Rising Star Academy

Linear Algebra
By U. R. Tyagi
 CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Matrices 1-57

Chapter 2 Rank of a matrix 59-92

Chapter 3 System of linear equations 93-118

Chapter 4 Vector space 119-133

Chapter 5 Basis and dimensions 135-167

Chapter 6 More topics on vector space 169-194

Chapter 7 Linear transformations 195-221

Chapter 8 Linear transformation (continued) 223-256

Chapter 9 Eigenvalues and eigen vectors 257-324

Chapter 10 Quadratic forms 325-346

Chapter 11 Inner product spaces 347-365

Chapter 1
Matrices
Success is not where you are in life, but the obstacles you have overcome.
– Booker T. Washington

1.1 Matrices and their properties

Def. Matrix : A set of mn numbers (real or imaginary) arranged in the form of a rectangular array of
m rows and n columns is called an m  n matrix (to be read as ‘m’ by ‘n’ matrix).
An m  n matrix is usually written as
 a11 a12 a13  a1 j  a1n 
 
 a21 a22 a23  a2 j  a2 n 
        
A 
 ai1 ai 2 ai 3  aij  ain 
 
        
a  amj  amn 
 m1 am 2 am 3

In compact form the above matrix is represented by A   aij  or A  [aij ] .

mn

The numbers a11, a12,.... etc. are known as the elements of the matrix A. The element aij belongs to ith

row and j th column and is called the (i, j )th element of the matrix A  [aij ]. Thus, in the element aij

the first subscript i always denotes the number of row and the second subscript j, number of column in
which the element occurs.
Note : Unless otherwise stated, by a matrix we shall mean a complex matrix.
2 Linear Algebra

Types of matrices :
Def. Row matrix : A matrix having only one row is called a row-matrix or a row-vector.
e.g., A  1 2 1 2 is a row matrix of order 1 4 .

Def. Column matrix : A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix or a column-
vector.
3
1 2
 
e.g., A   2  and B    are column-matrices of order 3  1 and 4  1 respectively.
5
 1  
4
Def. Square matrix : A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns, say n,
is called a square matrix of order n.
A square matrix of order n is also called a n-rowed square matrix. The elements aij of a square matrix

A   aij  for which i  j , i.e., the elements a11, a22 ,...., ann are called the diagonal elements and
nn

the line along which they lie is called the principal diagonal or leading diagonal of the matrix.
 2 1 1
e.g., the matrix  3 2 5  is square matrix of order 3 in which the diagonal elements are 2, –2 and –3.
 1 5 3

Def. Identity or unit matrix : A square matrix A  [aij ]nn is called an identity or unit matrix if

(i) aij  0 for all i  j and (ii) aii  1 for all i

In other words, a square matrix each of whose diagonal element is unity and each of whose non-
diagonal elements is equal to zero is called an identity or unit matrix. The identity matrix of order n is
denoted by I n .

1 0 0 
1 0 
e.g., the matrices I 2    , I3   0 1 0  are identity matrices of order 2 and 3 respectively.
 
0 1   0 0 1 

Def. Null matrix : A matrix whose all elements are zero is called a null matrix or a zero matrix.
 0 0  0 0 0 
e.g.,  ,   are null matrices of order 2  2 and 2  3 respectively.
 0 0  0 0 0 
Def. Equality of matrices : Two matrices A  [aij ]mn and B  [bij ]rs are equal if

(i) m  r , i.e., the number of rows in A equals the number of rows in B

(ii) n  s, i.e., the number of columns in A equals the number of columns in B

(iii) aij  bij for i  1, 2,..., m and j  1, 2,..., n

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If two matrices A and B are equal, we write A  B, otherwise we write A  B . The matrices

3 2 1  3 2 1
0 0
A  x y 5 and B   1 0 5  are equal if x  1, y  0 and z  4 . Matrices 
  and
   
 0 0 
 1 1 4   1 1 z 
0 0 0
 0 0 0  are not equal, because their orders are not same.
 
Def. Addition of matrices : Let A, B be two matrices, each of order m  n . Then their sum A  B is a
matrix of order m  n and is obtained by adding the corresponding elements of A and B. Thus, if
A  [aij ]mn and B  [bij ]mn are two matrices of the same order, their sum A  B is defined to be the

matrix of order m  n such that ( A  B )ij  aij  bij for i  1, 2,..., m and j  1, 2,...., n

Note : The sum of two matrices is defined only when they are of the same order.
Properties of matrix addition :
1. Commutativity : If A and B are two m  n matrices, then A  B  B  A . i.e., matrix addition is
commutative.
2. Associativity : If A, B, C are three matrices of the same order, then ( A  B)  C  A  ( B  C ) . i.e.,
matrix addition is associative.
3. Existence of identity : The null matrix is the identity element for matrix addition, i.e.,
AO  A  O A.
4. Existence of inverse : For every matrix A  [aij ]mn there exists a matrix [ aij ]mn , denoted by

 A , such that A  ( A)  O  ( A)  A
5. Cancellation laws : If A, B, C are matrices of the same order, then
A B  AC  B  C [ Left cancellation law]
B AC A B C [ Right cancellation law]
Def. Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar (scalar multiplication) : Let A  [aij ] be an m  n

matrix and k be any number called a scalar. Then the matrix obtained by multiplying every element of
A by k is called the scalar multiple of A by k and is denoted by kA. Thus, kA  [kaij ]mn .

Properties of scalar multiplication : If A  [aij ]mn , B  [bij ]mn are two matrices and k, l are

scalars, then
(i) k ( A  B)  kA  kB (ii) (k  l ) A  kA  lA

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4 Linear Algebra

(iii) (kl ) A  k (lA)  l (kA) (iv) (k ) A  (kA)  k ( A)

(v) 1 A  A (vi) (1) A   A
Def. Subtraction of matrices : For two matrices A and B of the same order, the subtraction of matrix
B from matrix A is denoted by A  B and is defined as A  B  A  ( B) .
Def. Mulitiplication of matrices : Two matrices A and B are conformable for the product AB if the
number of columns in A (pre-multiplier) is same as the number of rows in B (post-multiplier). Thus, if
A  [aij ]mn and B  [bij ]n p are two matrices of order m  n and n  p respectively, then their

product AB is of order m  p and is defined as

n
( AB)ij   air brj  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j  ...  ainbnj
r 1

 b1 j 
 
b2 j 
 ( AB)ij  [ai1 ai 2 ....ain ]    ( ith row of A) (jth column of B)

 
 bnj 

i  1, 2,...., m and j  1, 2,...., p.

Remark : For any two matrices A and B, the following six possibilities about the products AB and BA
may hold :
(i) AB and BA both does not exist.
(ii) AB exists but BA does not exist.
(iii) BA exists but AB does not exist.
(iv) Both AB and BA exist but their orders are not same.
(v) Both AB and BA exist, their orders are same but matrices are not equal i.e., AB  BA .
(vi) Both AB and BA exist and AB  BA .
Def. Positive integral powers of a square matrix : For any square matrix, we define

(i) A1  A and (ii) An 1  An  A, where n   .

It is evident from this definition that A2  AA, A3  A2 A  ( AA) A. etc.

It can be easily seen that (i) Am  An  Am n and (ii) ( Am ) n  Amn for all m, n   .
Properties of matrix multiplication :
1. Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general.
2. Matrix multiplication is associative i.e., (AB)C=A(BC), whenever both sides are defined.
3. Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix addition i.e.,
(i) A( B  C )  AB  AC
(ii) ( A  B)C  AC  BC whenever both sides of equality are defined.
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4. If A is an m  n matrix, then I m A  A  AI n
5. The product of two matrices can be the null matrix while neither of them is the null matrix. i.e., if
0 2 1 0  0 0
A   and B    , then AB    while neither A nor B is the null matrix.
0 0  0 0 0 0
6. If A is m  n matrix and O is a null matrix, then
(i) AmnOn p  O m p (ii) O pm Amn  O pn

i.e., the product of the matrix with a null matrix is always a null matrix.
7. In the case of matrix multiplication if AB  O , then it does not necessarily imply that BA  O . Let
0 1 1 0 1 0   0 1   0 1 
A   and B    . Then, AB  O. But, BA       O. Thus,
0 0  0 0  0 0  0 0  0 0 
AB  O while BA  O .
8. Let A and B are any n  n complex matrices. If sum of elements of each row (column) of A is k1

and sum of elements of each row (column) of B is k2 , then sum of elements of each row (column)

of AB is k1k2 .

Proof : We prove the result for 2  2 matrices and then it can be generalized easily to n  n

a a 
matrices. Let A   11 12  such that a11  a12  k1 , a21  a22  k1
 a21 a22 

 b11 b12 
and B  such that b11  b12  k2 , b21  b22  k2
 b21 b22 

a b  a b a11b12  a12b22 
then AB   11 11 12 21  and
 a21b11  a22b21 a21b12  a22b22 
Sum of elements of first row of AB  a11b11  a12b21  a11b12  a12b22

 a11(b11  b12 )  a12 (b21  b22 )

 a11(k2 )  a12 (k2 )

 k2 (a11  a12 )

 k1k2

Similarly, it can be proved that the sum of elements of second row is also k1k2 .

9. Let A be a n  n complex matrix such that sum of elements of each row is k, then sum of elements

of each row of A2 is k 2 .
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6 Linear Algebra

Proof : Take B  A and k2  k1  k in above result.

10. Let A be a n  n complex matrix such that sum of elements of each row is k, then sum of elements

of each row of Am is k m , where m is a positive integer.

11. If A and B are two n  n complex matrices such that sum of elements of each row of A is k1 and

sum of elements of each row of B is k2 , then sum of all elements of AB is nk1k2 .

12. Let A be a n  n complex matrix such that sum of each row of A is k, then sum of all elements of

Am is n  k m .
13. If A and B are two square matrices of same order such that AB  BA and n is a positive integer,
n
then  A  B  can be expanded by binomial theorem i.e.,

( A  B)n  nC0 An B 0  nC1 An 1B1  ....  nCn 1 A1B n1  nCn A0 B n .

14. If A and B are two square matrices of same order such that AB  BA  0 and n is a positive
integer, then ( A  B) n  An  B n .
15. If A is an m  n matrix and B is n  p matrix, then rows of AB are the linear combination of rows
of B and columns of AB are the linear combination of columns of A.
Def. Transpose of a matrix : If A is any matrix of order m  n , then a matrix obtained from A by
inter changing its rows and columns is called the transpose of the matrix A and is denoted by A or AT
which is of order n  m.
The operation of interchanging rows with columns is called transposition. Symbolically if
A   aij  then A   a ji  i.e., (i, j)th element of A = ( j, i)th element of A.
m n n m

Properties of transpose : If A and B denote transpose of A and B respectively, then

(i) ( A)  A
(ii) ( A  B)  A  B , where A and B are conformable for addition.
(iii) (kA)  k A , where k is any number, real or complex.
(iv) ( AB)  BA , where A and B are conformable for multiplication.

(v)  A    A
n n
, A being a square matrix and n is a positive integer.

Def. Conjugate of a matrix : If A is any matrix of order m  n whose elements are complex numbers,
then a matrix obtained from A by replacing each of its elements by their corresponding complex
conjugate is called the conjugate of A and is denoted by A where A is also of same order m  n.

Symbolically, if A   aij  then A   aij  where aij is complex conjugate of aij .

m n m n

Note : If the elements of the matrix A are all real numbers then A  A .

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Properties of conjugate : If A and B denote the conjugate of A and B respectively, then

 
(i) A  A

(ii)  A  B   A  B , where A and B are conformable for addition.

(iii)  k A  k A , where k is any complex number.

(iv)  A B   A B , where A and B are conformable for multiplication.

n
(v)  An   A , where A is a square matrix and n is a positive integer.

Def. Transposed conjugate of a matrix : If A is any matrix of order m  n , then the transpose of the
conjugate of A is called transposed conjugate of A and is denoted by A or A . Symbolically if

A   aij  , then A   aij  and A   A    a ji  .

m n m n n m

Properties of transposed conjugate : If A and B denote the transposed conjugate of A and B

respectively, then

(i)  A   A

(ii)  A  B   A  B , where A and B are conformable for addition.

(iii)  kA   k A , where k is any complex number.

(iv) ( AB)  B A , where A and B are conformable for addition.

 n
(v)  An    A  , where A is any square matrix and n is a +ve integer.

Note : If k is any real number then (k A)  k A because in this case k  k

Def. Determinants : Every square matrix can be associated to an expression or a number which is
known as its determinant. If A  [aij ] is a square matrix of order n, then the determinant of A is

a11 a12  a1 j  a1n

a21 a22  a2 j  a2n
 
denoted by detA or A or,
ai1 ai 2  aij  ain
   
an1 an 2  anj  ann

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8 Linear Algebra

Determinant of a square matrix of order 1 : If A  [a11] is a square matrix of order 1, then the

determinant of A is defined as A  a11 or, a11  a11

a a 
Determinant of a square matrix of order 2 : If A   11 12  is a square matrix of order 2, then
 a21 a22 
the expression a11a22  a12a21 is defined as the determinant of A.

a11 a12
i.e., A  a11a22  a12a21
a21 a22

Thus, the determinant of a square matrix of order 2 is equal to the product of the diagonal elements
minus the product of off-diagonal elements.
 a11 a12 a13 
Determinant of a square matrix of order 3 : If A   a21 a22 a23  is a square matrix of order 3,
 a31 a32 a33 

then the expression a11a22a33  a12a23a31  a13a32a21  a11a23a32  a22 a13a31  a12 a21a33 is defined as

the determinant of A i.e.,

a11 a12 a13
A  a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

 A  (1)11 a11  (1)1 2 a12  (1)13 a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

 A  a11  a12  a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

Thus the determinant of a square matrix of order 3 is the sum of the product of elements a1 j in first

row with (1)1 j times the determinant of a 2  2 sub-matrix obtained by leaving the first row and
column passing through the element.
Remark : For the determinant of a square matrix of order 3 can be arranged in various forms to
obtain the expansion of A along any of its rows or columns. Infact, to expand A about a row or a

column we multiply each element aij in ith row with (1)i  j times the determinant of the sub-matrix

obtained by leaving the row and column passing through the element.
Determinant of a square matrix of order 4 or more : To calculate the determinant of a square
matrix of order 4 or more, we expand A about a row or a column by multiplying each element aij in

ith row with (1)i  j times the determinant of the sub-matrix obtained by leaving the row and column

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Chapter 1 Matrices 9

passing through the element.

Def. Minor : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n. Then the minor M ij of aij in A is the

determinant of the square sub-matrix of order (n  1) obtained by leaving i th row and j th column of A.

Def. Cofactor : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n. Then, the cofactor Cij of aij in A is equal

to (1)i  j times the determinant of the sub-matrix of order (n  1) obtained by leaving i th row and

j th column of A. It follows from this definition that Cij  Cofactor of aij in A  (1)i  j M ij , where

 M ij if i  j is even
M ij is minor of aij in A. Cij  
 M ij if i  j is odd

Properties of determinants :
Property 1 : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n, then the sum of the product of elements of

any row (column) with their cofactors is always equal to A or, det( A)
n n
i.e.,  aij Cij  A and  aijCij  A.
j 1 i 1

Property 2 : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n, then the sum of the product of elements of

any row (column) with the cofactors of the corresponding elements of some other row (column) is
n n
zero. i.e.,  aijCkj  0 and  aij Cik  0 .
j 1 i 1

Property 3 : The value of a determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns are interchanged.
Property 4 : If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then the value of the
determinant changes by minus sign only.
Property 5 : If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are identical, then its value is zero.
Property 6 : If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is multiplied by a constant k, then the
value of the new determinant is k times the value of the original determinant.
Property 7 : It follows from the above property that we can take out any common factor from any one
row or any one column of a given determinant.

Property 8 : Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n, then kA  k n A , because k is common from

each row of kA.

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10 Linear Algebra
Property 9 : If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is expressed as a sum of two or more
terms, then the determinant can be expressed as the sum of two or more determinants.
a1  1 b1  1 c1   1 a1 b1 c1 1 1  1
e.g., a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 c3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

Property 10 : If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is multiplied by the same constant
and then added to the corresponding elements of some other row (column), then the value of the
determinant remains same.
Property 11 : If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is zero, then its value is zero.
Property 12 : If A and B are square matrices of the same order, then AB  A B .

Property 13 : If A and B are square matrices of the same order, then A  B  A  B , in general.

1 1 1 ... 1
a1 a2 a3 ... an
Property 14 : Vandermonde determinant : a12 a22 a32 ... 
an2   a j  ai 
i j
... ... ... ... ... i , j 1,2,...,n

a1n 1 a2n 1 a3n 1 ... ann 1

Def. Singular and Non-singular Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be singular or non-singular
according as |A| = 0 or |A|  0 .

Def. Adjoint of a square Matrix : Let A =  aij  be the square matrix of order n and Aij be the
nn

corresponding cofactor of aij in |A|, then the matrix

 A11 A21 ........ An1 
A A22 ........ An 2 
  12 
B =  Aij    A ji  
...... ...... ........ ......
 
