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Explorationof Oiland Gasprospectsinthe Northwesterpartofthe Offshore Indus Basin Pakistan

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Exploration prospects of oil and gas in the Northwestern part of the Offshore
Indus Basin, Pakistan

Article  in  China Geology · August 2020


DOI: 10.31035/cg2020051

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China Geology 4 (2020) 633−642

China Geology
Journal homepage: http://chinageology.cgs.cn
https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/china-geology
 

 
Exploration prospects of oil and gas in the Northwestern part of the Offshore Indus
Basin, Pakistan
Jian-ming Gonga, b, c, Jing Liaoa, b,*, Jie Lianga, b, Bao-hua Leia, b, Jian-wen Chena, b, Muhammad Khalidd,
Syed Waseem Haidere, Ming Mengf
 
a
 Qingdao Institute of Marine Geology, China Geological Survey, Qingdao 266071, China
b
 Laboratory for Marine Mineral Resources, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266061, China
c
 College of Earth Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China
d
 Pakistan Hydrographic Department 11, Liaquat Barracks Shahrae Faisal KARACHI-75530, Pakistan
e
 National Institute of Oceanography, St-47, Block-1,Clifton, Karachi, Pakistan
f
 School of Ocean Sciences, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China

A  R  T  I  C  L  E      I  N  F  O A  B  S  T  R  A  C  T
   

Article history: Oil and gas resources are short in Pakistan and no commercially viable oil and gas sources have been yet


Received 25 December 2019
discovered in its offshore areas up to now. In this study, the onshore-offshore stratigraphic correlation and
Received in revised form 12 May 2020
Accepted 15 June 2020 seismic data interpretation were conducted to determine the oil and gas resource potential in the Offshore
Available online 31 August 2020 Indus  Basin,  Pakistan.  Based  on  the  comprehensive  analysis  of  the  results  and  previous  data,  it  is
 
  considered that the Cretaceous may widely exist and three sets of source rocks may be developed in the
Keywords: Offshore Indus Basin. The presence of Miocene mudstones has been proven by drilling to be high-quality
Oil and gas
source rocks, while the Cretaceous and Paleocene–Eocene mudstones are potential source rocks. Tectonic-
Cretaceous
Offshore Indus Basin lithologic traps are developed in the northwestern part of the basin affected by the strike-slip faults along
Oil storage structure Murray Ridge. Furthermore, the Cretaceous and Paleocene–Eocene source rocks are thick and are slightly
Oil and gas engineering affected by volcanic activities. Therefore, it can be inferred that the northwestern part of Offshore Indus
Pakistan
Basin enjoys good prospects of oil and gas resources.
 

©2020 China Geology Editorial Office.
 

 
1. Introduction the northwestern part has been less surveyed, with a density of
exploration  grid  of  only  16×16  km.  In  this  paper,  to  identify
The  sea  area  (Arabian  Sea)  of  Pakistan  is  comprised the oil and gas resource potential and to make a breakthrough
mainly  of  the  Offshore  Indus  Basin,  Makran  Accretionary in  oil  and  gas  exploration  in  the  northwestern  part,  the
Prism,  and  Oman  Abyssal  Plain.  The  former  two  areas  have potential  and  prospects  of  the  oil  and  gas  resources  in  the
been  explored  for  oil  and  gas  resources  for  nearly  60  years, northwestern  part  of  the  Offshore  Indus  Basin  are  explored
with a total of 18 wells being drilled. As a result, only a small based  on  the  comprehensive  research  of  the  regional
amount of natural gas was obtained in the Miocene sandstones geological  features  and  the  geological  conditions  and
of  the  Offshore  Indus  Basin  during  the  drilling  of  Well reservoir formation of oil and gas.
Pakcan  1,  with  no  commercial  oil  and  gas  resources  being
discovered  (Shuaib  SM,  1982;  Shuaib  SM  et  al.,  1999).  The 2. Regional geological background
eastern part of the Offshore Indus Basin has been extensively
The  sea  area  of  Pakistan  stretches  across  three  plates.  It
surveyed, achieving a density of exploration grid of up to 4× can  be  divided  into  five  tectonic  elements  according  to  the
8 km on average and up to 2×4 km in some areas. In contrast,
 

distribution  features  of  Paleogene  strata,  namely  Makran


 
 
