Nigerian Journal of Social Psychology, Volume 2, No. 2 (2019).
Published by the Nigerian Association of Social psychologists.
Incremental Contributions of Place Attachment above and beyond Locus of Control in
Pro-environmental Behaviour
JohnBosco Chika Chukwuorji1, Chinyere Ndata2, Lovet Chinaecherem Anih1, Sampson
Kelechi Nwonyi3, & Izuchukwu Lawrence G. Ndukaihe4
1
Department of Psychology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu state, Nigeria.
2
Elechi Amadi Polytechnic, Rumuokoro, Port-Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.
3
Department of Psychology and Sociological Studies, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki,
Ebonyi State, Nigeria.
4
Alex Ekwueme Federal Univrsity, Ndufu-Alike Ikwo, Ebonyi state, Nigeria.
Corresponding author: JohnBosco Chika Chukwuorji, Department of Psychology, University
of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu state, Nigeria. 41000. Email:
[email protected] Incremental contributions of place attachment above and beyond locus of control in
pro-environmental behaviour
Abstract
In recent times, there is increasing attention by government and non-governmental
organisations to change the utilitarian approach which people have in relation to their
environment. The goal of such paradigm shifts is to encourage individuals and groups to care
for and protect the places where they live in and work to earn their living. The aim of the
present cross-sectional study was to examine the roles of locus of control and place
attachment in pro-environmental behaviour of a sample of local government employees in
Enugu state, Nigeria. Participants were 240 staff who were drawn from three local
government areas (LGAs) located in Enugu urban area of Enugu state. They completed a
questionnaire form consisting of the Locus of Control Behaviour Scale (LOCBS), Place
Attachment Inventory and Pro-environmental Behaviour Scale (PEBS). Hierarchical Linear
regression was used in analysing the data. Locus of control significantly and positively
predicted pro-environmental behaviour, accounting for 6% of the variance in pro-
environmental behaviour. Place attachment significantly and positively predicted pro-
environmental behaviour, explaining 9% of the variance in pro-environmental behaviour.
The result implies that having an internal locus of control is important but dependence,
identity, affect, or bonding with important aspects of one’s environment was associated with
greater engagement in environmentally supportive behaviours. It was suggested that
psychosocial interventions aimed at instilling internal control beliefs into the LGA staff and
designing programmes to create positive emotions and feelings towards significant places for
diverse segments of the population may be helpful in increasing pro-environmental
behaviour.
Keywords: locus of control, place attachment, pro-environmental behaviour, public policy.
239
Introduction
There is a growing awareness that human behaviour contributes to environmental
problems such as water pollution, decline of biodiversity, and desertification
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC, 2007).While clean technologies are
recognized as critical factors in resolving many of toady’s environmental burdens, academics
and policy makers agree that changing consumer behaviour through deeper change in the
society also has to play a vital role (Mequanint & Gebremedhin, 2015). As Morrison-
Saunders and Therivel (2006) states, the transition to global sustainability will require
changes in human values, attitudes, and behaviours. Therefore, it is relevant to study factors
influencing behaviours to reduce these problems.Researchers are striving to understand this
disconnect between environmental attitude, awareness, and behavior. Some of their efforts
have been devoted to the identification and study of factors that may affect pro-environment
behaviour.
Over the past few decades, environmental researchers have used a variety of term to
describe the sort of actions that are environmentally sustainable, including pro-environmental
behaviour (Bamberg & Moser, 2007; Steg, Bolderdijk, Keizer & Perlaviciute, 2014;
Chukwuorji, Iorfa, Nzeadibe, & Ifeagwazi, 2017), responsible environmental behaviour,
environmentally responsible behaviours, ecological behaviours, conservative behaviours,
environmentally supportive behaviours and environmentally significant behaviours (Stern,
2000).Pro-environmental behaviour is such behaviour which is generally (or according to
knowledge of environmental science) judged in the context of the considered society as a
protective way of environmental behaviour or a tribute to the healthy environment,
Nigerian Journal of Social Psychology, Volume 2, No. 2 (2019).
Published by the Nigerian Association of Social psychologists.
(Krajhanzl, 2010). Pro-environmental behaviour is not just a single human action or
behaviour, but it encompasses all behaviours human beings exhibit in the environment which
positively affects the environment. Acting pro-environmentally cannot be achieved without
the combination of some variables which helps to either promotes or disrupts the
environment. In this study, the variables of interest are locus of control and place attachment.