 A1n A2 n ........ Ann 
is called the adjoint of A and is denoted by adj. A. Thus the adjoint of a matrix is the transpose of the
matrix formed by the co-factors of A.
Properties of adjoint :
1. If A is any n-square matrix, then A(adj. A) = (adj. A) A = |A| In , where In is the unit matrix of order n.
2. If A is a non-singular matrix of order n , then |adj. A| = |A|n  1.
Proof : If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then A(adj.A)  A I n

Taking determinant on both sides, we get

n n1
A(adj.A)  A I n  A adjA  A  adjA  A

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 n12
3. If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then adj.(adj.A)  A .
n1
Proof : If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then adjA  A

Replacing A by adj. A, we get

n 1 n1 ( n 1)2
adj.(adj.A)  adj. A
n 1

 A   A

( n1)k
4. Generalization : If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then | adj.adj....adj.( A) |  A .

k times

5. If A is a non-singular matrix of order n and k be any scalar then adj  kA  k n 1adj  A

6. If A is a singular matrix of order n, then adj. A  0 .

7. Adjoint of a non-singular matrix is non-singular.

8. If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then adj. (adj. A) = |A|n  2A.
Proof : If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then A(adj.A)  A I n

Replacing A by adj. A, we get

n1 n 1
(adj. A)(adj.(adj. A))  adj.A I n  A In [ adj. A  A ]

Multiplying both sides by A, we get

n1
A(adj.A)(adj.(adj. A))  A A
n1
 A I n (adj.(adj. A))  A A [ A(adj. A)  A I n ]

 adj. (adj. A) = |A|n  2A

9. If A and B are two square matrices of same order then adj A  B   adj A   adj B  , in generally.

10. If A and B are two square matrices of same order then adj. (AB) = (adj. B) (adj. A)
11. If A is a square matrix then adj. A = (adj. A), where A is the transpose of matrix A.
Def. Inverse of a square matrix : Let A be a square matrix of order n. If there exists a square matrix
B of order n such that AB = BA = In , then the matrix A is said to be invertible and the matrix B is
called inverse of the matrix A and is denoted by A1.
Note : (i) If the matrix B is inverse of A then A is the inverse of B.
(ii) For the products AB and BA both to be defined and be equal it is necessary that A and B are both
square matrices of the same order. Thus non-square matrices cannot possess inverse.
Properties of inverse :
1. Inverse of a square matrix , if it exists, is unique.
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12 Linear Algebra

2. A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is non singular i.e. |A|  0.

adj. A
3. If A is a non singular matrix then A1  .
| A|
4. A singular matrix cannot have an inverse.
5. If A and B are two square matrices of order n such that A is non-singular and AB  0 , then B  0 .
Proof : Since A is non-singular i.e., A  0 , therefore A1 exists.

Now, AB  0  A1 AB  A1 0 (Pre multiplying both sides by A1 )

 B  0.
6. If A and B are two square matrices of order n such that AB  I n , then BA  I n .

Proof : We have, B  BI n  B  AB    BA  B

 B   BA  B  0

  I n  BA B  0 …….(1)

Since AB  I n , therefore AB  I n  1

 A B 1 0  B 0

Using above result, (1) becomes I n  BA  0

 BA  I n

7. Let A be a non-singular matrix with integer entries, then the necessary and sufficient condition for
A1 to be with all integer entries is that A  1 .

1
Proof : Suppose that A  1 , then since A1  adjA   adjA
A

Since A has integer entries, therefore adjA also has integer entries. Therefore, A1 has all integer
entries.
Conversely : Now suppose that A1 has all integer entries.
Since A A 1  I

 AA1  I  1

 A A 1  1

Since A and A1 both have integer entries, therefore A and A1 are integers and thus 1 can be

factored as 1 1 or  1 1 .

Thus A1  1 .

8. Reversal law for inverse : If A and B be non singular matrices then (AB)1= B1A1
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9. Generalization of Reversal law for inverse : If A1, A2,............, An be non singular matrices of same
order then ( A1 A2 ........ An ) 1  An 1 An11.......... A21 A11 .

10. If A is non singular matrix then ( Ak )1  ( A1 ) k , where k is any positive integer.
1
11. If A is a non-singular matrix then A1  .
A

12. If A is a non-singular matrix then (A)1 = (A1).

1
13. If A is a non-singular matrix then  adj. A  adj. A1

14. If A and B are invertible matrices such that kA  lB is invertible then kB 1  lA1 is also invertible.

Proof : A1  kA  lB  B 1  kB 1  lA1 .

15. If A and B are invertible matrices such that A  B is invertible then A1  B 1 is also invertible.
Proof : Directly follows from above result.
16. If A and B are square matrices of same order such that AB  BA  0 and A  B is non-singular
then Ak  B k is also non-singular where k is a positive integer.

Proof : A  B is non-singular   A  B k is non-singular  Ak  B k is non-singular.

17. If A and B are square matrices of same order such that AB  BA  0 and A  B is non-singular
then Ak  B k is also non-singular where k is an odd positive integer.
2 2
Proof : We have,  A  B    A  B  . But A  B is non-singular

  A  B 2 is non-singular   A  B 2 is non-singular

 A  B is non-singular   A  B k is non-singular
k
 Ak  B k is non-singular [ Since k is odd so  A  B   Ak  B k ]

18. The reversal law for multiplication holds for adjoint, inverse, transpose and transposed conjugate
but it does not hold for conjugate.

Def. Trace : The sum of the elements of a square matrix A lying along the principal diagonal is called
the trace of A and is denoted by tr( A) .
Properties of trace : Let A and B be any n  n complex matrices and k is any complex number, then
1. tr (kA)  k tr( A)

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14 Linear Algebra

2. tr( A  B)  tr( A)  tr( B)

3. If A be a m  n matrix and B be a n  m matrix then tr( AB)  tr( BA)
4. tr( AB)  tr( A)tr( B) , in general. In other words, tr( AB ) may or may not be equal to tr( A)tr( B) .

5. tr( A )  tr( A) , in general.

6. tr( A ')  tr( A)

 
7. tr A*   tr  A  

n n 2
8. Let A  [aij ]nn be any complex matrix, then tr( AA )  tr( A A)   aij = Sum of squares of
i 1 j 1

modulus of each element of A.

a a 
Proof : We consider 2  2 matrix first and then it can be easily generalized. Let A   11 12 
 a21 a22 

a a  a a21   a11a11  a12a12 a11a21  a12 a22 

where aij  , then AA   11 12  11   
 a21 a22  a12 a22   a21a11  a22a12 a21a21  a22a22 

 a 2 a 2 a11a21  a12a22 
11 12
 
a a  a a 2 2 
 21 11 22 12 a21  a22 
2 2 2 2
 tr( AA )  a11  a12  a21  a22

9. Let A be a n  n complex matrix, then trace of AA is a non-negative real number.

10. Let A be a n  n complex matrix, then tr( AA )  0 iff A is a zero matrix.
n n
11. Let A be a n  n real matrix, then tr( AA ')  tr( A ' A)   aij2
i 1 j 1

= Sum of squares of each element of A.

12. Let A be a n  n real matrix, then trace of AA ' (or A ' A) is a non-negative real number.
13. Let A be a n  n real matrix, then tr( AA ')  0 iff A is a zero matrix.
14. Let A and B be m  n matrices, then tr( A ' B)  tr( BA ')  tr( AB ')  tr( B ' A) .
15. There does not exist two matrices A and B such that AB  BA  I .
16. In trace cyclic rotation is allowed. e.g., tr  ABC   tr  BCA   tr  CAB 

Exercise 1.1
 3 4
1. (i) Compute the adjoint of the matrix A    and verify that  adj. A  A | A | I .
 5 7

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Chapter 1 Matrices 15

 cos   sin  0
(ii) For the matrix  sin  cos  0  , verify that  adj. A  A | A | I .

 0 0 1 

2 3 1 1 1
2. If A    , verify that (i)  adj. A  adj. A1 (ii) A  A
1 2
3 1  4 0 1
3. If A   , B  , verify that  AB   B 1 A1
 4 0  2 5
i 0  0 i 2  
4. If A    and B    , i  1 verify that (i)  AB   BA (ii)  AB   B A
 0  i   i 0 
2 3   2
5. If A    verify that  A2    A 
 5 7 
 2  3i i   i 2i  1
6. If A    , B  , verify that (i) AB  A . B (ii)  AB   B A
 6  5i 0   2  i  i 
 cos  sin  
7. If A   , then prove that
  sin  cos  

 cos n sin n 
(i) A  A  A   (ii) ( A )n   , for every positive integer n.
  sin n cos n 
8. If a is a non-zero real or complex number. Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove

a 1  n
a n na n1 
that if A    , then A    for every positive integer n.
0 a   0 a n 

0 1  n n n 1
9. If A  
0 0  , prove that (aI  bA)  a I  na bA , where I is a unit matrix of order 2 and n  0 .
 
3n1 3n1 3n1 
1 1 1  
10. If A  1 1 1 , then prove that An  3n1 3n1 3n1  for every positive integer n.
 n1 n1 n1 
1 1 1 3 3 3 


11. Let A, B be two matrices such that they commute. Show that for any positive integer n

(i) AB n  B n A (ii) ( AB )n  An B n

12. Under what conditions is the matrix equation A2  B 2  ( A  B )( A  B ) is true ?

13. If A and B are square matrices of order n, then prove that A and B will commute iff A   I and
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16 Linear Algebra

B   I commute for every scalar  .

14. Give an example of two matrices A and B such that
(i) A  O, B  O, AB  O and BA  O
(ii) A  O, B  O, AB  BA  O
15. Suppose A is invertible. Show that if AB  AC , then B  C . Give an example of a nonzero matrix
A such that AB  AC but B  C .
16. Find 2  2 invertible matrices A and B such that A  B  0 and A  B is not invertible.

1 1 0 
1 2  
17. Let A    and B   0 1 1  . (a) Find An . (b) Find B n .
 0 1   0 0 1 
5 2
18. Let A    . Find all numbers k for which A is a root of the polynomial :
0 k 
(a) f  x   x 2  7 x  10 (b) g  x   x 2  25 (c) h  x   x 2  4

1 0
19. Let B    . Find a matrix A such that A3  B .
 26 27 
20. Prove that for any A, there does not exist a matrix B such that AB  BA  I .
21. (i) Give an example of two matrices A and B such that A  B  A  B .

(ii) Give an example of two matrices A and B such that A  B  A  B .

Answers
 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
12. AB  BA 14. (i) A    , B  (ii) A    , B 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0 0
1 2  0 0  2 2 1 2  4 3
15. A    , B  , C  16. A   ; B 3 0
1 2  1 1  0 0 0 3   
 1 
1 n n(n  1) 
2
1 2n   
17. (a)   (b)  0 1 n 
0 1  0 0 
1
 
 
1 0 
18. (a) k = 2, (b) k = –5 (c) none 19.  
 2 3
1 0   1 0  1 0  0 1 
21. (i) A   , B  (ii) A   , B 
0 1   0 1 0 0 0 0

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1.2 Some special matrices

Def. Diagonal matrix : A matrix A =  aij  is called a diagonal matrix if aij = 0 for all i  j
nn

In other words, a square matrix is a diagonal matrix if its non-diagonal elements are zero.
Remark : An n  n diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are d1, d2, .........., dn can be represented
as diag. (d1, d2, .........., dn).
Properties :
1. The sum of two diagonal matrices of same order is again a diagonal matrix of that order. i.e., if
 d1   d1'   d1  d1' 
 d2   d 2'   d 2  d 2' 
A   and B    , then A  B   
        
     
 dn   d n'   d n  d n' 

2. The product of two diagonal matrices of same order is again a diagonal matrix of that order. i.e., if
 d1   d1'   d1d1' 
 d2   d 2'   d 2 d 2' 
A   and B    , then AB   
        
     
 dn   d n'   d n d n' 

 d1 
 d2 
3. The scalar multiple of a diagonal matrix is again a diagonal matrix. i.e., if A   
  
 
 dn 

 kd1 
 kd 2 
and k is any complex number, then kA   .
  
 
 kd n 

4. If A is a diagonal matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is again a diagonal matrix. i.e., if
 d1   d1m 
   m 
d2 d
A   , then A  
m 2  , where m  0 .
     
   m
 dn   d n 

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5. If A is a diagonal matrix and all the diagonal elements of A are non-zero, then A1 is also a
 d1 
 d2 
diagonal matrix. i.e., if A    , where d  0 for i  1, 2,..., n , then

i
 
 
 dn 

1/ d1 
 1/ d 2 
1
A    .
  
 
 1/ d n 

6. If A is a diagonal matrix, then A  A ' . In other words, transpose of a diagonal matrix is equal to
the matrix itself.
 d1 
 d2 
7. Pre-multiplication by a diagonal matrix : If D    is a diagonal matrix of order n
  
 
 dn 

 a11 a12 ... a1m   d1a11 d1a12 ... d1a1m 

a a22 ... a2 m  d a d 2 a22 ... d 2 a2 m 
and A   21  be any n  m matrix, then DA   2 21  ,
           
   
 an1 an 2 ... anm   d n an1 d n an 2 ... d n anm 
i.e., ith row of A is multiplied by di .

 d1 
 d2 
8. Post-multiplication by a diagonal matrix : If D    is a diagonal matrix and
  
 
 dn 

 a11 a12 ... a1n   d1a11 d 2 a12 ... d n a1n 

a a22 ... a2 n  d a d 2 a22 ... d n a2 n 
A   be any m  n matrix, then AD   1 21  ,
21

           
   
 am1 am 2 ... amn   d1am1 d 2am 2 ... d n amn 
i.e., ith column of A is multiplied by di .

9. The determinant of a diagonal matrix is equal to the product of its diagonal elements, i.e., if
 d1 
 d2 
A   is a diagonal matrix of order n, then A  d d ....d .

1 2 n
 
 
 dn 

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Chapter 1 Matrices 19

Def. Scalar matrix : A square matrix A is called a scalar matrix if A is a diagonal matrix and all
diagonal elements of A are equal.
Mathematically, A =  aij  is a scalar matrix if
nn

(i) aij  0 for all i  j (ii) aii = k, where k is any number

Properties :
1. The sum of two scalar matrices of same order is again a scalar matrix of that order. i.e., if
 k1  k2   k1  k2 
 k1   k2   k1  k 2 
A   and B    , then A  B   .
        
     
 k1   k2   k1  k2 

2. The product of two scalar matrices of same order is again a scalar matrix of that order. i.e., if
 k1  k2   k1k 2 
 k1   k2   k1k2 
A   and B    , then AB   .
        
     
 k1   k2   k1k2 

 k1 
 k1 
3. The scalar multiple of a scalar matrix is again a scalar matrix. i.e., if A    and k is
  
 
 k1 

 kk1 
 kk1 
any complex number, then kA   .
  
 
 kk1 

4. If A is a scalar matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is also a scalar matrix. i.e., if

k  k n 
   
k  , then An   kn  , where n  0 .
A
     
   n
 k  k 

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20 Linear Algebra

k 
 k 
5. If A( O) is a scalar matrix, then A1 is also a scalar matrix. i.e., if A    , where
  
 
 k

1/ k 
 1/ k 
k  0 , then A1   .
  
 
 1/ k 
6. If A is a scalar matrix, then A  A ' . In other words, transpose of a scalar matrix is equal to the
matrix itself.
7. The determinant of a scalar matrix is equal to the product of its diagonal elements. i.e., if
k 
 k 
A  is a scalar matrix of order n, then A  k n .
  
 
 k
8. Scalar matrices are the only matrices which commute with every square matrix of its order.
Def. Upper triangular matrix : A matrix is an upper triangular matrix if all elements below the principal
diagonal are zero. Mathematically, A =  aij  is an upper triangular matrix if aij  0 for all i  j .
nn

Def. Lower triangular matrix : A matrix is called lower triangular matrix if all elements above the
principal diagonal are zero. Mathematically, A =  aij  is a lower triangular matrix if aij  0 for all i  j .
nn

Def. Triangular matrix : A matrix which is either upper triangular or lower triangular is called a
triangular matrix.

Properties :
1. If A and B are two upper (lower) triangular matrices of same order, then A  B is also an upper
(lower) triangular matrix.
2. If A and B are two upper (lower) triangular matrices of same order, then AB is also an upper (lower)
triangular matrix.
3. If A is an upper (lower) triangular matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is also an upper
(lower) triangular matrix.
4. If A is an upper (lower) triangular matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is also an upper
(lower) triangular matrix. Further, if d1 , d 2 ,..., d n are the diagonal elements of a triangular matrix,

then d1n , d 2m ,..., d nm are the diagonal elements of Am .

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5. If A is an upper (lower) triangular matrix and all the diagonal elements of A are non-zero, then A1
is also an upper (lower) triangular matrix.
6. If A is an upper (lower) triangular matrix, then A ' is a lower (upper) triangular matrix.
7. The determinant of upper (lower) triangular matrix is equal to the product of its diagonal elements.
8. The trace of upper (lower) triangular matrix is equal to the sum of its diagonal elements.
9. Every diagonal matrix is both upper and lower triangular.
Def. Super upper triangular matrix : A matrix is said to be super upper triangular matrix if all
elements below and on the principal diagonal are zero. Mathematically, A =  aij  is a super upper
nn

triangular matrix if aij  0 for all i  j .

Def. Super lower triangular matrix : A matrix is said to be super lower triangular matrix if all
elements above and on the principal diagonal are zero. Mathematically, A =  aij  is a super lower
nn

triangular matrix if aij  0 for all i  j .

Properties :
1. If A and B are two super upper (lower) triangular matrices of same order, then A  B is also a super
upper (lower) triangular matrix.
2. If A and B are two super upper (lower) triangular matrices of same order, then AB is also a super
upper (lower) triangular matrix.
3. If A is a super upper (lower) triangular matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is also a super
upper (lower) triangular matrix.
4. If A is a super upper (lower) triangular matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is also a super
upper (lower) triangular matrix.
5. Inverse of a super upper (lower) triangular matrix does not exist.
6. If A is a super upper (lower) triangular matrix, then A ' is a super lower (upper) triangular matrix.
7. The determinant of super upper (lower) triangular matrix is zero.
8. The trace of super upper (lower) triangular matrix is zero.
Def. Backward diagonal matrix : A matrix A =  aij  is called a backward diagonal matrix
nn

if aij = 0 for all i, j such that i  j  n  1 .