Accretionary  Prism,  Oman  Abyssal  Plain,  Murray  Ridge,
First author: E-mail address: [email protected] (Jian-ming Gong).
Offshore  Indus  Basin,  and  Saurashtra  High  (Fig.  1),  which
* Corresponding author: E-mail address: [email protected] (Jing Liao).
 
consist  of  the  tectonic  framework  of  alternate  uplift  and
doi:10.31035/cg2020051 depression  from  north  to  south  (Smith  GL,  2013;  Kopp  C  et
2096-5192/© 2020 China Geology Editorial Office. al., 2000; Jiang KX et al., 2016; Malod JA et al., 1997). The

Copyright © 2020 Editorial Office of China Geology. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ).
634 Gong et al. / China Geology 4 (2020) 633−642

Makran  Accretionary  Prism  is  a  part  of  the  Eurasian  Plate deep-water  area,  namely  Anne  1x,  Pak-G2  1,  and  Kekra  1.
(Liu B et al., 2020; Zhang Z et al., 2020), the Oman Abyssal The  remaining  11  wells  are  located  in  the  shallow  shelf.
Plain  is  a  component  of  the  Arabian  Plate,  and  the  Offshore Among  them,  only  a  small  amount  of  natural  gas  was
Indus  Basin  is  a  part  of  the  Indian  Plate.  The  Indian  Plate  is obtained in the Miocene sandstone during the drilling of Well
separated  from  the  Arabian  Plate  by  the  NE-SW-trending Pakcan  1,  while  other  wells  are  dry  wells  (Jiang  KX  et  al.,
right-lateral strike-slip fault of Murray Ridge. 2016),  including  the  latest  Well  Kekra  1  completed  in  June
As  the  second-largest  submarine  fan  in  the  world,  the 2019  (Table  1;  Fig.  2).  Pakistani  experts  and  the  oil
Indus  Fan  can  be  further  divided  into  three  major  submarine companies  considered  that  these  were  mainly  attributed  to
fans, namely the upper fan, the middle fan, and the lower fan. insufficient  hydrocarbon  charge  and  poor  quality  of
The Offshore Indus Basin lies in the upper fan, with the area reservoirs.
accounting for about 90% of the total area of the upper fan. It
was concluded from previous survey and research results that 3. Cretaceous strata widely developing in the offshore
the Offshore Indus Basin was mainly comprised of Cenozoic Indus Basin
strata, with a maximum thickness up to 11000 m (Kolla V et
al., 1987; Clift P et al., 2002; Daley T et al., 2002); during the Indus  Basin  is  the  largest  sedimentary  basin  and  oil  and
Paleocene–Eocene, carbonate platform and its related organic gas energy base in Pakistan, and the Cretaceous strata in this
reef  developed  on  the  top  of  Deccan  volcanic  seamount basin serves as both important source rocks and key reservoirs
(Shahzad K et al., 2018; Khurram S et al., 2019) and deep-sea (Huang ZX et al., 2005; Zaigham NA and Mallick KA, 2000;
shale  was  deposited  in  the  depression  area  between  the Li LT et al., 2015; Lin WD, 2008; Clift P et al., 2002; Chen X
carbonate  platforms;  during  the  Oligocene –Quaternary, et  al.,  2017a;  Yang  JF  et  al.,  2019).  Among  the  Cretaceous,
hugely  thick  sediments  developed  in  the  Indus  Fan,  while the shale of the Lower Cretaceous Sembar Formation are the
large-size  channel –levee  sediments  developed  during main source rocks (TOC: 1.72%–2.55%, Ro: 1.27%–2.06%),
Miocene–Holocene (Mchargue TR and Webb J, 1986; Droz L while  the  sandstones  of  the  Lower  Cretaceous  Lower  Goru
et al., 1991). Formation  serve  as  the  main  reservoirs.  Therefore,  it  is  of
Fourteen  wells  have  been  drilled  in  the  Offshore  Indus great significance to find out whether the Cretaceous exists in
Basin, Pakistan up to now, including three wells located in the the Offshore Indus Basin.
 

26°N
PAKISTAN
Eurasian Plate

B
nary Pr ism
Makran Accretio 4
Fig.