Locus ofcontrol as developed by Julian Rotter in 1954 has since become an important
part ofpersonality psychology, given that people may either believe that they have control
over the events in theirlives or that they have no control over the events in their lives
(Agbajemebe, Ezeugwu, & Nwanosike, 2018). The full name Rotter gave the constrct was
Locus of control of Reinforcement (Rotter, 1966). Rotter’s view was that behaviour was
largely guided by reinforcement (rewards and punishments) and that through contingencies
such as rewards and punishments, individuals come to hold beliefs about what causes their
actions. These beliefs, in turn, guide what kind of attitudes and behaviour people adopt
(Chukwuorji, Ituma, & Ugwu, 2018). A locus of control orientation is a belief about whether
the outcomes of our actions are contingent on what people do (internal control orientation) or
on events outside one’s personal control (external control orientation) (Zimbardo, 1985).
Individuals with an internal locus of control view events as resulting from their own actions,
whereas persons with an external locus of control view events as being under the control of
external factors such as luck (Chukwuorji, Amazue, Ifeagwazi, & Chibueze, 2017; Marsh &
Weary, 1995; Onyedire, Ekoh, Chukwuorji, & Ifeagwazi, 2017).
Weiner’s (1986) attributional analysis of motivation and emotion postulates that,
people’s behaviour are largely determined by the perceived controllability of the causes of
events. Presumably, individuals with an internal locus of control actively seek out
241
information, and such information may also include issues related to environmental
problems. If so, they will more often acquire, and make better use of, knowledge that is
conducive to behaving in an environment – friendly manner than those who attribute control
to external sources. In order for values to be expressed in pro-environmental behaviour, it
seems to be important that people perceive their events to be controlled by their own
behaviour or personal characteristics, that is, internal locus of control. Moreover, this is more
important for people with a low degree of self-transcendence values than for those who
strongly prioritize self-transcendence values.
One understudied factor that may affect individuals’ engagement in environmentally-
responsible behaviour is attachment to a particular place. Attachment to place refers to the
emotional bond between people and their environment settings (Mazumdar, 2005), and is
widely understood to have originated from Bowlby’s (1969, 1982, 1991) attachment theory
which describes the emotional bond between a child and his/her primary caregiver. Place
attachment was defined as a bond with a particular place comprising functional (place
dependence), cognitive (place identity), and affective (place affect), and behavioural
(place social bonding) aspects (Giuliani, 2003). According to Ramkissoon, Weiler and Smith
(2012), the consideration of place attachment as an attitude and acknowledgement of the
close relationshipbetween attitude and behavioural intention when both are directed
toward a particular object or environmentresults in a conceptual framework that
integrates the different place attachment sub-constructs. In general, place theorists uphold
that individuals who are emotionally, psychologically or functionally attached to a place will
act to safeguard that place (Tuan, 1977; Relph, 1976).
Empirical researchers have found the link between the variables of interest in this
study. Internal locus of control have been found to be associated with greater pro-
Nigerian Journal of Social Psychology, Volume 2, No. 2 (2019).
Published by the Nigerian Association of Social psychologists.
environmental behaviour among some populations in previous research such as willingness to
pay for green product among Indian consumers (Trivedi, Petal,& Savalia, 2015), Romanian
undergraduate students’ eccentric concern and support for interventionist conservation
policies (Pavalache-llie & Unianu, 2012), and environmental attitude in Pakistani youth aged
18-25 years (Asghar&Nazneen, 2016) and consumers’ purchase of environmentally packaged
foods (Schwepker & Cornwell, 1991). One study by Sarigollu and Huang (2011) reported
that the effect of locus of control is mediated by pro-environmental attitude.
In the same vein, some studies have reported the contribution of place attachment in
fostering pro-environmental behaviour and intentions to perform such behaviours among
visitors in national parks (Halpenny, 2006; 2010; Haywantee, Liam & Betty, 2012;
Ramkissoon et al., 2012; Tonge, Ryan, Moore, & Beckley, 2015), Australian rural
landholders (Raymond, Brown,& Weber, 2010), and residents of Reunion Island (Junot,
Paquet, & Fenouillet, 2018). Place attachment have also been found to be positively related to
positive word of mouth about a place (Zenker & Rütter, 2014), use of urban services
(Belanche, Casaló, & Orús, 2016), and environmental management practices (Arifwidodo &
Chandrasiri, 2013). A recent online-based study in a Chinese major city, also reported that
the social bonding dimension of place attachment is most effective at promoting pro-
environmental behaviour and that this relationship is stronger for native born residents and
those with longer residency length (Songa & Soopramaniena, 2019).