Properties :
1. The sum of two backward diagonal matrices of same order is again a backward diagonal matrix of
that order.
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0 .. 0 d1  0 .. 0 d1'   0 .. 0 d1  d1' 
0 .. d 2 0  0 .. d 2' 0   0 .. d 2  d 2' 0 
i.e., if A    and B    , then A  B   
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
     
d n .. 0 0  d n' .. 0 0  d n  d n' .. 0 0 

2. The product of two backward diagonal matrices may or may not be a backward diagonal matrix.
However, the product of two backward diagonal matrices of same order is always a diagonal
matrix of that order.
0 .. 0 d1  0 .. 0 d1'   d1d n ' 
0 .. d 2 0  0 .. d 2' 0   d 2 d n1' 
i.e., if A    and B    , then AB   .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..    
     
d n .. 0 0  d n' .. 0 0  d n d1' 

3. The scalar multiple of a backward diagonal matrix is again a backward diagonal matrix. i.e., if
0 .. 0 d1   0 .. 0 kd1 
0 .. d 2 0   0 .. kd 2 0 
A   and k is any complex number, then kA    .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
   
d n .. 0 0  kd n .. 0 0 

4. If A is a backward diagonal matrix, then the positive integral power of A may or may not be a
backward diagonal matrix. However, the positive odd integral power of A is a backward diagonal

0 .. 0 d1 
0 .. d 2 0
matrix while the positive even integral power of A is a diagonal matrix. i.e., if A   
 .. .. .. .. 
 
d n .. 0 0

 0 .. 0 d1m1d nm  (d1d n ) m 
   
0 .. d 2m1d nm1 0  (d 2 d n 1 )m
then A 2 m 1
 and A  
2m ,
 .. .. .. ..    
 m1 m   
 d n d1 .. 0 0   (d n d1 ) m 

where m  0 .
5. If A is a backward diagonal matrix and all the backward diagonal elements of A are non-zero, then
0 .. 0 d1 
0 .. d 2 0
A 1 is also a backward diagonal matrix. i.e., if A    , where d  0 for i  1, 2,..., n ,
i
 .. .. .. .. 
 
d n .. 0 0

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Chapter 1 Matrices 23

 0 .. 0 1/ d n 
 0 .. 1/ d n1 0 
then A  
1 .
 .. .. .. .. 
 
1/ d1 .. 0 0 

6. If A is a backward diagonal matrix, then A ' is also a backward diagonal matrix.

0 .. 0 d1 
0 .. d 2 0 n
7. If A    is a backward diagonal matrix of order n , then det  A   1  2  d  d  d
1 2 n
 .. .. .. .. 
 
d n .. 0 0

0 .. 0 d1 
0 .. d 2 0  0 if n is even
8. If A    is a backward diagonal matrix of order n,then tr( A)  
 .. .. .. ..  d n1 if n is odd
 2
 
d n .. 0 0

Def. Backward scalar matrix : A matrix A =  aij  is called a backward scalar matrix if
nn

k if i  j  n  1
aij  
0 if i  j  n  1
Properties :
1. The sum of two backward scalar matrices of same order is again a backward scalar matrix of that order.
0 .. 0 k1  0 .. 0 k2   0 .. 0 k1  k2 
0 .. k1 0 0 .. k2 0  0 .. k1  k2 0 
i.e., if A    and B    , then A  B   .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
     
 k1 .. 0 0 k2 .. 0 0  k1  k2 .. 0 0 

2. The product of two backward scalar matrices may or may not be a backward scalar matrix. However,
the product of two backward scalar matrices of same order is always a scalar matrix of that order.
0 .. 0 k1  0 .. 0 k2   k1k 2 
0 .. k1 0  0 .. k2 0   k1k2 
i.e., if A    and B    , then AB   .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..    
     
 k1 .. 0 0 k2 .. 0 0  k1k2 

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24 Linear Algebra
3. The scalar multiple of a backward scalar matrix is again a backward scalar matrix. i.e., if
0 .. 0 k1  0 .. 0 kk1 
0 .. k1 0  0 .. kk1 0 
A  and k is any complex number, then kA    .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
   
 k1 .. 0 0  kk1 .. 0 0 

4. If A is a backward scalar matrix, then the positive integral power of A may or may not be a
backward scalar matrix. However, the positive odd integral powers of A is a backward scalar
0 .. 0 k
0 .. k 0 
matrix while the positive even integral power of A is scalar matrix. i.e., if A  
 .. .. .. .. 
 
k .. 0 0

 0 .. 0 k 2 m1  k 2m 
 2 m 1   2m 
0 .. k 0  k
then A2 m1   and A2 m    , where m  0 .
 .. .. .. ..    
 2 m1   
k .. 0 0   k 2m 

5. If A( O) is a backward scalar matrix, then A1 is also a backward scalar matrix. i.e., if

0 .. 0 k  0 .. 0 1/ k 
0 .. k 0   0 .. 1/ k 0 
A , where k  0 , then A1  
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
   
k .. 0 0 1/ k .. 0 0 
6. If A is a backward scalar matrix, then A ' is also a backward scalar matrix.

0 .. 0 k
0 .. k 0  n
7. If A   is a backward scalar matrix of order n , then det  A   1  2  k n
 .. .. .. .. 
 
k .. 0 0

0 .. 0 k
0 .. k 0  0 if n is even
8. If A   is a backward scalar matrix of order n,then tr( A)  
 .. .. .. ..  k if n is odd
 
k .. 0 0

Exercise 1.2
4 21 1 4
1. Find all real triangular matrices A such that A2  B , where (a) B   (b) B   .
0 25 0 9

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Chapter 1 Matrices 25

1 8 5
2. Let B   0 9 5  . Find a triangular matrix A with positive diagonal entries such that A2  B .
 0 0 4 

3. Using only the elements 0 and 1, find the number of 3  3 matrices that are :
(a) diagonal (b) upper triangular (c) non-singular and upper triangular. Generalize to
n  n matrices.
4. Let Dk  kI , the scalar matrix belonging to the scalar k, show that :

(a) Dk A  kA (b) BDk  kB (c) Dk  Dk '  Dk k ' (d) Dk Dk '  Dkk '

5. Suppose AB  C , where A and C are upper triangular.

(a) Find 2  2 nonzero matrices A, B, C where B is not upper triangular.
(b) Suppose A is also invertible. Show that B must also be upper triangular.
6. Give an example of two matrices A and B such that AB  BA but neither A nor B is a scalar matrix.
7. How many n  n complex diagonal matrices A are there which satisfy A5  A .

8. How many n  n real diagonal matrices A are there which satisfy A5  A .

Answers
1 2 1
 2 3  2 3  2 7   2 7 
1. (a)  ,  ,  ,   (b) none 2.  0 3 1 
 0 5   0 5  0 5   0 5   0 0 2

3. All entries below the diagonal must be 0 to be upper triangular, and all diagonal entries must be 1
to be non singular. (a) 8 ; 2n (b) 26 ; 2n n1 / 2 (c) 23 ; 2n  n1 / 2 .

1 1  1 2 4 6 1 2   2 2
5. (a) A    , B , C 0 0 6. A    ,B 
0 0 3 4   3 1   3 2
7. 5n 8. 3n
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.3 Symmetric, skew-symmetric, hermitian and skew-hermitian matrices

Def. Symmetric matrix : A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if A = A. or

A square matrix A =  aij  said to be symmetric if aij = aji for all i and j.

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a h g  1 1 i 2i 
1 3  
Examples :   , h b f, 1  i 2 3  2i  .
  
3 4  
g f c   2  i 3  2 i 3 

Def. Skew-symmetric matrix : A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if A =  A

or
A square matrix A   aij  is said to be skew-symmetric if aij   a ji for all i and j.

0 a b  0 i 2 
0  4   
Examples :   ,  a 0 c  ,   i 0 1 i .
4 0 
  
  b  c 0    2 1  i 0 
Properties :
1. The diagonal elements of a symmetric matrix are arbitrary.
2. The diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are all zero.
3. If A is a square matrix, then
(i) A + A is symmetric (ii) A  A is skew-symmetric
4. If A is any square matrix, then AA and AA are both symmetric.
5. If A is symmetric then kA is symmetric, where k is any number real or complex.
6. If A is skew-symmetric then kA is skew-symmetric, where k is any number real or complex.
7. If A and B are symmetric matrices of same order, then
(i) A  B, A  B , AB  BA are symmetric (ii) AB  BA is skew-symmetric
(iii) BAB, ABA are symmetric.
8. If A and B are skew-symmetric matrices of same order, then
(i) A  B, A  B, AB  BA are skew-symmetric (ii) AB + BA is symmetric
(iii) BAB, ABA are skew-symmetric.
9. If A and B are symmetric matrices of same order, then AB is symmetric iff AB = BA.
10. If A and B are square matrices of same order then BAB is symmetric or skew-symmetric according
as A is symmetric or skew-symmetric.
11. If A is a symmetric matrix then An is also symmetric for all positive integers n.
12. If A is a skew-symmetric matrix then An is symmetric if n is a positive even integer and An is
skew–symmetric if n is positive odd integer.
13. If A is a non-singular and symmetric matrix then adj. A is also symmetric.
14. If A is a skew-symmetric matrix of order n, then adj. A is symmetric or skew-symmetric according
as n is odd or even.
15. Determinant of a skew-symmetric matrix of odd order is always zero.
16. Determinant a skew-symmetric matrix of even order with integral entries is always a perfect square.

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17. Zero matrix is the only matrix which is both symmetric and skew-symmetric.
18. Every square matrix is uniquely expressible as the sum of a symmetric matrix and a
skew-symmetric matrix.
Def. Hermitian matrix : A square matrix A is said to be hermitian if A  = A
or
A square matrix A   aij  is said to be Hermitian if aij  a ji for all i and j.

 1 2  i 1  2i 
 1 3  i 
Examples :   , 2i 2 3i  .
 
3  i 2 
1  2i 3i 3 

Def. Skew-hermitian matrix : A square matrix A is said to be skew-hermitian if A   A

or
A square matrix A   aij  is said to be skew-hermitian if aij   a ji for all i and j.

 3i 1  i 2  3i 
 0 3  5i  
Examples :   , 1  i 0 5i 
 
 3  5i 2i 
 2  3i 5  i 4i 

Properties :
1. The diagonal element of a hermitian matrix are purely real.
2. The diagonal elements of a skew-hermitian matrix are either zero or purely imaginary.
3. If A is a square matrix, then
(i) A + A  is hermitian (ii) A  A  is skew-hermitian
4. If A is any square matrix, then AA and A A are both hermitian
5. If A is hermitian then kA is hermitian, where k is any real number.
6. If A is skew-hermitian then kA is skew-hermitian, where k is any real number.
7. If A is hermitian then iA is skew-hermitian.
8. If A is skew-hermitian then iA is hermitian.
9. If A and B are hermitian matrices of same order , then
(i) A  B, A  B , AB  BA are hermitian (ii)AB  BA is skew-hermitian
(iii) BAB, ABA are hermitian.
10. If A and B are skew-hermitian matrices of same order, then
(i) A  B, A  B, AB  BA are skew-hermitian (ii) AB + BA is hermitian

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(iii) BAB,ABA are skew-hermitian
11. If A and B are hermitian matrices of same order , then AB is hermitian if and only if AB = BA.
12. If A and B are square matrices of same order then B  AB is hermitian or skew-hermitian according
as A is hermitian or skew-hermitian.
13. If A is a hermitian matrix then An is also hermitian for all positive integers n.
14. If A is a skew-hermitian matrix then An is hermitian or skew-hermitian according as n is a positive
even integer or an odd integer.
15. Determinant of a Hermitian matrix is always real.
16. Determinant of a Skew-Hermitian matrix of
(i) Even order is always real (ii) Odd order is either zero or purely imaginary
17. Every square matrix is uniquely expressible as the sum of a hermitian matrix and a skew-hermitian
matrix.
18. Every square matrix A can be uniquely expressed as A  P  iQ where P and Q are hermitian
matrices.
19. Every hermitian matrix A can be written as A  B  iC where B is real symmetric and C is real
skew- symmetric.
20. Every skew hermitian matrix A can be written as A  B  iC where B is real skew-symmetric and
C is real symmetric.
21. A real matrix is hermitian iff it is symmetric.
22. A non-real symmetric matrix cannot be hermitian.
23. A non-real hermitian matrix cannot be symmetric.
24. A real matrix is skew hermitian iff it is skew symmetric.
25. A non-real skew symmetric matrix cannot be skew hermitian.
26. A non-real skew hermitian matrix cannot be skew symmetric.
4 5 3
Example 1 : Express the matrix A =   2 7 8 as the sum of a symmetric and skew symmetric

  4  6 5

matrix.
4 5 3 4  2  4
Solution : Let A   2 7 8 then A   5 7  6 
 
   
  4  6 5  3 8 5 

 8 3 1 0 7 7
Now, A  A   3 14 2  and A  A   7 0 14 

   
 1 2 10    7 14 0 

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Chapter 1 Matrices 29

 3 1  7 7
 4    0
2 2 2 2
   
1 3 1 7
 (A A )  
 7 1  and ( A  A )  
 0 7
2  2  2  2 
 1   7 
 1 5   7 0
 2   2 
1 1 1 1
Since A = ( A  A)  ( A  A) where  A  A  is symmetric and  A  A  is skew-symmetric.
2 2 2 2
 3 1  7 7
 4    0
4 5 3 2 2 2 2
   
3 7
Therefore   2 7 8  
 7 1  
 0 7
 2   2 
  4  6 5  1   7 
 1 5   7 0
 2   2 

Exercise 1.3
2 x 3 7 6 2 x 
1. Find x, y, z such that A is symmetric, where (a) A   4 5 y (b) A   y
 z 2  .
  
 z 1 7   x 2 5 

2. Suppose A and B are symmetric. Show that the following are also symmetric :
(a) A  B (b) kA, for any scalar k (c) A2
(d) An , for n  0 (e) f  A  , for any polynomial f  x  .

 1 7 1 
3. Express the matrix  2 3 4  as a sum of a symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices.
 5 0 5 

1 0 5 3
 2 1 6 1 
4. Express A   as a sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix.
3 2 7 1
 
 4 4 2 0

 3 x  2i yi 
5. Find real numbers x, y, z such that A is hermitian, where A   3  2i 0 1  zi  .

 yi 1  xi 1 

6. Suppose A is a complex matrix. Show that AA and A A are hermitian.

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30 Linear Algebra

7. Let A be a square matrix. Show that (a) A  A is hermitian, (b) A  A is skew-hermitian, (c)
A  B  C , where B is hermitian and C is skew hermitian.
8. Express the following matrices as a sum of hermitian and skew-hermitian matrices :
 2 1  i 2  3i   7  4i 2 3  5i 

(i)  2  i 1  2i i  
(ii)  3 i 6i 1 4i 
 
 2  4i 3  2i 4  5i    3i 2  i 3 

9. Let A and B are two hermitian matrices and A2  B 2  O then show that A  O and B  O .

Answers
1. (a) x  4 , y 1, z  3 , (b) x  0, y   6, z any real number.

 7   1
 9   5   1 1 4
2  0 1 1  
2
 1 2
3  0 2
2  
3
 
5 

     1 1 4   1 0 2
9 5  2   2 
3.  3 2  
 0 2 4. 
2   2 
4 1  
 1 2 3 
3 4 7  0
 2 5   2
 2 0   2  2 
    7 3 1  1 5 3 
   0     0 
2 2 2  2 2 2 
1 1
5. x  3, y  0, z  3 7. (c) Hint : Let B 
2
 A  A  and C   A  A 
2
 4 3  2i 4  7i  0 1 i 
1  1
8. (i)  3  2i 2 3i  1 4i 3  3i 
2  2 
 4  7i 3  i 8   i 3  3i 10i 

 14 2  3i 3  8i   8i 2  3i 3  2i 
1  1
(ii)  2  3i 0 3  3i  2  3i 12i 1  5i 
2  2  
 3  8i 3  3i 6   3  2i 1  5i 0 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.4 Orthogonal and Unitary matrices

Def. Orthogonal Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AA  AA  I . It is clear
from the definition that if the matrix A is orthogonal then A1  A .
 cos   sin  0 1 0 0 
 cos   sin   1 0  
Examples :  ,  0 1 ,  sin  cos  0  ,  0 1 0  ,
 sin  cos     0
  
 0 1   0 0 1

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 cos  0 0 sin   1 0 0 0 
 0 cos  sin  0   0 0 1 0 
 ,   .
 0  sin  cos  0   0 1 0 0 
   
  sin  0 0 cos    0 0 0 1
Remark : In a matrix, if every row and column contains exactly one element from the set {1, 1} and
all other elements are zero, then the matrix is orthogonal.
Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two orthogonal matrices need not be orthogonal. i.e., if A and B are two orthogonal
matrices of same order, then A  B may or may not be orthogonal.
(ii) If A and B are two orthogonal matrices of same order, then A  B is orthogonal iff
AB ' BA ' I  O
Proof : Since A and B are orthogonal, therefore we have AA '  I , BB '  I
Suppose, AB ' BA ' I  O
Now, ( A  B)( A  B) '  ( A  B)( A ' B ')  AA ' BA ' AB ' BB '  I  BA ' AB ' I  I
 A  B is orthogonal.
Conversely : suppose A  B is orthogonal. i.e., ( A  B)( A  B) '  I
 AA ' AB ' BA ' BB '  I
 I  AB ' BA ' I  I
 AB ' BA ' I  O
2. The product of two orthogonal matrices of same order is again an orthogonal matrix of that order.
3. Generalization : If A1, A2 ,..........., An be n orthogonal matrices of same order then their product
A1 A2.......... An is also orthogonal.
4. (i) The scalar multiple of orthogonal matrix need not be orthogonal. i.e., if A is an orthogonal
matrix and k is any complex number, then kA may or may not be orthogonal.
(ii) If A is an orthogonal matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is orthogonal iff k  1 .
Proof : Since A is an orthogonal matrix, therefore we have AA '  I
Now, (kA)(kA) '  k 2 AA '  k 2 I  I iff k 2  1 i.e., k  1
5. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then any positive integral power of A is also an orthogonal matrix.
6. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then A1 is also orthogonal.
7. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then A is also orthogonal.