24°N
la te
A ra b ia n P
e
Ridg
rray Offshore Indus Basin
lP lain Mu
Ku

Abyssa Fi
g.
tch

an 5
Om
Bas
in

e
22°N dg
Ri
A nath
e

m
tur

So
ac
Fr
en

Indian Plate Saurashtra High


Ow

62°E 64°E 66°E 68°E


 
Fig. 1.   Geotectonic location of Pakistan Sea area (modified from Smith GL, 2013).
Gong et al. / China Geology 4 (2020) 633−642 635

According  to  the  comprehensive  analysis  of  the  drilling beneath  Deccan  volcanic  rocks  during  the  drilling  of  wells
data  of  the  sea  area,  onshore-offshore  stratigraphic Karachi South A-1 and Dabbo Creek 1 located in the northern
correlation, and seismic interpretation results, the Cretaceous shelf  region  of  the  Offshore  Indus  Basin  (Khurram  S  et  al.,
was believed to widely exist in the Offshore Indus Basin for 2019)  (Fig.  3).  Second,  the  Cretaceous  was  discovered  by
four  major  reasons.  First,  Cretaceous  shale  was  discovered drilling  to  be  widely  distributed  in  the  onshore  area  of  the

Table 1. Oil and gas drilling results in the sea area of Pakistan.
No. Well name Operator Year TD/m Result and reasons
1 Dabbo Creek 1 Sun 1963 4354 Drill off structure
2 Patiani Creek 1 Sun 1964 2659 Drill off structure
3 Korangi Creek 1 Sun 1964 4140 Possible seal failure
4 Indus Marine A-1 Wintershall 1972 2841 Poor reservoir quality
5 Indus Marine B-1 Wintershall 1972 3804 Mechanical failure
6 Indus Marine C-1 Wintershall 1975 1942 High formation pressure
7 Jal Pari 1A Marathon 1976 2007 High formation pressure
8 Karachi South A-1 Husky 1978 3353 Poor reservoir quality
9 Pakcan 1 OGDC 1985 3701 Edge of sand body
10 Sadaf 1 Occidental 1989 3980 Lack of charge
11 Shaikh Nadin 1 Canterbury 1992 1679 Gas show
12 Pasni 1 OPC 1999 3569 Reservoir not encountered
13 Gwadar 1 OPC 2000 3810 Reservoir not encountered
14 Pak-G2 1 Total 2004 4750 Lack of charge
15 Pasni X-2 PPL 2005 4000 Reservoir not encountered
16 Anne 1x Shell 2007 3268 Reservoir not encountered
17 Shark 1 Eni 2010 3503 Lack of charge
18 Kekra 1 Eni 2019 5693 Lack of charge

26°N

PAKISTAN

Gwadar
Jal Pari 1A
Gwadar 1 Pasni 1
Karachi
25°N Pasni X-2
Korangi Creek 1
−1000 m
Indus Marine C-1
ism
Makran A ccretionary Pr Karachi South A-1 Patiani Creek 1
−2000 m Dabbo Creek 1
Shark 1
Shaikh Nadin 1
−3000 m Indus Marine B-1

24°N
-1000 m Sadaf 1 Pakcan 1

Anne 1x Indus Marine A-1

23°N −2000 m
e
Ridg Offshore Indus Basin
y
u rra Kekra 1
M

Pak-G2 1

22°N −3000 m
Wells

Mud volcanoes

Water depth

Cities
0 25 50 100 km
EEZ

61°E 62°E 63°E 64°E 65°E 66°E 67°E


 
Fig. 2.   Location and drilling results of 18 offshore wells in Pakistan.
636 Gong et al. / China Geology 4 (2020) 633−642

Indus  Basin  (Carmichael  SM  et  al.,  2009)  (Fig.  4),  with  a Basin,  thickens  toward  the  sea  area  (Biswas  SK,  1982).
large thickness of about 3000 m (Chen X et al., 2017b; Chen Meanwhile,  natural  gas  was  discovered  in  the  Cretaceous
X et al., 2017c). Third, the Cretaceous in Kutch Basin, which sandstones during the drilling of two wells (GK-39 1 and GK-
is  closely  adjacent  to  the  eastern  part  of  the  Offshore  Indus 22C 1). Finally, as indicated by the latest interpretation results
 