In sum, evidences suggest that internal locus of control and place attachment may lead
people to engage in pro‐environmental behaviours. The more overwhelming evidence in in
the area of place attachment, but recent research on the construct proves that findings are far
from being conclusive concerning the association between place attachment and general
243
pro‐environmental behaviours. None of the existing studies have simultaneously examined
the contributions of both locus of control and place attachment in pro-environmental
behaviour. It is expected that investigating the incremental effects of variables would be
beneficial in understanding the salient factors that may be of more value in fostering
engagement in pro-environmental behaviour. Although several populations have been studies
by researchers, majority of participants in such studies have been undergraduate students and
visitors to national parks or other recreational facilities. There is no study which has focused
exclusively on individuals who are employed in government agencies. This group is
considered important because they constitute the bulk of the population in most developing
countries of the world. Therefore, they may serve as important targets for interventions to
encourage behaviours that protect and sustain the environment. The objective of this study
was to fill these gaps in knowledge concerning pro-environmental behaviour. The hypotheses
for this study are as follows: (1) Locus of control will significantly predict pro-environmental
behaviour. (2) Place attachment will significantly predict pro-environmental behaviour above
and beyond the contributions of locus of control.
Method and Materials
Participants and procedure
Two hundred and forty local government workers participated in this study. The
workers comprised of one hundred and forty (140) workers from Enugu North Local
Government Area and hundred (100) participants from Enugu South Local Government all in
Enugu state. Among the 240 participants, 114 (47.5%) were men whereas 126 (52.5%) were
women. The age range of the participants was 20-65 years, with a mean age of 45.7 years.
Nigerian Journal of Social Psychology, Volume 2, No. 2 (2019).
Published by the Nigerian Association of Social psychologists.
The educational qualifications of participants were as follows: SSCE/WAEC (2.1%),
HND/BSc. (85.8%), Master’s degree (8.8) and others who were not specific(3.3%). By
religious affiliation, there were Christians (96.3%), Muslims (2.7%) and African traditional
worshipers (1%). Based on their career grade level, the sample had both junior workers
(49.6%) senior workers (50.4%). The numbers of years spent in current job ranged from 1-32
years with average tenure of 14.0 years (SD=9.90).
With the approval of the local government authority, the instruments were personally
administered to workers in both Enugu South Local Government and Enugu North Local
Government Areas by the third author. Data collection was carried out in the month of June
2016. The participants were informed that completion of the instruments was voluntary and
that their response would be kept strictly confidential. The distribution of the questionnaire
took two weeks and three days.
Measures
Three instruments were used for the study, namely:Locus of Control Behaviour Scale
(LOCBS), Place Attachment Inventory (PAI), and Self-report Pro-environmental Scale (SPS)
Locus of Control Behaviour Scale (LOCBS)
LOCBS was developed by Criag, Franklin and Andrews (1984). The scale comprises
17 items designed to measure internality and externality of control. The items are scored on a
six point Likert format of strongly disagree (1), to strongly agree (6). Some items in the scale
are: I can anticipate difficulties and take actions a avoid them; when I make plans, I am
almost certain I can make them work; My life is controlled by outside actions and events;
e.t.c Total score on the test ranges from 17-102, and higher scores indicate internal locus of
245
control. A Cronbach’s alpha reliability of internal consistency of .79 was reported by Craig,
et al. (1984), also a Cronbach’s alpha reliability of internal consistency of .73 was reported
for the scale in a Nigerian study (Ibeagha, Balogun & Adejuoron 2004), and its reliability and
validity has been supported in recent Nigerian strudies (e.g., Abdollahia & Talib, 2014;
Chukwuorji, Ituma, & Ugwu, 2018). Internal consistency reliability (α) of .75 was obtained
for LOCBS in the present study.
Place Attachment Inventory (PAI)
PAI was developed by Williams and Vaske (2003). The items on the scale were
represented using a 5-point Likert scale of 1- strongly disagree to 5- strongly agree, with a
neutral point of 3. The researchers obtained a Cronbach’s alpha which ranges from .84 to -94
for place identity and -82 to 94 for place dependence in their studies in different countries
including Cameron. An internal consistency reliability (α) of .73 was obtained for PAI in the
present study.