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32 Linear Algebra
8. The determinant of an orthogonal matrix is 1 .
OR
The absolute value of determinant of an orthogonal matrix is unity.
9. An orthogonal matrix is always non-singular.
Def. Proper and Improper orthogonal matrix : An orthogonal matrix is said to be proper or
improper according as |A| = 1 or |A| =  1
10. If A is an orthogonal matrix with |A| =1, then each element of A is equal to its cofactor .
11. If A is a orthogonal matrix with |A| =  1, then each element of A is equal to negative of its cofactor.
Def. Orthonormal set : A set of vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn  is said to be an orthonormal set if  vi , v j   0

for i  j and  vi , vi  1 for all i . e.g. the set  1,0,0 ,  0,  1,0  ,  0,0,  1 is an orthonormal set.
12. A matrix is orthogonal iff its rows (columns) form an orthonormal set.
13. The number of orthogonal matrices of order n  n with entries from the set 0,1, 1 is 2n n !
n
 cos  sin    cos n  sin n 
14.   where n is a positive integer.
 sin  cos   sin n cos n 
n
 cos sin  0  cos n sin n 0
15.  sin   cos 0    sin n  cos n 0  where n is a positive integer.
 0 0 1   0 0 1 

1 2  2 
1 
Example 1 : Show that  2 1 2  is orthogonal. Also find the inverse.
3 
 2  2 1 

1 2  2 1 2 2
1 1
Solution : Let A 2 1 2 Then A  2 1  2
3   3  
 2  2 1    2 2 1 

 1 2 2   1 2 2 9 0 0 1 0 0
1 1
and AA  2 1 2  2 1 2  0 9 0 = 0 1 0  I
9    9   
 2 2 1   2 2 1  0 0 9   0 0 1 

 1 2 2
1
Similarly AA = I. Hence A is orthogonal and A  A '   2 1
1 2 
3 
 2 2 1

Def. Unitary Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be unitary if AA  A A  I . It is clear from the

definition that if a matrix A is unitary then A1  A .

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Chapter 1 Matrices 33

 i 0 ... 0   0 ... 0 i 
i    
1 1  i 1  i   e 0   0 i ... 0   0 ... i 0 
Examples : ,  , ,
2 1  i 1  i   0 e  i             
   
 0 0 ... i   i ... 0 0 
Note : If each element of the matrix A is real, then A  A

 A   A  '  A  A A  A A  I  A A  AA  I

So, a unitary matrix whose elements are all real, is an orthogonal matrix.
Remark : In a matrix, if every row and column contains exactly one element from the set {ei :   }
(i.e., unit modulus) and all other elements are zero, then the matrix is unitary.
Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two unitary matrices need not be unitary. i.e., if A and B are two unitary matrices
of same order, then A  B may or may not be unitary.
(ii) If A and B are two unitary matrices of same order, then A  B is unitary iff
AB  BA  I  O
Proof : Since A and B are unitary, therefore we have AA  I , BB  I

Suppose, AB  BA  I  O

Now, ( A  B)( A  B)  ( A  B)( A  B  )

 AA  BA  AB   BB 
 I  BA  AB   I
I
 A  B is unitary.
Conversely : suppose A  B is unitary. i.e., ( A  B)( A  B)  I

 AA  AB  BA  BB  I

 I  AB  BA  I  I
 AB  BA  I  O
2. The product of two unitary matrices of same order is again a unitary matrix of that order.
3. Generalization : If A1 , A2 ,..., An be n unitary matrices of same order then their product A1 A2 ...An

is also unitary.
4. (i) The scalar multiple of unitary matrix need not be unitary. i.e., if A is a unitary matrix and k is
any complex number, then kA may or may not be unitary.

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34 Linear Algebra
2
(ii) If A is a unitary matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is unitary iff k  1 .

Proof : Since A is a unitary matrix, therefore we have AA  I

2 2
Now, (kA)(kA)  kkAA  k I  I iff k  1 .

5. If A is a unitary matrix, then any positive integral power of A is also a unitary matrix.
6. If A is a unitary matrix, then A1 is also unitary.
7. If A is a unitary matrix, then A is also unitary.
8. The conjugate of a unitary matrix is unitary.
9. The transposed conjugate of a unitary matrix is unitary.
10. The determinant of a unitary matrix has absolute value 1. In other words, if A is a unitary matrix
a  ib
then A  ei ,    or A  where a 2  b 2  0 .
2 2
a b
11. A unitary matrix is always a non-singular matrix.
12. A real matrix is unitary iff it is orthogonal.
13. A non-real orthogonal matrix cannot be unitary.
14. A non-real unitary matrix cannot be orthogonal.
1  1  2i  4  2i 
Example 2 : Show that   is unitary and find A1.
5  2  4i  2  i 

1  1  2i  4  2i 
Solution : Given that A  
5  2  4i  2  i 

1  1  2i 2  4i  1  1  2i 2  4i 
Then A  and  A '   A
5   4  2i 2  i   
5   4  2i 2  i 

1  1  2i  4  2i   1  2i 2  4i  1 1  4  16  4 0 
Now A A    4  2i  2  i  = 25 
25  2  4i 2  i     0 4  16  4  1

1  25 0  1 0
=  I
25  0 25  0 1 

1   1  2i 2  4i 
Similarly AA = I . Hence A is unitary and hence A1    [ A1  A ]
5   4  2i  2  i 

Def. Normal Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be normal if AA  A A .

Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two normal matrices need not be a normal matrix. i.e., if A and B are two normal
matrices of same order, then A  B may or may not be a normal matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two normal matrices of same order such that AB  B A and A B  BA , then
A  B is also a normal matrix.

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Proof : Since A and B are two normal matrices, therefore we have AA  A A and BB  B B .
Now, ( A  B)( A  B)  ( A  B)( A  B  )  AA  BA  AB  BB

 A A  A B  B A  B B  A ( A  B)  B ( A  B)

 ( A  B )( A  B)  ( A  B ) ( A  B )
 A  B is a normal matrix.
2. (i) The product of two normal matrices need not be normal. i.e., if A and B are two normal
matrices of same order, then AB may or may not be a normal matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two normal matrices of same order such that AB  B A and A B  BA , then
AB is also a normal matrix.
Proof : Since A and B are two normal matrices, therefore we have AA  A A and BB  B B .
Now, ( AB)( AB)  ( AB)( B A )  A( BB ) A  AB BA  B ( AA ) B  B A AB  ( AB) ( AB)
 AB is a normal matrix.
3. The scalar multiple of normal matrix is again a normal matrix.
4. If A is a normal matrix, then any positive integral power of A is also a normal matrix.
5. If A is a normal matrix, then A is also a normal matrix.
6. Every real symmetric, real skew-symmetric, hermitian, skew-hermitian, real orthogonal and
unitary matrix is normal.
7. A normal matrix need not be symmetric, skew-symmetric, hermitian, skew-hermitian, orthogonal
or unitary.

Exercise 1.4
1. Check whether the following matrices are proper orthogonal or improper orthogonal :
3 4   12 5
5 5   13 13  3 5 
(i)   (ii)   (iii) 1 2 
4 
3   5 12   
 5 5   13 13 

2. Prove that a matrix A  [a ] of order 1 is orthogonal if and only if a  1 .

a b   a b a b 
3. Show that the matrix A    is orthogonal iff A =   or   where a2 + b2 = 1.
c d   b a  b a 
4. If A is an orthogonal matrix and if B  AP, where P is non-singular, then prove that PB1 is
orthogonal.
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5. If A is symmetric and P is orthogonal, then show that P1AP is symmetric.

6. If A and B commute, then prove that CAC and CBC commute if C is orthogonal.
1
7. If A is skew-symmetric and I  A is non-singular, then prove that B   I  A  I  A is

orthogonal.
8. Show that the following matrices are unitary and hence find their inverse :
 1 i 
 0 i   2 2 
(i) i 0  (ii)  
   i 1 
  2 
2 

1  i i 3 i 
 2 3 2 15 

1  1 1 i  1 1 4  3i 
(iii)  
3 1  i 1 
(iv) 2 3 2 15 
 
 1 i 5i 
 2 
3 2 15 

 a  ic b  id 
9. Show that the matrix A   is unitary if and only if a 2  b 2  c 2  d 2  1 .
b  id a  ic 

10. Show that if A is hermitain and P is unitary, then P 1 AP is hermitian.

11. If A is unitary and hermitian matrix, then show that A is involutory  A2  I  .

12. If A is unitary and B = AP where P is non-singular then PB1 is unitary.

13. If A is skew hermitian and (A  I) is non-singular then (A + I) (A  I)1 is unitary.
14. Show that the following matrices are unitary :
i 0 0 0
 i 0 0   i 0 0  i 0 0 0 0 0 0 i 
1 0 
(i)  0 i 0  (ii)  0 1 0  (iii)  0 0 1 
  (iv)  (v)  0 1 0 
 0 i 0 0
 0 0 i   0 0 1   0 i 0     i 0 0 
0 0 0 1
15. What do you notice in above matrices.
16. Show that the following matrices are orthogonal and hence find their inverse.
1 2 2
3 4 3 3 3
5  
5 2 1 2
(i)   (ii) 
4 3 3 3 3
  
 5 5  2 2 1

 3 3 3 

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 1 1 1 
 
3 6 2 
 1 2 2  
1  1 2 
(iii) 2 1 2  (iv)   0 
3   3 6
 2 2 1  
 1 1 1 
 3 6 2 
17. Find a 2  2 orthogonal matrix P whose first row is a multiple of (a) (3, –4) (b) (1, 2)
18. Find a 3  3 orthogonal matrix P whose first two rows are multiple of :
(a) (1,2,3) and (0,–3,2) (b) (1,3,1) and (1,0,–1)
19. Suppose A and B are orthogonal matrices. Show tht AT , A1 , AB are also orthogonal.

1 1 1 
3 4  1 2 
20. Which of the following matrices are normal ? A    , B , C  0 1 1  .
4 3 2 3   
 0 0 1 

21. Determine which of the following matrices are unitary :

 i  3
   1 i 1  i 
1 1  i 1  i  1
A 2 2 ,
B  , C i 1 1 i 
 3 i  2 1  i 1  i  2 
   1  i 1  i 0 
 2 2 
22. Suppose A and B are unitary. Show that A , A1 , AB are unitary.

3  4i 1   1 0 
23. Determine which of the following matrices are normal A    and B   .
 i 2  3i  1  i i 

Answers
1. (i) Improper orthogonal. (ii) Proper orthogonal (iii) The matrix is not orthogonal.
 1 i 1 1 
  
 1 i 
 2 2 2 
0  i  2 2  1  1 1 i  i 1 i 
8. (i) i (ii)   (iii) (iv)  
 0   i 1  
3 1  i  1  3 3 3 
 
  2 
2   3i 4  3i 5i 
 2 15 
2 15 2 15 

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 1 1 1 
 3 3 3 
3 4 1 2 2   1 2 2  
5 5 1 1  1 2 1 
16. (i)   (ii)  2 1 2  (iii) 2 1 2  (iv)  
4 3 3 3   6 6 6
  2 2 1   2 2 1  
 5 5   1 1 
 2 0
2 

3 4  1 2 
   5
5 5 5 
17. (a)   , (b) 
4 3   2 1 
 5 5   5 5 


 1 2 3   1 3 1 
  
 14 14 14   11 11 11 
 3 2   1 1 
18. (a)  0 (b)  0
 13 13  2 2 
 
 13 2 3   3 2 3 
 182 182 182   22 22 22 

20. A, C 21. A, B 23. A
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.5 Idempotent, Involutory and Nilpotent matrices

Def. Idempotent matrix : A square matrix A is said to be idempotent matrix if A2  A .

1 1 1  2 1 1
1 1 3 3 3  3  3  3
2    
1 k  2  , 1 1 1  1 2  1 
Examples : Zero matrix, identity matrix,  ,   ,
0 0  1 1 3 3 3  3 3 3
 2    
2   1 1 1  1  1 2 
 3 3 3   3 3 3 
1
Remark : The matrix A  [aij ]nn where aij  for all i, j and n  2 is an idempotent matrix. i.e.,
n
1 1 1  1 1 1 
n ...  1  ...  
n n n n n
   
1 1
...
1  
1
1
1
... 
1 
n n n  is always an idempotent matrix and I  A   n n n  is also an
   
         
1 1 1  1 1 1
 ...    ... 1  
n n n  n n n
idempotent matrix.

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Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two idempotent matrices need not be an idempotent matrix. i.e., if A and B are two
idempotent matrices, then A  B may or may not be an idempotent matrix.
(ii) If A and B are idempotent matrices of same order, then A  B is idempotent iff AB  BA  O .
Proof : We have A2  A, B 2  B
Suppose AB  BA  O .
Now, ( A  B) 2  A2  AB  BA  B 2  A2  B 2  A  B
 A  B is idempotent.
Conversely : suppose A  B is idempotent. i.e., ( A  B)2  A  B  A2  AB  BA  B 2  A  B
 A  AB  BA  B  A  B
 AB  BA  O ……(1)
Pre-multiplying (1) both sides by A, we get AAB  ABA  O  AB  ABA  O ……(2)
Post-multiplying (1) both sides by A,we get ABA  BAA  O  ABA  BA  O ……(3)
By (2) and (3), we get AB  BA ……(4)
By (1) and (4), we get AB  BA  O .
2. (i) The product of two idempotent matrices need not be an idempotent matrix. i.e., if A and B are
two idempotent matrices, then AB may or may not be an idempotent matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two idempotent matrices such that AB  BA , then the product AB is also idempotent.
Proof : Since A and B are idempotent matrices, therefore we have A2  A, B 2  B

Now, ( AB) 2  ABAB  AABB  A2 B 2  AB ( AB  BA )

 AB is idempotent.
3. (i) The scalar multiple of an idempotent matrix need not be an idempotent matrix. i.e., if A is an
idempotent matrix and k is any complex number, then kA may or may not be an idempotent matrix.
(ii) If A is an idempotent matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is an idempotent matrix iff
k  0,1 .

Proof : Since A is an idempotent matrix, therefore we have A2  A

Now, (kA) 2  k 2 A2  k 2 A  kA iff k 2  k i.e., k  0,1 .
4. If A is an idempotent matrix, then the positive integral powers of A is also an idempotent matrix.
5. If A is an idempotent matrix, then A ' is also an idempotent matrix.

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6. If A is an idempotent matrix, k is a complex number and n is a positive integer, then (kI  A)n can
be expressed as the linear combination of I and A.
Proof : As A is idempotent so An  A for all n  1 . Further kI and A commute with each other so
(kI  A)n can be expanded by Binomial Theorem, so

(kI  A) n  k n I n  nC1 (kI )n 1 A  nC2 (kI )n 2 A2  ....  nCn1 (kI ) An 1  nCn  An

 k n I  nC1k n1 A  nC2k n 2 A  ...  nCn  A

 k n I   nC1k n 1  nC2 k n 2  ...  nCn  A

 k n I   (1  k )n  k n  A

7. If A is an idempotent matrix, then I  A is also an idempotent matrix.

Proof : Since A is an idempotent matrix, therefore A2  A .
2
Now,  I  A  I  2 A  A2  I  2 A  A  I  A

8. The determinant of an idempotent matrix is always 0 or 1.

9. The trace of a n  n idempotent matrix always belongs to the set 0,1, 2,...., n .

10. Identity matrix is the only non-singular idempotent matrix. In other words if A is idempotent and
A  I then A  0 .

11. If a diagonal matrix is idempotent then each diagonal element is either 0 or 1.

12. Number of n  n diagonal idempotent matrices is 2n .
Def. Involutory matrix : A square matrix A is said to be involutory matrix if A2  I .
 1 0 .. 0   0 ... 0 1   0 ... 0 1
 0 1 .. 0   0 ... 1 0   0 ... 1 0 
Examples : I,  ,  ,  .
 .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. ..   .. .. .. .. 
     
0 0 .. 1  1 ... 0 0   1 ... 0 0 

If n is an even positive integer and d1, d 2 ,...., d n are non zero complex numbers then the matrix
2

0 0 ... ... d1 
0  0 0 0 5  2i 
0 ... d 2 0 
  0
 ... 0 4 0 
... ... ... ...  
  is an involutory matrix, e.g.,  1 
0 1
0 ... 0  0 0 0  .
   4 
d2
   1 0 0 0 
1 0 0 ... 0  5  2i 
 d1 

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Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two involutory matrices need not be an involutory matrix. i.e., if A and B are two
involutory matrices, then A  B may or may not be an involutory matrix.
(ii) If A and B are involutory matrices of same order, then A  B is involutory iff AB  BA  I  O .
Proof : We have A2  I , B 2  I
Suppose, AB  BA  I  O
Now , ( A  B) 2  A2  AB  BA  B 2  I  AB  BA  I  I  O  I
 A  B is involutory.
Conversely : suppose A  B is involutory. i.e., ( A  B) 2  I  A2  AB  BA  B 2  I
 I  AB  BA  I  I
 AB  BA  I  O
2. (i) The product of two involutory matrices need not be an involutory matrix. i.e., if A and B are
two involutory matrices, then AB may or may not be an involutory matrix.
(ii) If A and B are two involutory matrices such that AB  BA , then the product AB is also
involutory.
Proof : Since A and B are involutory matrices, therefore we have A2  I , B 2  I

Now, ( AB) 2  ABAB  AABB  A2 B 2  I ( AB  BA )

 AB is involutory.
3. (i) The scalar multiple of an involutory matrix need not be an involutory matrix. i.e., if A is an
involutory matrix and k is any complex number, then kA may or may not be an involutory matrix.
(ii) If A is an involutory matrix and k is any complex number, then kA is an involutory matrix iff
k  1 .
Proof : Since A is an involutory matrix, therefore we have A2  I
Now, (kA) 2  k 2 A2  k 2 I  I iff k 2  1 i.e., k  1 .

4. If A is an involutory matrix then A2n  I and A2 n1  A where n is any positive integer.
5. If A is an involutory matrix, then A ' is also an involutory matrix.
6. Let A be an involutory matrix. If k is any complex number and n be a positive integer then
(kI  A)n can be expressed as a linear combination of I and A.