Alluvium

Pliesto
Pliocene Shelf area Deep water
W E SW
71 km 29 km 13 km 4.3 km 288 km
Miocene
Gaj

Indus Karachi Patiani Dabbo Shaik


Pak-G2 1
Marine C-1 South A-1 Creek 1 Creek 1 Nadin 1

GR DT GR DT GR DT GR DT GR DT GR DT
Chattian
Oligocene

200 m
Nari
Priabo/Barto- Rupelian

DU
Kirthar
nian
Eocene

Laki-Ghazij
Lutetian
Laki-Ghazij
Ypresian

Top basement
Thane-
Paleocene
dian tian

(Deccan)
Ranikot
Maastrichtian-Campanian DanianSelan-

Seismic based depth


Pub

Pa
leo
Cretaceous

ge
ne
24°N

Sandstone
Mughalkot

she
Shale lf
edge
Limestone
Deccan volcanic rock
23°N

0 100 km
22°N

66°E 67°E
 
Fig. 3.   Cretaceous shale discovered during the drilling of wells Karachi South A-1 and Dabbo Creek 1, while Paleocene-Eocene limestone dis-
covered during drilling of Well Pak-G2 1 (after Khurram S et al., 2019).
 

Dabbo Patiani
SW Pak-G2 1 Indus MarineA-1 Pakcan 1 Creek 1 Creek 1 NE
0 Paleocene-Eocene 0
1 Upper Cretaceous 1
2 Lower Cret. 2
TWT/S

3 ne 3
Plei stoce Jurassic
Plio-
4 s 4
u
Mioc
ene ceo Basement
5 reta 5
pper C
arly(?) ?U
6 Oligocene-E 6
Miocene
ne
7 Eoce 7
cene-
Paleo

Offshore Indus Basin Indus Basin


 
Fig. 4.   Onshore-offshore stratigraphic correlation in Pakistan discovered by drilling (after Carmichael SM et al., 2009) (Location of the profile
see Fig. 1).
Gong et al. / China Geology 4 (2020) 633−642 637

