA Cont.
Cryptographic hash functions
• A hash function H accepts a variable-length block of data M
as input and produces a fixed-size hash value h = H(M).
• In general terms, the principal object of a hash function is
data integrity
• The kind of hash function needed for security applications is
referred to as a Cryptographic hash function
Applications of cryptographic hash functions
• Message Authentication
• Digital Signatures
• One-way password file
• Intrusion detection
• Virus detection
Message Authentication
• Message authentication is a mechanism or service used to
verify the integrity of a message
• When a hash function is used to provide message
authentication, the hash function value is often referred to as
a message digest
Use of hash function to check data integrity
Attack Against Hash Function
Ways in which a hash code can be used to
provide message authentication
(a)
 Ways in which a hash code can be used to
provide message authentication
(b)
Ways in which a hash code can be used to
provide message authentication
(c)
 Ways in which a hash code can be used to
provide message authentication
(d)
Digital Signatures
• Message Authentication Code (MAC)
A MAC function takes as input a secret key and a data block
and produces a hash value, referred to as the MAC, which is
associated with the protected message
• The operation of the Digital Signature is similar to that of
the MAC
• In Digital Signature the hash value of a message is
encrypted with a user’s private key
Hash code providing a Digital Signature
 Public-key infrastructure
• Public-key infrastructure (PKI) as the set of hardware, software,
people, policies, and procedures needed to create, manage, store,
distribute, and revoke digital certificates based on asymmetric
cryptography.
• The principal objective for developing a PKI is to enable secure,
convenient, and efficient acquisition of public keys.
Cryptography for Internet Security –HTTPS