Proof : (kI  A) n  nC0 (kI ) n  nC1 ( kI ) n1 A  nC2 ( kI ) n 2 A2  nC3 ( kI ) n 3 A3  ....

 nC0 k n I  nC1k n 1 A  nC2 k n2 I  nC3k n3 A  ....

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  nC0k n  nC2k n 2  .... I   nC1k n 1  nC3k n3  .... A

7. If any two rows(columns) of the identity matrix are interchanged the resulting matrix is an
involutory matrix.
1
8. A square matrix A is involutory iff ( A  I ) is idempotent. This relation gives a bijection between
2
involutory matrices and idempotent matrices.
9. The determinant of an involutory matrix is always 1 or –1.
10. The trace of a n  n involutory matrix always belongs to the set  n,   n  1 ,...,  1,0,1, 2,...., n .

11. There does not exist a real matrix A of odd order such that A2   I . But there exists real matrices
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 
 0 1  1
A of even order such that A2   I . For example,  , .
 1 0   0 1 0 0
 
 1 0 0 0
Def. Nilpotent matrix : A square matrix A is said to be nilpotent matrix if there exists a positive
integer k such that Ak  O .
0 1 1 2 
0 0 2 3 
Examples : Zero matrix,  
0 0 0 1
 
0 0 0 0
Remark : All super lower triangular and super upper triangular matrices are nilpotent.
Def. Index of nilpotency : Let A be a nilpotent matrix then the smallest positive integer k for which
Ak  O is called index of nilpotency of A.

Properties :
1. (i) The sum of two nilpotent matrices need not be nilpotent matrix. i.e., if A and B are two
nilpotent matrices, then A  B may or may not be nilpotent matrix. For example, consider the
0 1  0 1 0 0
matrices A  B    and again consider A    , B .
0 0  0 0 1 0 
(ii) If A and B are two nilpotent matrices of same order such that AB  BA , then A  B is also
nilpotent matrix.
(iii) If A and B are two nilpotent matrices with index m and n such that AB  BA , then A  B is
nilpotent with index  m  n  1 .
2. (i) The product of two nilpotent matrices need not be nilpotent matrix. i.e., if A and B are
two nilpotent matrices, then AB may or may not be nilpotent matrix. For example, consider

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0 1 0 0
A   , B 
0 0 1 0 
(ii) If A and B are two nilpotent matrices of same order such that AB  BA , then AB is also a
nilpotent matrix.
(iii) If A and B are two nilpotent matrices with index m and n such that AB  BA , then AB is
nilpotent with index  min m, n .

3. If A and B are any square matrices of same order such that AB is nilpotent, then BA is also
nilpotent. Further, (index of nilpotency of BA)  (index of nilpotency of AB) +1.
4. The scalar multiple of nilpotent matrix is again a nilpotent matrix. i.e., if A is nilpotent matrix and
k is any complex number, then kA is also a nilpotent matrix.
5. Index of nilpotency of a nilpotent matrix cannot exceed its size. In other words if A is a n  n
nilpotent matrix with index of nilpotency k then k  n .
6. If A is a n  n nilpotent matrix then we must have An  O .
7. If A is a n  n matrix such that A  O, A2  O, ..., An  O , then A cannot be nilpotent.

8. If A is a nilpotent matrix with index of nilpotent n and k is a positive integer then Ak is nilpotent
n
matrix with index of nilpotent   , where  denotes the ceiling function.
k 
Def. Ceiling function :  x  is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x, where x is any real number.

9. Transpose of a nilpotent matrix is nilpotent.

10. Let A be a nilpotent matrix with index of nilpotency m. If k is a complex number and n  m be a
positive integer then (kI  A)n can be expressed as the linear combination of I , A, A2 ,...., Am1 .
Proof :
(kI  A) n  nC0 ( kI ) n  nC1 ( kI ) n1 A  nC2 ( kI ) n2 A2  ...  nCm1 (kI )n m1 Am1  nCm ( kI ) nm Am  ...  nCn An

 k n I  nC1k n1 A  nC2k n2 A2  ...  nCm1k n m1 Am1  Am  Am1  ....  An  0 

11. The determinant of a nilpotent matrix is always 0 i.e., every nilpotent matrix is singular.
However, every singular matrix is not nilpotent.
12. The trace of a nilpotent matrix is always 0.

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44 Linear Algebra

Exercise 1.5
1. Show that the following matrices are idempotent :
0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
(i)  (ii) 
0 b 0 0 a b 1 c
   
0 c 0 0 0 0 0 0
2. What do you notice in above matrices.
3. If AB  A and BA  B , then show that A and B are idempotent matrices.

2 2 0
4. Express the matrix B   0 3 0  as the sum of a scalar matrix and an idempotent matrix and
 0 2 2 

hence calculate B 5 .
 a b
5. Show that the matrix 1  a 2  , b  0 is always involutory.
 a 
 b 
3 0 0 1
0 3 1 0
6. Express the matrix B   as the sum of a scalar matrix and an involutory matrix and
0 1 3 0
 
1 0 0 3

hence calculate B 3 .
7. Show that the following matrices are nilpotent and also find their index of nilpotency.
0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1  0
 0 1 1  0 0 0 1 
(i) A   0 0 0 1 1 (ii) B   (iii) C  
  0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0    
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 

0 1 1 0 0 2  1 1 1
(iv) D   0 0 1  (v) E  0 0 0  (vi) F   1 1 1
 0 0 0  0 0 0   0 0 0 

1 1 1 1 2 3 
(vii) G   1 1 1 (viii) H   5 10 15
 1 1 0   3 6 9 

8. Construct five different nilpotent matrices by taking hint from the matrix H in above question.

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Chapter 1 Matrices 45

 2 2 2
9. Express the matrix  0 2 3  as the sum of a scalar matrix and a nilpotent matrix and hence
 0 0 2 

calculate B10 .
10. Give an example of two matrices A and B such that AB is nilpotent but neither A nor B is nilpotent.

Answers
2 0 0 0 2 0 32 422 0 
4. B   0 2 0    0 1 0  ; B   0 243 0 
    5

 0 0 2   0 2 0   0 422 32 

3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1  36 0 0 28
0 3 0 0   0 
0 1 0  0 36 28 0 
6. B    ; B3   
0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0  0 28 36 0 
     
0 0 0 3  1 0 0 0  28 0 0 36 
7. (i) 4 (ii) 4 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (v) 2 (vi) 2 (vii) 3 (viii) 2

2 0 0 0 2 2 1024 10240 79360 

9. B   0 2 0    0 0 3  ; B   0
    10
1024 15360 

 0 0 2   0 0 0   0 0 1024 

1 0  0 0
10. A    , B 
0 0 0 1 

Sr. Matrix Definition A+B AB kA A tr(A)

No.
1 Diagonal aij  0, i  j    Product of Sum of diagonal
diagonal elements
elements
2 Scalar 0 , i  j    kn nk
aij  
k , i  j
3 Lower aij  0, i  j    Product of Sum of diagonal
triangular diagonal elements
elements

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46 Linear Algebra

4 Upper aij  0, i  j    Product of Sum of diagonal

triangular diagonal elements
elements
5 Super lower aij  0, i  j    0 0
triangular
6 Super upper aij  0, i  j    0 0
triangular
7 Backward 0 , i  j  n 1    n  0 if n is even
aij     
, i  j  n 1 (1)  2  d n 1 if n is odd
diagonal ai  2
(d1d 2 ...d n )

8 Backward 0 , i  j  n  1    n  0 if n is even

aij    
(1)  2  k n 
scalar k , i  j  n  1 k if n is odd

9 Symmetric A'  A    --- Sum of diagonal

elements
10 Skew-symmetric A'  A    0 if n is 0
odd
11 Hermitian A  A    Real Real

12 Skew-hermitian A   A    Real or Either zero or

purely purely
imaginary imaginary
13 Orthogonal AA '  I    1 Sum of diagonal
elements
14 Unitary AA  I    Unit Sum of diagonal
modulus elements
15 Normal AA  A A    --- Sum of diagonal
elements
16 Idempotent A2  A    0 or 1 0,1, 2,...., n}
17 Involutory A2  I    1 or –1 n,...,0,1,..., n
18 Nilpotent Ak  0    0 0

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Chapter 1 Matrices 47

True-false exercise 1 2  10 2 5 1 

  3 1 2 1  
12.  2 1    3 3 3 2
1. The product of two n  n symmetric 3 1 1 0   
 1 2    9 1 4 1 
matrices may be non-symmetric.

1 3 7 13. Let A and B be n  n matrices. Multiplying

a matrix by a scalar t obeys this formula :
2. The matrix  4 2 3 is symmetric.
t  AB    tA  tB  .
 2 4 1 
14. Each column in the product AB is a linear
3. The sum of any two n  n symmetric combination of columns in B.
matrices is symmetric.
15. Each row of the product AB is a linear
4. For any square matrix A, the sum A  AT is combination of the rows in A.
symmetric.
16. The product of two n  n skew-symmetric
5. For square matrices, if AA  0 , then A  0 . matrices is skew-symmetric.

6. Let A and B be n  n matrices. The  i, j   2 

element in the product BT A is given by the 17. 1 3 2  3   7 
n  0 

formula BT A ij  k1 Akj Bki .
 2 
7. For two n  n matrices, A and B, we have 18.  3  1 3 2    7 
n  0 
  BT sj A ji   ABT si .
j 1
2 2 6 2
8. For a 4  4 matrix A, if A4  0 , then 19. 1 3 2  3    3 9 6 
A0.  0   0 0 0 

9. If two 2  2 matrices A and B satisfy the 20. The only n  n matrix that commutes with
equation BA  0 , then either A  0 or all other n  n matrices is I n .
B0.
1
10. For n  n matrices, this cancellation law a b  1  d b 
21.   =
holds : If AB  CA and A  0 , then B  C . c d  ad  bc  c a 
Establishes that every 2  2 matrix has an
11. If three matrices A, B and C satisfy the inverse.
equation AB  CB and if B  0 , then it
follows that A  C . 22. If A and B are n  n matrices such that
AB  I , then BA  I also.

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48 Linear Algebra

23. If A and B are invertible n  n matrices, 37. Let A be an m  n matrix, and let B be an
then so is AB , and furthermore, n  m matrix. If n  m and AB is
 AB 1  A1B 1 . invertible, then so is BA.

38. If A and B are n  n invertible matrices,

24. If A and B are n  n matrices such that then AB  BA .
AB  I , then AT BT  I .
39. If ABC is invertible, then so is BCA.
k
25. If A is a square matrix such that A  I for
some positive integer k, then A is invertible. 40. If A and B are n  n invertible matrices,
then A  B is invertible.
26. If A and B are invertible n  n matrices,
then A  B  0 and AB  0 . 41. For invertible n  n matrices A and B,
B 1  A1  B 1  B  A A1 .
27. Let  be a scalar. Let Q be an n  n
matrix. If Q  0 , then   0 .
 
42. If A  AT A1  0 , then A is nonsingular
28. If A has only nonnegative entries and is skew-symmetric matrix.
invertible, then A1 has only nonnegative
entries.

29. If A and B are n  n matrices such that Assignment

BA  I , then BT is invertible.
---------------- S C Q ---------------------
a c
30. A 2  2 matrix   is invertible if and
 p q 1. If A and B are two odd order skew
only if aq  pc .
symmetric matrices such that AB = BA ,
1 3 5  then what is the matrix AB ?
31. Let A  0 3 5  1. An orthogonal matrix
1 1 2  2. A skew-symmetric matrix
1
Then the first row in A is 1, 1, 0 . 3. A symmetric matrix
4. An identity matrix
32. For square matrices, if AB  0 , then
BA  0 .
2. If A and B are symmetric matrices of the
 2 4 
33. If the matrix   is noninvertible, same order, then which one of the
 4 2 
then  must be 2. following is not correct?
1. A  B is a symmetric matrix.
34. If A is an n  n matrix containing no zeros,
then A is invertible. 2. AB  BA is a symmetric matrix.
3. AB  BA is a symmetric matrix.
35. If A and B are n  n matrices such that
AB   I , then A is invertible. 4. A  AT and B  BT are symmetric
matrices.
36. If A and B are n  n matrices such that AB
is invertible, then A is invertible.
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Chapter 1 Matrices 49

3. Let A and B be any two n  n matrices and 1 1

1. n 2  n  1 2.  1
n n n2 n
tr ( A)   aii and tr ( B)   bii .
i 1 i 1 1 n(n  1)
3. 4.
n! 2
Consider the following statement
I. tr ( AB)  tr ( BA)
6. If A be a non-zero square matrix of order
II. tr ( A  B)  tr ( A)  tr ( B)
n, then
Which of the following statement given
1. the matrix A  A ' is anti-symmetric, but
above is/are correct ?
the matrix is A  A ' symmetric.
1. I only 2. II only
2. the matrix A  A ' is symmetric, but the
3. Both I and II 4. Neither I nor II
matrix A  A ' is anti-symmetric.
3. Both A  A ' and A  A ' are symmetric.
 2 0
4. Let A    be expressed as P  Q , 4. Both A  A ' and A  A ' are anti-
 3 5
symmetric.
where P is symmetric matrix and Q is
skew-symmetric matrix. Which one of the
7. If C is a non-singular matrix and
following is correct ?
0 x y 
1 3
 
 3 B  C 0 0 z  C 1 , then
 0 2
 
1. Q   2 2 0 0 0 
 2. Q   
3 0  3 0 
 
2  2  1. B 2  1 2. B 2  0
1  0 3  1  2 3 3. B3  1 4. B 3  0
3. Q    4. Q   
23 0  2  0 5

8. Suppose, P is an n  n real matrix such that

5. What is the determinant of the following the k th diagonal element of PPT is zero.
matrix ? Consider the following statements
1 0 0 .. .. 0  I. The k th row of P is zero.
 1 
1 0 .. .. 0  II. The k th row of PPT is zero.
 2 
 1 1  III. The k th column of P is zero.
1 .. .. 0 
 2 3  IV. The k th column of PPT is zero.
.. .. .. .. .. .. 
  Select the correct answer using the codes
1 1 1 1
.. .. given below
 2 3 n 
1. I and III 2. I,II and IV
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50 Linear Algebra
3. II,III and IV 4. I,II and III 13. Let A be an improper orthogonal matrix,
(GATE) then, adj A is equal to
1. A 2. AT
9. The determinant of the matrix 3.  A 4.  AT
1 0 0 0 0 2
0 1 0 0 2 0 
 14. Which is not correct, if Tr ( A)  Trace of
0 0 1 2 0 0
  is A ,then
0 0 2 1 0 0
0 2 0 0 1 0 1. Tr ( A  B)  Tr ( A)  Tr ( B)
 
2 0 0 0 0 1 2. Tr ( AB)  Tr ( BA)
1. 0 2. 9 3. 27 4. 1 3. Tr ( A)  Tr (CAC 1 ), C is non-singular
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
4. For any A there exists B (both are
square of same order) s.t. ( AB  BA)  I n
10. If A and B are two n  n matrices over
 and    , then
15. If B is a non-singular matrix and A is a
1. det ( A  B)   det( A)  det( B)
square matrix. Then, det ( B 1 AB) is equal to
2. det ( A  B)   det( A)  det( B)
1. det ( BAB) 2. det( A )
3. det( A  B)   det( A)  det( B)
3. det ( B 1 ) 4. det ( A1 )
4. det( A  B )   n det( A)  det( B )

16. Every skew-symmetric matrix of odd order is

11. Let A be a 2  2 matrix which satisfy
1. singular
A2  A  0, then
2. non-singular
 1 0   1 0  3. invertible
1. A is either   or  
 0 1   0 1 4. Skew-Hermitian
2. there exists infinitely many such
matrices
17. If ( A  B)1 exists, then
3. there exists no such matrix
1. A1 and B 1 both exist
4. A must be diagonal
2. A1 and B 1 do not exist

12.The number of different n  n symmetric 3. atleast one of A1 and B 1 exists

matrices with each element being either 0 4. nothing can be said

or 1 where n  5
18. A, B, ( A  B ) are non-singular matrices.
1. 5! 2. 55
Then, [ B( A  B)1 A]1 is equal to
3. 215 4. 515

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 1 Matrices 51

1. A  B 2. A1  B 1 23. Let Ann   aij  , n  3, where

3. A1  B 1  I 4. AB
aij   bi2  b 2j  , i, j 1, 2,...., n for some

distinct real numbers b1 , b2 ,...., bn . Then

19. If A and B are two matrices of the same
order such that AB  BA, then det  A  is

1. A is diagonal and B is any matrix 1. i j  bi  b j  . 2. i j  bi  b j  .

2. A and B are both diagonal
3. 0 4. 1
3. A is scalar and B is diagonal matrix
(CSIR NET Dec 2013)
4. None of the above

24. Let A be a 5  5 matrix with real entries

20. If A and B are Hermitian, then select the
such that the sum of the entries in each row
incorrect one
of A is 1. Then the sum of all the entries in
1. AB  BA is hermitian
A3 is
2. AB  BA is skewhermitian
1. 3 2. 15
3. B B is hermitian
3. 5 4. 125

4. A  A is skewhermitian (CSIR NET June 2014)

21. The columns of an orthogonal matrix forms 25. Given the permutation
1. an orthogonal set of vectors
1 2 3 4 5 
2. an orthonormal set of vectors    , the matrix A is
3 1 2 5 4
3. a linearly independent set
defined to be the one whose i-th column is
4. All of the above
the  (i)-th column of the identity matrix I.
Which of the following is correct ?
2 6  3 x
22. If A    ,B    , then in order 1. A  A2 2. A  A4
3 9  y 2
3. A  A5 4. A  A1
that AB  0. The values of x and y will be,
(CSIR NET June 2014)
respectively
1. 6 and 1 2. 6 and 1
26. Let J denote a 101  101 matrix with all the
3. 6 and 3 4. 5 and 4
entries equal to 1 and let I denote the
identity matrix of order 101. Then the
determinant of JI is
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52 Linear Algebra
1. 101 2. 1 4. AB is nonsingular
3. 0 4. 100 (CSIR NET Dec 2014)
(CSIR NET June 2014)
29. The determinant of the n  n permutation
27. For the matrix A as given below, which of matrix
them satisfy A6 =I ?  1
 1 
    
 cos 4 sin
4
0  . 
   