of  seismic  data,  there  is  a  set  of  weakly  continuous  seismic lithology and TOC of Paleocene–Eocene source rocks in the
reflection  signals  with  medium –weak  amplitude  beneath  the Indus  Basin  and  Kutch  Basin  (Table  2),  the  Indus  Basin  is
Paleocene–Eocene Series, with the two-way travel time of the mainly  comprised  of  shale,  while  Kutch  Basin  contains  coal
signals  ranging  1000 –2000  ms.  The  strata  featuring  the seams  besides  shale.  Moreover,  the  abundance  of  organic
seismic reflection signals were preliminarily interpreted to be matter  in  the  Indus  Basin  is  slightly  higher  than  that  in  the
the  Cretaceous  (Fig.  5).  It  can  be  seen  from  Fig.  5  that  the Kutch  Basin.  Therefore,  it  can  be  inferred  that  the  types  of
Cretaceous  tends  to  thicken  toward  the  northwestern  part  of organic matter in Paleocene – Eocene mudstones in the Indus
the  basin  on  the  side  of  the  strike-slip  fault  zone  of  Murray Basin  may  be  slightly  more  favorable  than  those  in  Kutch
Ridge. Basin.  Since  Type-Ⅲ organic  matter  was  found  in  the
Paleocene –Eocene  mudstones  by  drilling  of  offshore  Well
4. Geological conditions of oil and gas in the northwestern KS1-1,  it  is  believed  that  the  organic  matter  in  two  sets  of
part of the Offshore Indus Basin potential source rocks in the Offshore Indus Basin is of Type-
Ⅱ and Type-Ⅲ and thus is both matured.
4.1. Favorable hydrocarbon generation conditions As  indicated  by  previous  interpretation  results,  the
sedimentary  center  of  the  Paleocene –Eocene  mudstones  is
Three  sets  of  source  rocks,  namely  the  Cretaceous, located  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  Offshore  Indus  Basin
Paleocene–Eocene, and Miocene source rocks are believed to (Jiang  KX  et  al.,  2016),  with  a  maximum  thickness  of  about
possibly  exist  in  the  Offshore  Indus  Basin  according  to  the 900  m  (Fig.  7).  Meanwhile,  the  interpretation  results  of
comprehensive  analysis  of  the  drilling  data  and  onshore- seismic  data  in  this  study  show  that  the  Cretaceous  thickens
offshore  stratigraphic  correlation  results  (Table  2;  Fig.  6) toward  the  northwest  (Fig.  5).  Therefore,  the  northwestern
(Yang  JF  et  al.,  2019;  Chen  X  et  al.,  2017b;  Chen  X  et  al., part  of  the  Offshore  Indus  Basin  features  thick  source  rocks
2017c; Syed AA et al., 2011; Gaedicke C et al., 2002; Qian K and thus boasts favorable hydrocarbon generation conditions.
et  al.,  2017;  Wang  WG,  2014).  Among  them,  the  Miocene
source  rocks  have  been  proven  present  by  drilling  of  Well 4.2. Favorable reservoir conditions
Pakcan  1,  with  a  mudstone  thickness  of  300  m,  an  average
TOC up to 2%, and an average Ro of 0.8% (Carmichael SM et There  are  two  sets  of  proven  reservoirs  in  the  Offshore
Indus  Basin  as  indicated  by  the  drilling  data,  namely  the
al.,  2009).  Therefore,  they  are  of  high  quality.  The  potential
widely  distributed  Miocene  channel  sandstones  and  locally
source  rocks  include  Cretaceous  mudstones  and  the
distributed  Paleocene –Eocene  reef  limestone.  According  to
Paleocene –Eocene  mudstones  interbedded  with  coal  seams. drilling  data  of  Well  Pakcan  1,  the  Miocene  reservoirs  are
As  for  the  former,  the  TOC  is  up  to  3% –3.5%,  Ro  ranges comprised  of  medium  to  fine-grained  sandstones  and
1.27%–2.06%, and the types of organic matter include Ⅱ and siltstones  and  a  small  amount  of  coarse-grained  sandstones
III  (Aadil  N  et  al.,  2014;  Sheikh  N  et  al.,  2017).  As  for  the and  inequigranular  sandstones,  with  a  thickness  of  2 –50  m.
Paleocene  and  Eocene  mudstones  interbedded  with  coal The sandstones are loose to medium-hardness, and thus it can
seams, the TOCs are up to 3% and 3.7%, respectively, and Ro be  inferred  that  the  intergranular  pores  are  developed.  As
ranges  1.01% –1.11%  (Biswas  SK,  1982).  In  terms  of  the indicated by the analysis of physical properties, the Miocene
 

0
W E
1

2 0 20 km

3
Pliocene-Quaternary
4
Miocene
TWT/s

5 Oligocene

6
Paleocene-Eocene
7 Murray Ridge
Cretaceous Cretaceous
8 Somnath Ridge

 
Fig. 5.   NW-SE-trending seismic interpretation profile across the Offshore Indus Basin (Location of the profile see Fig. 1).
638 Gong et al. / China Geology 4 (2020) 633−642