Self-report Pro-environmental Scale (SPS)
SPS was developed by Schultz and Zelenzy (1998) to measure individual’s recycling
behaviours, conservation behaviours, consumer behaviour and transportation behaviours. It is
scored using a five-point Likert scale (1=Never, 2 = Rarely, 3= Sometimes, 4 = Often, and 5
= Very often). Scores are summed together to create a scale score, where higher scores
indicate a higher pro-environmental attitude. The reliabilities of the scale has been assessed to
get the different Cronbach’s alpha in different countries like Mexico (α = .54), Nicaragua (α
= .52), Peru (α = .58) Span (α = .62), and the U.S. (α = .63) (Schultz & Zelenzy, 1998).
Internal consistency reliability (α) of .79 was obtained for SPS in the present study.
Nigerian Journal of Social Psychology, Volume 2, No. 2 (2019).
Published by the Nigerian Association of Social psychologists.
Data analysis
Pearson’s correlations was used to establish the relationships of the study variables
including some relevant demographic factors. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to
analyze the data in order to test the hypotheses in Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS®) version 20. Regression is important in establishing the linkages between (a) scores
on different tests, (b) test scores and non-test (demographic) variables, (c) scores on parts of
tests and scores on whole tests , etc. (Urbina, 2004). Multiple regression analysis further
allows researchers to simultaneously use several predictor variables, and thereby be in a
position to explain better the variation in the dependent variable, and hence make more
accurate predictions (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013; Mendenhall, Beaver, & Beaver, 2009).
Demographic factors that correlate significantly with pro-environmental behaviour were
added in the first step of the regression model as covariates. Locus of control was added in
step 2, while place attachment was added in the third step of the model.
Results
Table 1: Correlations of demographic variables, locus of control, place
attachment and pro-environmental behaviour
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Gender -
2 Age -.02 -
3 Qualification -.05 .16 -
4 JobStatus -.06 .76*** .09 -
5 Years in current job -.05 .88*** .09 .91 ***
-
6 Locus of control -.14* .13* .01 .16* .17* -
7 Place attachment -.08 .11 -.04 .19** .16* .29 **
-
Pro-environmental
8 -.02 .11 .01 .21** .18** .27** .39*** -
Behaviour
Note:*p< .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
247
In Table 1, the correlations show that gender was not significantly related to pro-
environmental behaviour. Age was not significantly related to pro-environmental behaviour,
and educational qualification was not significantly associated with pro-environmental
behaviour. Job status had a significantly positive relationship with pro-environmental
behaviour, showing that the senior workers had higher pro-environmental behaviour than the
junior workers. Number of years spent in the current job was significantly and positively
associated with pro-environmental behaviour which indicates that those who have spent more
years in the job had more pro-environmental behaviour than those who had lower number of
years. Locus of control was positively related to pro-environmental behaviour. Those who are
externally oriented had more positive pro-environmental behaviour. Place attachment had a
positive association with pro-environmental behaviour. Higher place attachment was related
to more engagement in pro-environmental behaviour.
Table 2: Hierarchical multiple regression predicting pro-environmental behaviour by
locus of control and place attachment
Predictors B SE β T R2 ∆
Step 1 .04
Job status 3.58 2.07 .26 1.73
Years in current job -.04 .11 -.06 -.42
Step 2 .06
Locus of control .16 .04 .25* 3.92
Step 3 .09
Place attachment .25 .05 .32* 5.08
* 2
Note: p < .001; Total R = .19.
Table 2 showed that the control variables (job status and number of years spent in
current job) which were included in the first step of the regression analysis did not
significantly predict pro-environmental behaviour. However, they contributed 4% of the
variance in pro-environmental behaviour.
Nigerian Journal of Social Psychology, Volume 2, No. 2 (2019).
Published by the Nigerian Association of Social psychologists.
Locus of control and pro-environmental behaviour
Locus of control significantly and positively predicted pro-environmental behaviour.
This indicates that external locus of control (as represented by higher scores on LOCBS) was
associated with higher engagement in pro-environmental behaviour. Locus of control
accounted for 6% of the variance in pro-environmental behaviour.