  .
1. A    sin cos 0  
 4 4   . 
   
0 0 1
   1 
  1 
 
  n
n
1 0 0  1.  1 2.  1 2 
 
 
2. A   0 cos sin 3. 1 4. 1
 3 3
  (CSIR NET Dec 2014)
 0  sin  cos 
 3 3
   1 1  x 1  x  x2
 cos 6 0 sin
6
  30. The determinant 1 1  y 1  y  y 2 is
3. A   0 1 0  1 1 z 1 z  z2
  
  sin 0 cos  equal to
 6 6
1. ( z  y )( z  x )( y  x)
   
 cos 2 sin
2
0
2. ( x  y ) ( x  z )( y  z )
 
 
4. A    sin cos 0 3.
2
 x  y  y  z  z  x
2 2
 2 2 
 
 0 0 1
 4. x 2
 y 2  y 2  z 2  z 2  x 2 
 
(CSIR NET June 2014) (CSIR NET Dec 2014)

28. Let A, B be n  n matrices such that 31. Let S { A : A   aij  ,

55

BA  B 2 = I  BA2 where I is the aij  0 or 1  i, j ,

n  n identity matrix. Which of the a j
ij 1 i and  aij 1 j } Then the
i
following is always true ?
number of elements in S is
1. A is nonsingular
1. 52 2. 55
2. B is nonsingular
3. 5! 4. 55
3. A+B is nonsingular
(CSIR NET June 2011)
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 1 Matrices 53

2 i 1. idempotent 2. nilpotent
32. Let   e 5
and the matrix
3. involutory 4. periodic
1   2 3 4
 2 
0   3 4
36. Let f  x   x 2  5 x  6, and
M  0 0  2 3 4
 
0 0 0 3 4 2 0 1
0 0 0
 0  4  A   2 1 3  , then f (A) is equal to
 
 1 1 0 
Then, the trace of the matrix I  M  M 2 is
1. 5 2. 0 3. 3 4. 5  1 1 3  1 1 5
(GATE 2012) 1.  1 1 10 2.  1 1 4 

 5 4 4   3 10 4 

   1 1 4 
1 0 0  3.  1 4 10  4. None of these
 
1  i 3  4 3 5 
33. If A   i 0  , then the
2 
 
0 1  i 3
 1  2i  37. Multiplication of matrices E and F is G.
2
Matrices E and G are as follows :
trace of A102 is
cos   sin  0 1 0 0 
1. 0 2. 1
E   sin  cos  0 , G  0 1 0

3. 2 4. 3    
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
(GATE 2009)
Then, the value of matrix F is

34. For which value of x will the matrix given  cos   sin  0
1.  sin  cos  0
below become singular ? 
 0 0 1 
 8 x 0
 4 0 2  cos  cos  0
 
12 6 0  2.   cos  sin  0

 0 0 1 
1. 4 2. 6
3. 8 4. 12  cos  sin  0
3.   sin  cos  0

 0 0 1 
 5 8 0 
35. If A   3 5 0  , then A is
 1 2 1

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54 Linear Algebra

 sin   cos  0  cos  sin  

42. Consider the matrix A   ,
4.  cos  sin  0   sin  cos 

 0 0 1  2
where   . Then A2015 equals
31
1. A
38. Let A be a 5  5 matrix such that sum of 2. I
 cos13 sin13 
elements of each row is 2 then the sum of 3.  
  sin13 cos13 
all elements of A3 is  0 1
4.  
1. 45 2. 40  1 0 
3. 90 4. None of these (CSIR NET Dec 2016)

39. Let A and B are two 3  3 complex matrices 43. Let A and B be real invertible matrices such
that AB   BA . Then
such that sum of elements of each row of A
1. Trace  A   Trace  B   0
is 1  i and that if B is i then sum of all nine
2. Trace  A   Trace  B   1
elements of AB is 3. Trace  A   0, Trace  B   1
1. 3  3i 2. 3  3i 4. Trace  A   1, Trace  B   0
3. 3  3i 4. 3  3i (CSIR NET June 2017)
 0 1
44. Let A    . Then the smallest
40. Let P be a n  n matix with integral entries  1 1
1 positive integer n such that An  I is
and Q  P  I , where I denotes the 1. 1 2. 2
2
3. 4 4. 6
n  n identity matrix. Then, Q is
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
1. idempotent, i.e., Q 2  Q 20
2. invertible  2 1 0
 
3. nilpotent 45. The trace of the matrix  0 2 0  is
4. unipotent, i.e., Q  I is nilpotent  0 0 3
 
(GATE 2004)
1. 7 20 2. 220  320
a b c
3. 2  220  320 4. 220  320  1
41. Let D1  det  x 
y z  and
p q r  (CSIR NET June 2018)

 x a  p ------------------------ M C Q -----------------------
 
D2  det  y b q  . Then 1. Let A   aij  bean n  n complex matrix and
 z c r 

let A denote the conjugate transpose of A.
1. D1  D2 2. D1  2 D2
Which of the following statements are
3. D1   D2 4. 2D1  D2
(CSIR NET Dec 2016) necessarily true?
1. If A is invertible, then tr  A A   0 , i.e,

the trace of A A is non zero.

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 1 Matrices 55

2. If tr  A A   0 , then A is invertible. (CSIR NET June 2013)

3. If tr  A A  n 2 , then aij 1 for some i,j.

5 9 8
4. If tr  A A   0 , then A is zero matrix. 4. The matrix A   1 8 2  satisfies
9 1 0
 
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
1. A is invertible and the inverse has all
2. Let A be a 5  5 skewsymmetric matrix
integer entries.
with entries in  and B be the 5  5
2. det(A) is odd.
th
symmetric matrix whose  i, j  entry is the 3. det(A) is divisible by 13.
4. det(A) has atleast two prime divisors.
i
binomial coefficient   for 1  i  j  5. (CSIR NET Dec 2014)
 j
Consider the 10  10 matrix, given in block
5. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
A A B
form by C   . Then 1. The transpose of a symmetric matrix
0 B 
need not be symmetric matrix.
1. det C 1or  1 2. det C  0
2. If A and B are symmetric matrix of same
3. trace of C is 0 4. trace of C is 5 order, then AB+BA must be symmetric
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) matrix.
3. If A is symmetric matrix, then all
3. Let S denote the set of all primes p such positive integral powers of A are
that the following matrix is invertible when symmetric matrices.
considered as a matrix with entries 4. If A is any square matrix, then A  A ' is
1 2 0 always symmetric matrix.
in  / p , A   0 3 1 . Which of the
 2 0 2 
  6. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
following statements are true ? 1. If A is orthogonal matrix, then A is
1. S contains all the prime numbers. nonsingular and A1  A '
2. S contains all the prime numbers greater
2. If A is orthogonal matrix, then A   1
than 10.
3. Transpose of an orthogonal matrix is
3. S contains all the prime numbers other
orthogonal
than 2 and 5.
4. None of the above
4. S contains all the odd prime numbers.

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56 Linear Algebra
7. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ? 2. AAt is invertible
1. If A is unitary matrix, then A is also 3. At A is invertible
4. if m  n , then A is invertible
unitary matrix.
(CSIR NET June 2017)
2. Inverse of unitary matrix is unitary matrix.
1  1 1 i
 
11. Let A   aij  be a 3  3 complex matrix
3. A    is unitary matrix.
3 1  i 1  identify the correct statements

4. None of the above 1. det  1 a   det A

i j
ij

det    1 a     det A

i j
8. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ? 2. ij

1. In a skew hermitian matrix, the element

on the principal diagonal must be
3. det 

 1 
i j

aij   det A

purely imaginary.
det    a     det A
i j

2. If A is hermitian matrix, then iA is skew

4.

1  ij

hermitian matrix. (CSIR NET June 2019)
3. If A is any square matrix, then A  A is
skew hermitian matrix.
4. All of the above.

9. Let A   aij  be an n  n matrix such that

aij is an integer for all i. j. Let AB  I
with B  bij  (where I is the identity
matrix). For a square matrix C, det C
denotes its determinant. Which of the
following statements is true ?
1. If det A  1 then det B  1
2. A sufficient condition for each bij to
be an integer is that det A is an integer.
3. B is always an integer matrix.
4. A necessary condition for each bij to be
an integer is det A  1,  1

(CSIR NET Dec 2016)

10. Let m,n,r be natural numbers. Let A be an
m  n matrix with real entries such that
r
 AAt   I , where I is the m  m identity

matrix and At is the transpose of the

matrix A. We can conclude that
1. m  n

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 1 Matrices 57

True false key MCQ

1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T 1. 1,3,4 2. 2,4 3. 2,3

5. F 6. T 7. F 8. F 4. 3,4 5. 2,3,4 6. 1,2,3

9. F 10. F 11. F 12. F 7. 1,2,3 8. 2,3 9. 1,4

13. F 14. F 15. F 16. F 10. 2,4 11. 1,3

17. T 18. F 19. F 20. F

21. F 22. T 23. F 24. T
25. T 26. F 27. F 28. F
29. T 30. T 31. T 32. F
33. F 34. F 35. T 36. T
37. F 38. F 39. F 40. F
41. T 42. F

Assignment key
SCQ
1. 3 2. 2 3. 3 4. 3
5. 3 6. 2 7. 4 8. 2
9. 3 10. 4 11. 2 12. 3
13. 4 14. 4 15. 2 16. 1
17. 4 18. 2 19. 4 20. 4
21. 4 22. 1 23. 3 24. 3
25. 3 26. 4 27. 2 28. 2
29. 2 30. 1 31. 3 32. 4
33. 4 34. 1 35. 3 36. 1
37. 3 38. 2 39. 3 40. 2
41. 3 42. 2 43. 1 44. 4
45. 3

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Chapter 2
Rank of a matrix
We can do anything we want to, if we stick to it long enough.
– Helen Keller

2.1 Determinantal rank

Def. Submatrix : A matrix obtained by leaving zero or more rows but not all and simultaneously
leaving zero or more columns but not all of a given matrix is called submatrix of the given matrix.
Def. Minor of a matrix : Let A be an m  n matrix, then the determinant of every square sub-matrix
of A is called a Minor of the matrix A and the order of the sub-matrix is called order of minor.
Def. Determinantal Rank : Let A  [aij ] m  n be an m  n matrix, then a non-negative integer r is

called the determinantal rank of A iff

(i) there exists at least one minor of A of order r which is not zero.
(ii) every minor of A of order greater than r is zero.
In other words, determinantal rank of a matrix is the highest order of a non-zero minor of the matrix.
The determinantal rank of a matrix is generally denoted by ( A) .
Results :
1. Let A be a m  n matrix, then determinantal rank of A is atmost min  m, n  is   A   min m, n .

2. A  0 iff   A   0 or zero matrix is the only matrix whose determinantal rank is zero.

3. A  0 iff   A   1 or   A   0 or   A   0 or   A  is positive.

4. Let A be n  n matrix, then   A   n iff det A  0 . i.e.,   A   n iff A is non-singular (invertible)

5. Let A be a n  n matrix then   A   n iff det A  0 . i.e.,   A   n iff A is singular (non-invertible).

6. If every minor of order r of a matrix A vanishes then every minor of order r  1 of A also vanishes.
It is so because every minor of order r  1 is a sum of scalar multiples of minors of order r.
7. Determinantal rank of transpose of a matrix is equal to the original matrix.
60 Linear Algebra

8. Let A be a n  n matrix such that   A   n  1 then adj A   0 .

9. Let A be a n  n matrix such that   A   n  2 then adj A   0 .

10. If A is a m  n matrix whose all elements are distinct then the number of submatrices of order r  s
m n
is m
Cr  nCs and the total number of submatrices of A is  m Cr n Cs   2m  1 2n  1 .
r 1 s 1

11. If A is a m  n matrix whose all elements are same then the number of submatrices of order r  s is
1 and the total number of submatrices of A is mn.

1 1 1 
Example 1 : Find the determinantal rank of the matrix  x y z  , x, y, z being all real.

 x 3 y3 z 3 

1 1 1  1 1 1
Solution : Let A   x y z  , so A x y z = ( x  y )( y  z )( z  x )( x  y  z )

3 3
 x y z 3  x 3
y 3
z3

Now the following cases arise :

Case (i) : If x , y , z are all different and x  y  z  0 , then A  0 and so ρ  A   2

1 1
But yx  0 [ x, y are different ]
x y

So there is a minor of order 2 of A, which does not vanish and hence ( A)  2 .

Case (ii) : If x, y, z are all different and x  y  z  0 , then A  0 and so ρ  A   3

Case (iii) : If any two of x, y, z are equal (say x  y ) then A  0 .

1 1
Now x  y  z , then the minor  z  x  0 and so ρ  A   2 .
x z

1 1 1
Case (iv) : If x  y  z then A x x x
x2 x2 x2

Here every minor of order 2 vanishes but there is a minor of order 1, which does not vanish ( 1 is an

element of A which is not zero) , so ( A)  1 .

Exercise 2.1
1. Find the determinantal rank of the following matrices
3 
1 1
(i) 5  (ii)   (iii) 0 0 7 0
 0  1 1

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Chapter 2 Rank of a matrix 61

 2 3 1 1 
2 0 0  1 2 3   1 1  2  4 
(iv)  0 2 0  (v)   2 4  9  (vi)  
3 1 3 2 
 0 0 2   3 6 4   
6 3 0 7 

a 0 .. 0
1 5 4 6 2 1 1 0 a .. 0 
(vii)  2 7 5 9  (viii)  0 3 2  (ix) 
 .. .. .. .. 
 3 9 6 12   2 4 3   
0 0 .. a  n n

2. Find the determinantal rank of the following matrices

3 4 1 2  0 1 2   1 2 1 3 
(i)  3 2 1 4  (ii)  4 3 1  (iii)   2  4 4  7 

 7 6 2 4   4 2 3   1 2 1 2 

 0 6 6 1
1 5 4 6   8 2 2 2
7 2 3 
(iv)  2 7 5 9  (v)  (vi)  2 2 2 
 2 3 0 1
 3 9 6 12     2 2 2 
 3 2 1 1

1 x x2 
 
3. Find the determinantal rank of A =  1 y y2  .
1 z z 2 

4. Let A and B be two square matrices of order n. If ( A)  ( B)  n , prove that ( AB)  n and
conversely.
5. If A is a square matrix of order n and ρ( A)  n  2 then prove that adj A  O .

 3a  8 3 3 

6. Find the value of a so that ( A)  2 , where A is the matrix  3 3a  8 3 

 3 3 3a  8 

 x p q r 
7. Find x so that A =  p xq r  has determinantal rank 3.

 p q x  r 

8. Show that determinantal rank of a matrix  determinantal rank of every sub-matrix of it.

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62 Linear Algebra

0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 
9. If A   find ( A) and ( A2 ) .
0 0 0 1
 
0 0 0 0
10. Show that determinantal rank of a matrix with each element unity is one.
11. Prove that if A is a skew-symmetric matrix of odd order say n then ( A)  n .

1 1 1 1  2 1
12. If A  2  3 4 and B  6 12 6 .Find the determinantal rank of A, B, A  B , AB and BA.
3 2 3 5 10 5

a 0 1
13. Find a so that the determinantal rank of the matrix A   1 2 a  is less than 3. Also find the
 1 2 3 
determinantal rank for these values of a.

Answers
1. (i) 1 (ii) 1 (iii) 1 (iv) 3 (v) 3 (vi) 3 (vii) 2 (viii) 2 (ix) 0 if a = 0 and n if a  0
2. (i) 3 (ii) 2 (iii) 2 (iv) 2 (v) 3 (vi) 1
3 if x  y, y  z , z  x
 2 11
3.  ( A)   2 if either x  y or x  z and y  z 6. a  ,
1 3 3
 if x  y  z

7. x  0 , x  ( p  q  r ) 9. ( A)  3, ( A2 )  2
12.  A  2,  B   1,  A  B   2,  AB   0,  BA  1 13. a  0,3 ; ( A)  2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.2 Linear independence and dependence

Def. Linearly dependent vectors : The vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn are said to be linearly dependent if

there exist scalars a1 , a2 ,...., an (not all zero) such that a1v1 + a2v2 +....+ anvn = 0.

OR
Some finite vectors are said to be linearly dependent if their linear combination can be made zero
without taking all scalars zero.
Def. Linearly independent vectors : Vectors which are not L.D. are called L.I.
OR
Vectors v1 , v2 ,........, vn are called linearly independent if , whenever
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a1v1 + a2v2 +....+ anvn = 0 for some scalars ai’s , then a1 = a2 =......= an  0 .
OR
Some finite vectors are said to L.I. if the only way to make their linear combination zero is to take all
scalars zero.
Def. An infinite subset of V is said to be linearly independent if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent , otherwise it is linearly dependent.
Results:
1. The empty set is defined to be linearly independent.
2. A set containing only the zero vector i.e. {0} is linearly dependent.
3. A set containing only a non-zero vector is linearly independent.
4. Two vectors are L.D. iff one of them is a scalar multiple of other.
5. A set which contain the null vector ‘0’ is linearly dependent.
6. Every super set of a linearly dependent set is linearly dependent.
7. Every subset of a linearly independent set is linearly independent.
8. If a vector v is a linear combination of vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn then the set {v, v1 , v2 ,...., vn } is
linearly dependent.
9. If the set {v1 , v2 ,...., vn } is L.I. and the set {v1 , v2 ,...., vn , v} is L.D. , then v is a linear

combination of the vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn .

10. The set of non-zero vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn is L.D. iff one of the vectors vr (r  1) is a linear

combination of the preceding vectors.