reservoirs  feature  a  porosity  of  15% –20%  and  thus  are both  favorable  reservoirs.  Secondly,  the  Cretaceous
favorable reservoirs. In addition, according to the analysis of sandstones  in  the  onshore  Indus  Basin  are  also  a  set  of
core  data  of  wells  Indus  Marine  A-1  and  Indus  Marine  B-1, important  reservoirs.  They  feature  high  sorting  degree  and
the Miocene sandstones feature a porosity and permeability of rounding, with an average porosity of 20% and a permeability
mainly 20%–25% and 100–500 mD, respectively. Therefore, of  mainly  10 –4000  mD.  Therefore,  three  sets  of  reservoirs
they  are  favorable  reservoirs.  The  Paleocene –Eocene  reef may  exist  in  the  Offshore  Indus  Basin,  and  thus  the  basin
limestone or shoal limestone have been proven to be present features  favorable  reservoir  conditions  in  general.  It  can  be
by the drilling of wells Pak-G2 1 and Kekra 1. According to seen from the latest interpretation results of seismic data (Fig.
the  drilling  data  of  Well  Pak-G2  1,  the  carbonate  reservoirs 5)  that,  with  the  Somnath  volcanic  platform  (also  called
consist  of  the  bioclastic  limestone,  bio-framework  reef Somnath  Ridge)  as  a  boundary,  the  Cretaceous  of  the
limestone,  and  packstones,  with  bio-framework  pores  and Offshore Indus Basin thickens toward the eastern and western
intergranular  pores  developing.  As  indicated  by  the  analysis sides.  Meanwhile,  the  Cretaceous  reservoirs  in  the
of  physical  properties,  the  porosities  of  the  Paleocene  and northwestern  may  enjoy  more  favorable  reservoir  conditions
Eocene  reservoirs  are  27%  and  26%,  respectively,  and  thus since the northern part is far away from the Somnath volcanic
the two kinds of reservoirs are favorable reservoirs. The reef
platform.
limestone  discovered  by  the  drilling  of  Well  Pak-G2  1  is
about 350 m thick on the seismic profile, and the porosity of 4.3. Tectonic-lithologic traps developing
the Eocene limestone discovered by the drilling of Well Kekra
1 is 20%–28% (Table 3). The  Offshore  Indus  Basin  is  located  on  a  passive
According  to  the  results  of  analogy  with  Kutch  Basin continental margin. It features weak tectonic activities, with a
adjacent to the sea area and the onshore Indus Basin, it is very few  faults  and  folds  developing  besides  a  small  number  of
possible  that  Cretaceous  sandstone  reservoirs  exist  in  the normal  faults  developing  in  the  continental  shelf  subject  to
Offshore Indus Basin. The evidence is as follows. Firstly, 22 gravity.  However,  a  number  of  tectonic-lithologic  traps  are
offshore  wells  have  been  drilled  in  Kutch  Basin  up  to  now, developed  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  Offshore  Indus
among  which  oil  and  gas  were  discovered  in  four  wells  and Basin  owing  to  uplifting  and  strike-slipping  of  the  adjacent
natural  gas  was  discovered  in  Cretaceous  sandstones  in  two Murray Ridge.
wells,  namely  GK-22C  1  and  GK-39  1.  The  two  wells  were As indicated by the interpretation results of seismic data,
drilled  in  1995  and  2001,  respectively  and  their  recoverable there are four types of traps in Offshore Indus Basin, namely
reserves  of  natural  gas  in  Cretaceous  sandstones  are  up  to drape anticlines, wide and gentle anticlines, faulted anticlines,
168.8×106  m3  and  472×106  m3,  respectively.  The  reservoirs and  lithologic  traps.  The  northwestern  part  of  the  basin  is
discovered by the two wells are both composed of sandstones adjacent  to  the  strike-slip  fault  zone  of  Murray  Ridge.
of  delta –neritic  facies,  with  a  porosity  of  18% –25%  and  a Therefore,  the  fault  carrier  system  in  this  region  is  more
permeability  of  mainly  32.8 –1000  mD.  Therefore,  they  are developed  than  that  in  other  areas,  which  is  favorable  to  the

Table 2. Onshore-offshore correlation of source rocks in the Offshore Indus Basin and its adjacent areas.
Basin/Well No. Era Lithology TOC/% Type Ro/% Remarks
Indus Basin Lower Cretaceous Sembar Shale 3.5 Ⅱ and Ⅲ 0.87
(primary) Upper Goru 2.55–1.72 Ⅱ and Ⅲ 2.06–1.27
Upper Cretaceous Shale and mudstone 1.28–1.72 1.07–1.29
Paleocene Shale 1.19–6.89 1.01–1.11
Eocene Shale 9.75 1.44
Oligocene Shale 0.86 0.94
Kutch Basin Lower Eocene Shale and lignite of 0.58–3.7 Ⅱ and Ⅲ >1.1 Well GKH–1
lagoon facies
Paleocene Calcareous shale and 0.35–3 Ⅱ and Ⅲ Thin
lignite seams
Cretaceous Shale interbedded with 0.1–10.65 Ⅲ and Ⅱ <0.5
coal seams
Upper Jurassic– Shale 0.5–3 Ⅲ and Ⅱ 0.34–0.49
Lower Cretaceous (primary)
Pakcan 1 Lower Miocene Mudstones 0.55–3.24/2 0.6–0.9
Bombay Basin Paleocene–Lower Eocene (primary) Shale and coal seams >0.5–1.0
Oligocene Shale ≥1
KS1–1 Paleocene–Eocene (primary) Shale and mudstones 3–4.5% Ⅲ Black shale
(about 3 m)
Offshore Karachi Paleocene Mudstones Ⅲ
Notes: Data from Jiang KX et al., 2016; Yang JF et al., 2019; Chen X et al., 2017b; Chen X et al., 2017c; Syed AA et al., 2011; Gaedicke C et al., 2002; Qian K
et al., 2017; Wang WG, 2014.
Gong et al. / China Geology 4 (2020) 633−642 639