Place attachment and pro-environmental behaviour
Place attachment significantly and positively predicted pro-environmental behaviour,
indicating that workers with higher place attachment had higher pro-environmental behaviour
than those with lower pro-environmental behaviour. Place attachment explained 9% of the
variance in pro-environmental behaviour, and it was found to be a stronger predictor of pro-
environmental behaviour than locus of control.
Discussion
The present investigation focused on on locus of control and place attachment as
predictors of pro-environmental behaviours. More importantly, the study attempted to explore
if place attachment will explain more incremental variance in pro-environmental behaviour,
above and beyond the contribution of locus of control. It was found that both locus of control
and place attachment contributed significantly to the variance in pro-environmental
behaviour, but place attachment explained significantly more variance in pro-environmental
behaviour above the contribution of locus of control.
The finding on locus of control as a predictor of pro-environmental behaviour is in
line with the earlier stated hypothesis, but surprisingly the direction of the current finding
indicates that those with external locus of control engaged in more pro-environmental
249
behaviour. Previous research (e.g., Asghar & Nazneen, 2016; Pavalache-llie & Unianu,
2012; Sarigollu & Huang (2011; Trivedi, Petal, & Savalia, 2015) had reported contrary
findings showing that internal locus of control leads to pro-environmental behaviours. A
possible reason for this finding could be the nature of our sample which is primarily
composed of civil servants who work in local government, unlike the samples in previous
studies that were students and tourists.
It was further expected that place attachment will significantly predict pro-environmental
behaviour and the finding showed that individuals with higher place attachment engaged in
more pro-environmental behaviour than those with lower place attachment. This finding is
consistent with previous findings showing that place attachment leads to pro-environmental
behaviour (e.g., Arifwidodo & Chandrasiri, 2013; Belanche, Casaló, & Orús, 2016;
Halpenny, 2006; 2010; Haywantee, Liam & Betty, 2012; Junot, Paquet, & Fenouillet, 2018;
Ramkissoon et al., 2012; Raymond, Brown, & Weber, 2010; Zenker & Rütter, 2014). From
the correlations results, senior workers reported more pro-environmental behaviour. It is
possible that these workers values their work environment and have greater desires to
enhance their environment with a positive pro-environmental behaviour. In the place
attachment theory Giuliani (Giuliani, 1991, 2003) attest that the formation of attachment to a
place is developed at infancy and as an individual grows into adulthood and explores a
different environment they will exhibit the prior affective bond of relationship that will
protect their new environment.
Place plays a vital role in the life of an individual it helps a person to form an
attachment and affection to the environment where he/she finds himself or herself which
fosters a healthy living if pro-environmental behaviours are encouraged and promoted. These
workers have seen their work environmental as a part of them and have spent most of their
Nigerian Journal of Social Psychology, Volume 2, No. 2 (2019).
Published by the Nigerian Association of Social psychologists.
working life in that environment so they needed to foster and promote their environment
through positive pro-environmental behaviour. Also proper training should be inculcated into
the junior workers because the work environment is part and parcel of their life. There is an
assurance that as the junior workers explores the environment and establishes some emotional
bonds, attachment, and affect they would want to promotes and enhance pro-environmental
behaviour as well.
In spite of the strengths of this study by being the first to simultaneously examine
locus of control and pro-environmental behaviour in order to establish the incremental
variance in pro-environmental behaviour on account of place attachment in a sample of
public workers, it has some limitations. The sample size used for the study can be considered
modest, but it is not large enough in order to generlaise the findings across larger population
of workers. The study can be replicated with a large number of participants as this will help
to make for more validity. The cross-sectional nature of the study and use of self-report
measures to obtain data for the study also means that it is not free from common method bias.
Conclusion
This study discovered that locus of control and place attachment are important factors
that can be beneficial for fostering pro-environmental behaviours among workers in
governement agencies. This study will help the researchers to uncover the critical area of the
incremental variance explained by place attachment over and above locus of control place
that many researchers were not able to explore. Thus a comprehenive and heuristic theory on
pro-environmental behaviour may be arrived at.Although previous studied agreed that
individual with internal locus engage more in environmentally-friendly behaviours than
individual with external locus of control, the current finding indicates the oppositie.
251
Government agencies and advocacy groups that are concerned with the environment will
have to focus on both locus of control and pro-environmental behaviour to effectively
encourage sustainable environmentally protective behaviour among workers. However,
special efforts which increase place attachment need to be emphasized more staff training
programmes and workers’ outreach efforts.
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