Example 1 : Determine whether the following vectors are linearly dependent or independent
(i) (1 , 2 , 3) , (0 , 1 , 2 ) , (1, 4, 5) (ii) (1 , 2 ,  3 , 1) , (3 , 7 , 1 ,  2) , (1 , 3 , 7 ,  4).
Solution: (i) We consider a matrix A whose columns are given vectors.
 1 0 1
A =  2 1 4 
 3 2 5 

 1 0 1
 0 1 6  (Operating R 2  R 2  2R 1 , R 3  R 3  3R 1 )
 
 0 2 8 

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64 Linear Algebra

1 0 1
 0 1 6  ( Operating R 3  R 3  2R 2 )
 
 0 0 4 

which is in row echelon form.

Here  (A)  3  number of columns. So the given vectors are L.I.
(ii) We construct a matrix A whose columns are given vectors i.e.
1 3 1
2 7 3
A =  
 3 1 7 
 
 1 2 4 
1 3 1 
0 1 1 
~   (Operating R 2  R 2  2R 1 , R 3  R 3  3R1 , R 4  R 4  R 1 )
 0 10 10 
 
 0 5 5
1 3 1
0 1 1 
~  ( Operating R 3  R 3  10R 2 , R 4  R 4  5R 2 )
0 0 0
 
0 0 0

which is in row echelon form. Here ,  (A)  2  number of columns. So the given vectors are L.D.

Exercise 2.2
1. Determine which of the following sets of vectors are linearly dependent and which are linearly
independent .
(i) (2, 3, 1) ( 1, 4,  2) , (1, 18,  4)
(ii) (0, 2,  4) , (1,  2,  1) , (1,  4, 3)
(iii) (1, 1, 1) , (1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 2)
(iv) (2, 3,  1,  1), (1,  1,  2,  4), (3, 1, 3,  2), (6, 3, 0,  7)
(v) (1,  5,  2, 3), (1, 0, 0,  1) , (1, 0, 2, 4)
(vi) (1,  2, 1), (2, 1,  1), (7,  4, 1)
(vii) e1  1, 0,...,0  , e2   0, 1,...,0  ,....., en   0, 0,...,1

 1   1  a
2. (i) Find a if the vectors  1  , 2 ,  0  are linearly dependent.
   
 3    3   1 

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Chapter 2 Rank of a matrix 65

 1  1 1
(ii) Find p if the vectors  1  ,  p,  0  are linearly dependent .
   
 3   3   1 

1  1  3
(iii) Find a if the vectors  2  ,  4 ,  0  are linearly dependent .
   
 3   0   a 

2  3   5 
(iv) Find k if the vectors  0  ,  1  ,  1  are linearly dependent .
   
 k   5   1 

Answers
1. (i) Linearly dependent (ii) Linearly dependent (iii) Linearly dependent
(iv) Linearly dependent (v) Linearly independent (vi) Linearly dependent
(vii) Linearly independent
2. (i) a = 1 (ii) p =  1 (iii) a = 6 (iv) k =  4
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.3 Row rank and Column rank

Def. Row rank : The maximum number of linearly independent rows of a matrix A is called the row
rank of A and is denoted by  R ( A) .

Def. Column rank : The maximum number of linearly independent columns of a matrix A is called
column rank of A and is denoted by C ( A) .

Elementary operations : There are six elementary operations, three elementary row operations and
three elementary column operations. These are given below:
Def. Elementary Row operations : The following three types of operations on the rows of a matrix
are called elementary row operations.
(i) The interchange of any two distinct rows of a matrix. If the ith row is interchanged with jth row,
then it is denoted by Ri  R j or Ri , j .

(ii) The multiplication of any row (each element of the row) by a fixed non-zero scalar. If ith row is
multiplied by k  0 then it is denoted by Ri  k Ri or Ri  k  .

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(iii) The addition to the elements of a row, a fixed scalar multiple of the corresponding elements of
another row. If k times the elements of jth row are added to the corresponding elements of ith
row then it is denoted by Ri  Ri  k R j or Ri , j (k ) .

Def. Elementary column operations : The following three types of operations on the columns of a
matrix are called elementary column operations.
(i) The interchange of any two distinct columns of a matrix. If the ith column is interchanged with
jth column, then it is denoted by Ci  C j or Ci , j .

(ii) The multiplication of any column (each element of the column) by a fixed non-zero scalar. If ith
column is multiplied by k  0 then it is denoted by Ci  k Ci or Ci  k  .

(iii) The addition to the elements of a column, a fixed scalar multiple of the corresponding elements
of another column. If k times the elements of jth column are added to the corresponding
elements of ith column then it is denoted by Ci  Ci  k C j or Ci , j (k ) .

Def. Row equivalent matrices : A matrix A is said to be row equivalent to a matrix B if B can be
obtained from A by applying, in succession, a finite number of elementary row operations on A and we
R
write A ~ B .
Def. Column Equivalent matrices : A matrix A is said to be column equivalent to a matrix B if B can
be obtained from A by applying in succession a finite number of elementary column operations on A
C
and we write A ~ B .
Def. Equivalent Matrices : Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent if one can be obtained
from the other by applying a finite number of elementary operations in succession. Then we write
A ~ B.
Def. Row-echelon form of a matrix : A matrix is said to be in row-echelon form if
(i) All zero rows, if any, are at the bottom of the matrix.
(ii) First non-zero element of every row is on the right hand side of the first non-zero element in the
preceding row.
Remark : The first non-zero element of any row is called key-element or pivotal element or pivot of
that row.
Def. Row reduced echelon form of a matrix : A matrix is said to be in row reduced echelon form if
(i) It is in row echelon form.
(ii) Every key element is unity.
(iii) The elements above the key element in every column are all zero.
Def. Column-echelon form of a matrix : A matrix is said to be in column-echelon form if
(i) All zero columns, if any, are at the extreme right of the matrix.
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(ii) First non-zero element of every column is below the first non-zero element in the preceding column.
Remark : The first non-zero element of any column is called key-element or pivotal element or pivot
of that column.
Def. Column reduced echelon form of a matrix : A matrix is said to be in column reduced echelon
form if
(i) It is in column echelon form. (ii) Every key element is unity.
(iii) The elements to the left of the key element in every row are all zero.
Results (A) : Results on echelon forms :
1. The elementary operations do not alter the rank of a matrix.
2. For any matrix A,  R  A     A   C  A  .

Proof : Let  R ( A)  r and let B be the matrix obtained when A is reduced to row-echelon form. Then

by definition of row-rank, B contains r key elements (or r non-zero rows) and all the zero rows are at
the bottom of B. Removing all the zero rows (if any) and those columns which do not contain a key
element, we will obtain a minor of order r of the triangular form
c11 c12 ...... c1r
0 c22 ...... c2 r
C  where c11  0, c22  0,......., crr  0

0 0 ...... cr r

Then , | C |  c11 c22 ......... cr r  0 . Also, any minor of order r  1 (if any) will contain atleast one zero

row at its bottom and hence ( B)  r . But elementary row operations do not alter the rank and B is
obtained from A by elementary operations, so
Therefore , ( A)  r   R ( A)

Hence rank of A and row rank of A are equal. Similarly, we can prove that rank of A and column rank
of A are equal. Therefore,  R ( A)  ( A)  C ( A) .

3. In row-echelon form, the number of pivots and position of pivots is always fixed however some
entries may be different.
4. Row reduced echelon form of a matrix is unique.
5. If A is in row echelon form, then its transpose A is in the column echelon form.
6. Two matrices are row equivalent iff they have same row-reduced echelon form.
7. Two matrices are column equivalent iff they have same column-reduced echelon form.
8. Two matrices of same size are equivalent iff they have the same rank.
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68 Linear Algebra
9. Determinant and trace of two equivalent matrices need not be same.

Results (B) : Results on dependency of rows and columns :

1. A square matrix A is singular iff its columns (rows) are linearly dependent.
2. If a matrix has more rows than columns, then rows are linearly dependent.
3. If a matrix has more columns than rows, then columns are linearly dependent.

Results (C) : Results on nullity :

Def. Nullity of a matrix : The dimension of the null space of matrix is called its nullity.
1. Sylvester law (Rank-nullity theorem) : Sum of rank and nullity of a matrix is always equal to its
number of columns.
2. If rank is minimum then nullity is maximum and if rank is maximum then nullity is minimum.
3. If A is m  n matrix then 0    A   min  m, n  .

4. If A is m  n matrix then n  min m, n  nullity( A)  n .

Results (D) : Results on sums and products :

1. Sum Result : Let A and B are two matrices of same size, then   A    B     A  B     A     B 

2. General Product Result : Let A and B are two matrices such that AB is defined, then
  AB   min   A  ,   B  i.e.   AB     A  and   AB     B 

3. Conditional Product Result : Let A be a m  n matrix and B is a n  p matrix, then

  A if   B   n
  AB   
  B  if   A   n
OR
Let A be a m  n matrix and B be a n  p matrix if rank of any one matrix is n, then   AB  is

equal to the rank of other matrix.

4. Frobenius inequality of rank : Let A be m  n and B be n  p matrices, then

  A     B     AB   n

5. If A and B are n  n matrices such that A  B  0 and A  B is non-singular then   A     B   n

and nullity  A   nullity  B   n .

Proof : Follows from sum result and Frobenius inequality.

n
6. If A is a nilpotent matrix of size n and index of nilpotency is 2 i.e., A2  0 then   A    and
2

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n
nullity of A  n   
2

Proof : Put B  A in Frobenius inequality   A    A     A2   n

n n
 2  A   0  n    A     A      is always non negative integer 
2 2
7. If A is n  n matrix and  ( A)  n  1 then  (adj A)  1 and nullity of adj  A   n  1 . Converse is

also true.
Proof : By Frobenius inequality,  ( A)   ( B)   ( AB)  n
Taking B  adj A , we have
 ( A)   (adj A)   ( A adj A)  n

 n  1   (adj A)    A I n   n [ Since A adj A  A I n ]

 n  1   (adj A)  0  n [Since   A   n  1 , therefore A  0 ]

  (adj A)  1 ……(1)
Since,  ( A)  n  1  adj A  0
  (adj A)  1 ……(2)
From (1) and (2),  (adj A)  1

8. If A is a n  n matrix then   adj A    0 or 1 or n.

9. Let A be n  n matrix such that  ( A)  n  1 , then  ( A2 )  n  2 or n  1 and nullity of

A2  1 or 2
Def. Gram Matrix : Let A be any real matrix then the matrix AA ' and A ' A are called Gram Matrix
w.r.t. A.
10. The gram matrix of a real matrix is always symmetric.
11. If A is any real matrix then  ( A)   ( A ')   ( AA ')   ( A ' A) .

12. If A is any complex matrix then  ( A)   ( A ')   ( A)   ( A )   ( AA )   ( A A)

13. If A is a complex matrix then it is not necessary that   A     AA '  .

1 i  0 0 
e.g. Let A   , here   A   1 and AA '    , therefore   A     AA '  .
0 0 0 0 

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0 0
14. If A is a complex matrix then it is not necessary that   A    A A  , e.g. A   .
 i 0
15. If v   x1 x2 .... xn  be a real 1 n matrix, then vv '  x12  x22  ....  xn2  0 , further if v  0

(i.e., atleast one xi is non-zero) then vv '  0 .

16. If v and w are two different 1 n real vector then there is no such result about vw ' or wv ' .
17. If A is a 1 n non-zero row matrix and B is a n  1 non-zero column matrix then   BA   1 and

  AB   0 or 1 .

Proof : We have   A     B   1 . Now   BA     A   1 . Also, BA is a non-zero matrix so

  BA   1 .

Results (E) : Element changing results :

1. Let A be any matrix and B is obtained by changing one element of A, then  ( A)   ( B )  1 .

2. Let A be any matrix and B is obtained by changing k elements of A , then  ( A)   ( B )  k .

Results (F) : Results on idempotent and skew symmetric matrix :

1. Let A be an n  n idempotent matrix, then   A   tr  A  .

2. Let A be an n  n idempotent matrix, then   A     I n  A   n .

Proof : Since A and I n  A are idempotent matrices , therefore   A   tr  A  and   I n  A   tr  I n  A 

   A     I n  A   tr  A   tr  I n  A   tr  A  I n  A   tr  I n   n .

3. If A is n  n idempotent matrix, then  ( I n  A)  nullity  A  .

Proof :   A     I n  A   n

   I n  A   n    A   nullity  A 
4. The rank of a skew-symmetric matrix cannot be odd.

Similar and congruent matrices

Def . Similar matrices : Two matrices A and B are said to be similar if there exists a non-singular
matrix C such that A  C 1BC .
1. Similar matrices have same determinant, trace and rank.
2. If two matrices are similar then they are equivalent also.
3. If two matrices are equivalent then they need not be similar.
Def. Congruent operations : A congruent operation on a square matrix is an operation in which every
row operation is followed by the corresponding column operation.

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Def. Congruent matrices : Two matrices A and B are said to be congruent if there exist a non
singular matrix P such that A  P ' BP . Symbolically, A  B .
or
Two matrices A and B are said to be congruent if they can be obtained from each other by applying
congruent operations.
4. Congruent matrices have same rank but need not have same determinant and trace.
5. If two matrices are congruent then they are equivalent also.
6. If two matrices are equivalent then they need not be congruent.
7. Every matrix congruent to a symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix.
Proof : Let a matrix B be congruent to a symmetric matrix A. Then, there exists a non-singular
matrix P such that B  P ' AP  B '   P ' AP  '  P ' A ' P  B (since A is symmetric)

Hence, B is also symmetric.

8. Every matrix congruent to a skew-symmetric matrix is skew-symmetric.
Proof : Let a matrix B be congruent to a skew-symmetric matrix A. Then, there exists a non-
singular matrix P such that B  P ' AP  B '   P ' AP  '  P ' A ' P  P '   A  P   B

Hence, B is also skew-symmetric.

9. A non-singular symmetric matrix is congruent to its inverse.
Proof : Let A be a non-singular symmetric matrix and let P  A1 . Then,
P ' AP  ( A1 ) ' AP  ( A ') 1 AP  A1 AP  P  A1
10. A matrix of positive rank is congruent to a diagonal matrix iff it is symmetric.
6 1 3 8
4 2 6 1
Example 1 : Reduce to row-echelon form the matrix A   . Also find the rank of A.
10 3 9 7
 
16 4 12 15 

 1 1 4
6 1 3 8 1 6 2 3
4 2 6 1   1
Solution : Let A  ~  4 2 6 1 (Operate R1  R1 )
10 3 9 7 10 3 9 7  6
   
16 4 12 15 
16 4 12 15 
Operate R2  R2  4 R1 , R3  R3  10 R1 , R4  R4  16 R1

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 1 1 4 
1 6 2 3 
 
0 4 4 
19 
 3 3 
~  
0 4 19
4  
 3 3 
 4 19 
0 4  
 3 3 
Operate R3  R3  R2 , R4  R4  R2

 1 1 4 
1 6 2 3 
 
4 19 
~ 0 4 
3 3 
 
0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 

 1 1 4 
1 6 2 3 
 
3 19 
Operate R2  R2 ~ 0 1 3 
4 4 
0 0
 0 0 
0 0 0 0 

which is the required row echelon form of the matrix. Clearly  ( A)  2 .

1  i 2 
Example 2 : Reduce the matrix A    to row echelon form and hence find the rank.
1  i 2i 
1  i 2 
Solution : Let A   
1  i 2i 
1 i
Operate R2  R2  R1 , we get
1 i
1  i 2 
A~  
 0 0
Which is the required row echelon form of the matrix and hence   A   1 .

Exercise 2.3
1. Reduce the following matrices to the row reduced echelon form, Also find their rank and nullity.
1 2 3 4  0 1 2 
1 2  3
(i)   (ii)  3 4 1 2  (iii)  4 3 1 
 2 5  4  4 3 1 2   4 2 3 

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Chapter 2 Rank of a matrix 73

 1 2 0 0  1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 2  0 1 8 0  1 1 2 3 1 
(iv)  2 1  3  6 
 (v)  (vi) 
1 0 0 0 2  2 1 0 2
 3 1 1 2     
0 0 0 1  1 1 1  3 3

2. Reduce the following matrices to the column reduced echelon form, Also find their rank and nullity.

1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1   1 2 0 1  1 3  2 1 
(i)  3 2 5 1  (ii)  2 6  3  3 (iii) 
2 0  3 2
 0 4 4  4   3 10  6  5  
3 3 0 3

3. Find the rank and nullity of the following matrices without using minors :
 1 2 1 4   1 1 1  2 4 3 
(i)  2 4 3 5  (ii)  1 1 1  (iii)  1 2 1 
     
 1 2 6 7   2 1 1   1  2 6 

1 2 3 0
 2 3 4 2  4 4 0 3
 3 1 2 4 3 2 
(iv) (v)  (vi)   2 3 1 5 
  3 2 1 3
 1 2 2     1 4 8 7 
6 8 7 5

1 0 1 1  1 2  3  1  1 2 0 1 
(vii) 3 2 5 1  (viii) 3  4 1 2 (ix)  2 6  3  3
     
 0 4 4  4  5 2 1 3   3 10  6  5

 3  2 0 1  1  6 1 3 8 
0 2 2 1  5 4 2 6  1 
(x)  (xi) 
1  2  3  3 1  10 3 9 7 
   
0 1 1 2 6 16 4 12 15 
4. Find the rank of the following complex (non-real) matrices :
 1 i 2 3i 
  3  5i 7  2i 
(i)  3 5i 2  i  (ii)  

5  2i i 8  i  9  2i 1  i 

5. Using only 0’s and 1’s, list all possible 2  2 matrices in row reduced echelon form.

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6. Using only 0’s and 1’s, find the number n of possible 3  3 matrices in row reduced echelon form.
7. Show that if any row is deleted from a matrix in echelon (respectively, row reduced echelon) form,
then the resulting matrix is still in echelon (respectively, row reduced echelon) form.
8. Let r  rank  A  B  . Find 2  2 matrices A and B such that :

(a) r  rank  A  , rank  B  (b) r  rank  A   rank  B  (c) r  rank  A  , rank  B  .