25°N 0 100 200 km


PAKISTAN
Late Jurassic-early N
Paleocene source rocks Miocene mudstone Cretaceous source rocks
offshore Karachi type III kerogen type II/III kerogen
type III kerogen
Badin Platform

Paleocene-Middle
ge Eocene source rocks
d
y Ri Pakcan l INDIA Mainly type III kerogen
u rra KD-1 GK-22C 1
22°N M

offshore Indus Basin GKH-1 GK-29A-1


Ku
Ba tch GK-39 1
Kekra 1 sin

Pak-G2 1 Deccan traps Cam


b
Bas ay
in
KS1-1

19°N Late Paleocene-Early


Eocene source rocks
type II/III kerogen
Bombay
Basin

Eocene shale and thin coal


type III kerogen mixed with type II

16°N Carbonate Delta plain Shelf mud


Paleocene-Lower
Costal plain Detla front Slope facies Eocene source rocks
type II/III kerogen
Terrestrial Lagoon
Wells Deccan traps

66°E 71°E 76°E


 
Fig. 6.   Sedimentary environment of source rocks in the Offshore Indus Basin and its adjacent areas in the Paleocene–Eocene (modified from
Jiang KX et al., 2016).

Fig. 8 Anne 1x
 
e
dg
Ri
y
ra
ur
M

Kekra 1




Pak-G2 1 −



e −
dg
Ri −
nath
m
So Saurashtra High
 
Fig. 7.   Isopach map of Paleocene–Eocene mudstones in the Offshore Indus Basin (after Jiang KX et al., 2016).
640 Gong et al. / China Geology 4 (2020) 633−642

Table 3. Onshore-offshore reservoir correlation in the Offshore Indus Basin and its adjacent areas.
Basin /Well No. Era Lithology Thickness/m ф/% K/mD Remarks
Offshore Indus Miocene Fan delta Sandstones 10–20 on 18–25, with an 100–500, with an Pakcan 1
Basin average average of 22 average of 514
Eocene Reef limestone Pak-G2 1
Eocene Reef limestone 20–28 Kekra 1
Indus Basin Lower Eocene Limestone 234.7 4–30 4
Paleocene Sandstones 90 10–25
Cretaceous Sandstones 100–150 15–22
Kutch Basin Cretaceous Naliya and Sandstones of fluvial – Net thickness: 30 25 High permeability GK-39 1
Bhuj Formations delta – neritic facies 18 32.8 GK-22C 1
Lower Paleocene Fluvial sandstones 20–25 100–1000 GK-29A-1
Lower Eocene Limestone Total/net: 50/15 KD-1
Bombay Basin Miocene Limestone 18–35 50–500
Upper Eocene Limestone 14–22 20–1000

transport of the Cretaceous and Paleocene–Eocene oil and gas 7 km. Moreover, a set of pyroclasic sediments are developed
to  the  Eocene  carbonatites  and/or  Miocene  channel on  its  periphery  and  slump  deposits  are  developed  in  its
sandstones. depression  area.  According  to  the  interpretation  results  of
Actually,  the  seismic  profile  passing  through  Well  Anne seismic data, in the depression area of the southeastern part of
1x in the northwestern part of the Offshore Indus Basin (Fig. 8) the basin adjacent to the Somnath Ridge and Saurashtra High,
shows obvious anticline structure, as well as clear bright spots the  Deccan  basalts  are  distributed  in  the  marine-facies  strata
and  gas  leakage.  Unfortunately,  the  well  was  not  drilled  on of  the  upper  Cretaceous –Paleocene  in  a  laminated  form
the top of anticline structure; however, it can be inferred that (Khurram S et al., 2019). In contrast, the northwestern part of
the  top  of  the  anticlines  has  good  oil  and  gas  prospects.  A the Offshore Indus Basin is far away from the Reunion mantle
number  of  tectonic-lithologic  traps  related  to  the  strike-slip plume, and therefore, the Deccan basalts pose a small impact
faults  of  Murray  Ridge  have  been  determined  in  the on it. In addition, according to the research by Calvès G et al.
northwestern  part  of  the  basin  according  to  seismic (2010), the geothermal gradient of the Cretaceous–Paleogene
interpretation up to now, and they are inferred to enjoy good distributed  along  Somnath  Ridge  is  low  and  only  33℃/km,
oil and gas prospects. while  that  of  the  Cretaceous –Paleogene  distributed  in
sedimentary  center  is  high  and  up  to  37℃/km –55℃/km,
5. Discussion aiding the maturity of the source rocks.
Overall, the Cretaceous–Eocene in the southeastern part of
According to the statistics of the drilling data, the volcanic
the  Offshore  Indus  Basin  may  contain  much  pyroclasic
activities were weak in the onshore area of Pakistan at the end
matter,  thus  hindering  the  development  of  source  rocks.
of  the  Cretaceous.  As  a  result,  the  erupted  Deccan  basalts  in
Therefore,  it  can  be  concluded  that  the  southeastern  part  has
the same period are thin in general. Moreover, they gradually
gloomy oil and gas prospects. However, the northwestern part
thin  from  south  to  north  until  they  disappear.  Therefore,  the
of the basin is far away from the developing area of volcanic
Deccan  basalts  have  a  small  impact  on  onshore  oil  and  gas
rocks  and  is  close  to  the  strike-slip  fault  zone  of  Murray
resources. However, two large volcanic activities occurred in
Ridge,  and  thus  faults  are  developed.  This  facilitates  the
the  sea  area  of  Pakistan  (Chatterjee  S  et  al.,  2013),  and  the
volcanic  platforms  formed  divide  the  Offshore  Indus  Basin transport  of  the  oil  and  gas  in  deep  Cretaceous  and
into  two  parts,  namely  the  northwestern  part  whereby  the Paleocene –Eocene  to  the  Miocene  channel  sandstone
Paleocene–Eocene Series serves as the sedimentary center and reservoirs. Therefore, it can be inferred that the northwestern
the  southeastern  part  that  was  much  impacted  by  volcanoes part has good oil and gas prospects.
(Fig.  7).  The  two  volcanic  activities  include:  (1)  Basalt
6. Conclusions
eruption  of  Somnath  Ridge  (about  70  Ma),  and  (2)  basalt
eruption  of  Deccan-Reunion  (Reunion  mantle  plume,  about (i) It is concluded that the Cretaceous may widely exist in
65  Ma).  Based  on  the  research  into  the  features  of  volcanic the  Offshore  Indus  Basin  according  to  the  comprehensive
basement of the Offshore Indus Basin, Calvès G et al. (2010) research  of  land-sea  stratigraphic  correlation,  stratigraphic
argued that (Fig. 1) the basalt eruption of Somnath Ridge was correlation  revealed  by  offshore  drilling,  and  the  latest
attributed  to  the  formation  of  the  volcanic  basement  in  the interpretation results of seismic data.
southeastern  part  of  the  Offshore  Indus  Basin,  which  is (ii)  The  northwestern  part  of  the  Offshore  Indus  Basin
mainly located in Somnath Ridge and Saurashtra High, about boasts  favorable  geological  conditions  of  the  oil  and  gas  in
305  km  long  and  155  km  wide,  and  cover  an  area  of  45000 general,  with  three  sets  of  source  rocks  and  three  sets  of
km2. The igneous basement is composed of a series of deeply- reservoirs being developed. Among them, the Cretaceous and
buried shield volcanic rocks, with a maximum thickness up to Paleocene –Eocene  source  rocks  with  high  sedimentary
Gong et al. / China Geology 4 (2020) 633−642 641

N S

1500

2000
Anne mud diapir

Bright spot
2500
Depth/m

3000

3500
Anne anticline Frances anticline

4000
0 1 km
 
Fig. 8.   Seismic profile passing through Well Anne 1x in the northwestern part of the Offshore Indus Basin (Well location see Figs. 2 and Fig. 7;
after Carmichael SM et al., 2009).

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