9. Show that the following matrices is congruent to a diagonal matrix :

0 1 2 3
 2 4 6 1 0 3 2 
(i)  4 3 8  (ii) 
2 3 0 1
 6 8 5  
3 2 1 0

10. If A   aij  where aij  i  j then show that   A   1 .

nn

11. If A   aij  where aij  k  i r  j s and k is a non zero complex number, r and s are positive
nn

integers then show that   A   1 .

12. Suppose b1, b2 ,..., bn are any numbers and n  3 . If A   aij  where aij  bi2  b2j for all i, j
nn

then show that   A   0 or 2 .

13. If A is a 5  9 matrix and B is a 9  5 matrix such that   AB   5 then show that

  A    B   5 .

Answers
 1 
1 0 0 9 
 
 1 0 7  1 
1. (i)   and ( A)  2 , nullity ( A)  1 (ii)  0 1 0 and ( A)  3 , nullity ( A)  1
 0 1 2   9 
 
 0 0 1 11 
 9 

 7 
1 0 4  1 0 0 0
 
(iii)  0 1  2  , ( A)  2 , nullity ( A)  1 (iv)  0 1 0 0  and ( A)  3 , nullity ( A)  1
0 0 0   0 0 1 2 
 
 
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2
0 1 0 0  0 1 0 0 1 
(v)  and ( A)  4 , nullity ( A)  0 (vi)  , ( A)  3 , nullity ( A)  2
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 0
   
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
2. (i) 2 , 2 (ii) 2 , 2 (iii) 3 , 1
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Chapter 2 Rank of a matrix 75

3. (i) 2 , 2 (ii) 3 , 0 (iii) 2 , 1 (iv) 2 , 1 (v) 3 , 1 (vi) 3 , 1 (vii) 2 , 2

(viii) 3 , 1 (ix) 2 , 2 (x) 4 , 1 (xi) 2 , 2
4. (i) 2 (ii) 2
 1 0  1 1  1 0   0 1   0 0 
5. 5 :  , , , ,  6. 16
 0 1  0 0  0 0   0 0  0 0 
1 1  1 1 1 0 0 2 1 0  0 0
8. (a) A   , B  (b) A   , B  (c) A    , B 
 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0  0 0  0 1 
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.4 Normal form
Def. Normal form of a matrix : (Canonical form) : Any of the following form of a matrix are
called normal (canonical) form
 Ir : O   Ir 
.... .... .... where I is the identity matrix of order r.
Ir ,  
,  Ir : O ,
  r

 O : O   O 

 I O  Ir 
If A = Ir or  r  or [ I r O] ,   then  ( A)  r
 O O O 
 I O
Theorem : If A is an m  n matrix of rank r, then A is equivalent to the matrix  r  which is
 O O
normal form.
Proof : If A is null matrix then clearly it is in the normal form so let A  O
Let aij =  be a non-zero element of A. We can bring this to (1, 1) position i.e., top left position
by interchanging the first row with the ith row and then the first column with jth column. Thus A is
equivalent to matrix B with   0 as its 1,1 entry.

1
Now operate R1   so that first entry of B becomes 1. By subtracting suitable multiplies of

first row from the remaining rows, we can make all elements 0 in the first column below the first
element.
Similarly, by subtracting suitable multiples of the first column from the remaining columns of
B, we make all elements 0 except the first element in the first row. Let the new matrix be C.
1 0   I1 O 
Thus A~C   
0 D   O D 
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76 Linear Algebra
If D  0 , we stop, otherwise we repeat the argument with D. The row and column operations will not
change the entries in the first row and first column.
1 0 0 
 I O
Thus, we can obtain A~ 0 1 0    2
  O E 
 0 0 E  

Continuing the above process, after a finite number of row and column operations, we have
I O
A~  k  , which is the normal form.
 O O
 I O
Since ( A)  r and rank of  k k . Therefore r  k
 O O

Exercise 2.4
Reduce the following matrices to the normal form and hence find their ranks :
 1 2 1 1 1 1  1 1 1   1 2 1 3 
1.  1 0 2  2.  1 1 1  3.  2 1  1  4.  2 4 4 7 

 2 1 3   3 1 1   3 1 1   1 2 1 2 

 1 2 1 0
 2 2 0 6  
9 0 2 3 1 1 1
2 4 2 0  3 2 1 2 
2 
5.  0 1 5 6  6.  4 2 1 2  7.   8.  2 1 2 5
  1 1 0 3   
 4 5 3 0   2 2 2 0     5 6 3 2
 1 2 1 2   1 3 1  3

 1 1 2 3 
9 7 3 6 
5 4 1 0 2 
9. 1 4 1 10. 
   0 3 0 4 
 6 8 2 4   
 0 1 0 2 

Answers
 I2 0
1. I3 ,   3 2. I3 ,   3 3. 0 , 2
 0 

 I2 0
4. 0 , 2 5.  I3 0  , 3 6.  I3 0  , 3
 0 

 I3 0   I3 0 
7.  0 0 , 3 8.  0 0 , 3 9.  I3 0  , 3
   
10. I4 ,   4

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2.5 Elementary Matrices

Def . A matrix obtained from a unit matrix by a single elementary transformation is called an
elementary matrix (or E-matrix).
1 0 0
For example, if we operate R1  R2 , R3  R3  3 R1 , R2  R2  2 R1 on the unit matrix I 3   0 1 0  ,
 0 0 1 

0 1 0  1 0 0 1 0 0
we obtain the following elementary matrices  1 0 0  ,  0 1 0  ,  2 1 0 
     
 0 0 1    3 0 1   0 0 1 

Notation for elementary matrices :

(i) Eij will denote the elementary matrix obtained by interchanging the ith and jth row of a unit matrix.

(ii) Fij will denote the elementary matrix obtained by interchanging the ith and jth column of a unit matrix.

(iii) Ei (k ) will denote the elementary matrix obtained by multiplying the ith row of a unit matrix by a

non-zero number k.
(iv) Fi (k ) will denote the elementary matrix obtained by multiplying the ith column of a unit matrix

by a non-zero number k.
(v) Ei j (k ) will denote the elementary matrix, obtained by adding to the elements of the ith row of a

unit matrix the products by any number k of the corresponding elements of the jth row.
(vi) Fi j (k ) will denote the elementary matrix, obtained by adding to the elements of the ith column of

a unit matrix the products by any number k of the corresponding elements of the jth column.
Remark : Here it should be noted that matrices obtained by interchanging the ith and jth row of a unit
matrix or by interchanging the ith and jth column of a unit matrix are same. Therefore, we have
Ei j  Fi j .

Similarly , we have Ei (k )  Fi (k )

But it is very interesting to note that Ei j (k )  F j i (k )

Result 1 : The elementary matrices are non-singular.

Proof : We know that there are three type of elementary matrices, namely,
Eij , Ei (k ) and Eij (k )

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Now, Eij is obtained from identity matrix by interchange of two rows (or columns), so

| Ei j |   | I |  1 0

Again, Ei (k ) is obtained from identity matrix by multiplying the ith row (or column) by k   0  , so

| Ei (k ) |  k | I |  k .1  k  0

Finally, Eij (k ) is obtained from identity matrix by multiplying the jth row (or column), by k and then

adding it to ith row (or column) so by properties of determinants, we have | Eij (k )|  | I |  1  0 .

Hence, elementary matrices are non-singular.

Result 2 : Let A and B are two matrices of order m  n and n  p . Then any elementary row operation
applied on the pre-factor of AB or on the product AB gives the same result.
Another form of above result : Let B  PA , where P and A are the matrices conformable for
multiplication. If any elementary row operation is applied on B then on the right hand side it will be
applied on pre-factor P only.
Result 3 : If A is an m  n matrix and E an elementary row matrix of order m, then EA is the same as
the matrix obtained from A by applying the elementary row operation to which E corresponds.
Result 4 : Let A and B are two matrices of order m  n and n  p . Then any elementary column
operation applied on the post-factor of AB or on the product AB gives the same result.
Result 5 : If A is an m  n matrix and F an elementary column matrix of order n, then AF is the same
as the matrix obtained from A by applying the elementary column operations to which F corresponds.
Result 6 : The inverse of any elementary matrix is also an elementary matrix of same type.
Result 7 : Inverse of elementary matrices :
1
(i) Eij1  Eij (ii) Ei1  k   Ei   (iii) Eij1  k   Eij   k 
k
1
(iv) Fij1  Fij (v) Fi 1  k   Fi   (vi) Fij1  k   Fij   k 
k
Result 8 : Two matrices A and B are equivalent if and only if there exist non-singular matrices P and
Q such that PAQ = B.
Proof : Let A and B be equivalent. Then, B can be obtained from A by applying in succession a finite
number of row and column operations. Let E1 , E2 ,......, Er ; F1 , F2 ,......, Fs be the elementary matrices
corresponding to the row and column operations which reduce A to B. Since each elementary row
(column) operation of a matrix can be brought about by pre-multiplication (post-multiplication) with
the corresponding elementary matrix, therefore, we have
Er ......... E2 E1 A F1 F2 ............. Fs  B

 PAQ  B where P  Er ..... E2 E1 and Q  F1 F2 .....Fs

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P and Q are non-singular matrices since the elementary matrices are non-singular and product of non-
singular matrices is non-singular.
Cor 1 : If A is an m  n matrix of rank r, then there exist non-singular matrices P and Q of order m and
 I O
n respectively, such that PAQ   r .
 O O
 I O
Proof : Since A is of rank r, A is equivalent to the matrix  r  in the normal form.
 O O
 I O
there exists non-singular matrices P and Q of order m and n respectively, such that PAQ   r .
 O O
Cor. 2 : If A is a square non-singular matrix of order n then, there exist non-singular matrices P and
Q such that PAQ  I n .

Proof : Since every matrix is equivalent to its normal form so A is equivalent to I n .

 There exist non-singular matrices P and Q (as in the above theorem) such that PAQ  I n .

Cor. 3 : Every non-singular matrix can be expressed as a product of elementary matrices.

Proof : Let A be a non-singular matrix of order n.
 there exists non-singular matrices P and Q (by above theorem) such that PAQ  I n

Let P  E1 E2 ..... Er and Q  F1 F2 ......Fs where E1 , E2 ,...., Er and F1 , F2 ,..., Fs are elementary

matrices.
Thus, E1 E2 .....Er A F1 F2 ......Fs  I n

 A  Er 1...... E2 1 E11 Fs 1....... F2 1 F11

 A is the product of elementary matrices since the inverse of an elementary matrix is an

elementary matrix.
Cor. 4 : (i) If A is non-singular, then   AB    B  and   BA     B  .

(ii) If P and Q are non-singular, then   PAQ     A  .

Proof : (i) Every non-singular matrix can be expressed as the product of elementary matrices. Also,
elementary row (column) operations are equivalent to pre-multiplication (post multiplication) with the
corresponding elementary matrices and elementary matrices do not alter the rank of a matrix. Hence,
the result.
(ii) Directly follows from part (i).

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Result 9 : The rank of the product of two matrices cannot exceed the rank of either matrix.
i.e.,   AB     A  and   AB     B  .

Working rule to express a non-singular matrix as a product of elementary matrices :

(i) First reduce the given matrix A into the unit matrix by using elementary row operations and
elementary column operations.
(ii) Suppose E1 , E2 ,....., Er are the elementary matrices corresponding to the elementary row

operations which are applied in succession in above step (i). Similarly let F1 , F2 ,......., Fs be the

elementary matrices corresponding to the elementary column operations which are applied in
succession in above step (i).
(iii) Then we can write I n   Er ......E2 E1  A  F1 F2 ...... Fs  ......(1)

Here it should be noted that the matrices Ei ' s are written in reverse order on left of A and the

matrices Fi’s are written in direct order on right of A.

(iv) By (1), we have
1 1 1 1
 Er ........E2 E1  I n  F1 F2 .......Fs    Er .....E2 E1   Er .....E2 E1  A  F1 F2 ....Fs   F1 F2 ......Fs 
1 1
 A =  Er ........ E2 E1   F1 F2 ...........Fs 
 A  E11 E21.......Er1 Fs1..........F21 F11

 1 2 1
Example 1 : Express A   1 0 2  as the product of elementary matrices.

 2 1 3 

 1 2 1
Solution : The given matrix is A   1 0 2
 
 2 1 3 

 1 2 1
Operating R3  R3  2 R2 , A ~  1 0 2
 
 0 1 7 

 1 2 1
Operating R2  R2  R1 , A~  0 2 3 
 
 0 1 7 

 1 0 0
Operating C2  C2  2C1 , C3  C3  C1 , A ~  0 2 3 
 0 1 7 

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 2 Rank of a matrix 81

 1 0 0
Operating R2  R3 , A~ 0 1 7
 
 0 2 3 

 1 0 0
Operating R3  R3  2 R2 , A~  0 1 7 
 
 0 0 11 

 1 0 0 
Operating C3  C3  7C2 , A~  0 1 0 
 
 0 0 11 

 1 0 0
1
Operating R3   R3 , A ~  0 1 0
11  
 0 0 1

We note that applying the elementary operations

 1
R3,2 (2) , R2,1 (1), C2,1 ( 2), C3,1 (1), R2,3 , R3, 2 ( 2), C3,2 ( 7) , R3   
 11 
we can reduce A to I 3 .

 1
If E32 (2) , E21 (1), F21 ( 2), F31 (1), E23 , E32 ( 2), F32 ( 7) , E3    are the corresponding
 11 
elementary matrices then
  1 
I 3   E3    E32 ( 2) E23 E21 (1) E32 (2)  A  F21 ( 2) F31 (1) F32 ( 7) 
  11  
1
  1  1
 A   E3    E32 ( 2) E23 E21 (1) E32 (2)   F21 ( 2) F31 ( 1) F32 ( 7) 
  11  
1
1 1 1 1   1  1 1 1
 A   E32 (2)  E 21 (1)   E23  E32 ( 2)   E3     F
32 (  7)  F 31 ( 1)  F
21 (  2) 
  11  
 A  E32 (2) E21 (1) E23 E32 ( 2) E3  11 F32 ( 7) F31 (1) F21 ( 2)

 1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0
 A   0 1 0  1 1 0  0 0 1  0 1 0  0 1 0
        
 0 2 1   0 0 1   0 1 0   0 2 1   0 0 11 

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82 Linear Algebra

 1 0 0  1 0 1  1 2 0
 0 1 7  0 1 0  0 1 0
     
 0 0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1 

Working Rule to find P and Q so that PAQ is in normal form :

(i) If A is a m  n matrix then we write A  I m A I n .....(1)

where I m and I n denotes the identity matrices of order m and n respectively.

(ii) Check the entry a11 . If a11  0 , its okay but if a11  0 , then make it non-zero by suitable

row operations or column operations. Any row operation which is applied on L.H.S. of (1) is
also to be applied on pre – factor I m of R.H.S. of (1). Similarly any column operation which is

applied on L.H.S. of (1) is also to be applied on post factor I n of R.H.S.

1
(iii) Make a11 equal to 1 by multiplying first row by and apply the same row operation on the
a11
pre-factor of R.H.S.
(iv) Make 0’s below a11 by applying row operation and apply the same row operation on pre-factor
of R.H.S.
(v) Make 0’s on the right of a11 by applying column operations and apply the same column
operations on the post factor of R.H.S.
(vi) Repeat the above process on a22 , a33 ,......... until all non – diagonal elements on the L.H.S.

I O
become zero and suppose we have obtained  r   PAQ and then r is the rank of the
O O
matrix A.

Example 2 : Find the non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ is in the normal form, where

 1 2 3 2 
A   2 2 1 3  .
 
 3 0 4 1 

 1 2 3 2 
Solution : A   2 2 1 3  the matrix A is of order 3  4 , so we consider
 
 3 0 4 1 

1 0 0 0
 1 2 3 2   1 0 0  
 2 2 1 3    0 1 0  A 0 1 0 0 
A  I3 A I 4 i.e.     0 0 1 0
 3 0 4 1   0 0 1   
0 0 0 1

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 2 Rank of a matrix 83

Operating R2  R2  (2) R1 , R3  R3  (3) R1 , we get

1 0 0 0
 1 2 3 2   1 0 0  
 0 6 5 7    2 1 0  A 0 1 0 0 
    0 0 1 0
 0 6 5 7   3 0 1   
0 0 0 1

Operating R3  R3  (1) R2 , we get

1 0 0 0
 1 2 3 2   1 0 0 
 0 6 5 7    2 1 0 A  0 1 0 0 
    0 0 1 0
 0 0 0 0   1 1 1   
0 0 0 1

Operating C2  C2  (2)C1 , C3  C3  (3)C1 , C4  C4  2C1 , we get

1 2 3 2
1 0 0 0   1 0 0 
 0 6 5 7    2 1 0  A  0 1 0 0 
    0 0 1 0
 0 0 0 0   1 1 1   
0 0 0 1

 1 
1 3 2 
3
 1 0 0 0   1 0 0  
 1 1
Operating C2     C2 , we get  0 1 5 7    2 1 0 A  0  0 0

 6 6
 0 0 0 0   1 1 1   
0 0 1 0
 0 0 0 1 

Operating C3  C3  5C2 , C4  C4  (7)C2

 1 4 1
1 3   
3 3
 1 0 0 0  1 0 0    I2 : O 
 0 1 0 0   2 1 0  A 0  1 
5 7   .... ....   PAQ
 
    6 6 6   
 0 0 0 0  1 1 1     O : O 
0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 1 

 1 4 1
1 3   
3 3
 1 0 0  
1 5 7 
where P  2 1 0 , Q =  0 
  
  6 6 6 
 1 1 1   
 0 0 1 0 
 0 0 0 1 

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84 Linear Algebra

Exercise 2.5
1. Find the elementary matrices corresponding to the following elementary operations. Also find the
inverse of the elementary matrices and verify your answer.
(i) R1,3 (ii) R2 (3) (iii) R1,2 (4) (iv) C2,3 (v) C3 (5) (vi) C3,1 (7)

2. Express the following matrices as a product the elementary matrices

 1 2 1  1 3 3  1 2 1  1 1 1 
(i)  2 5 2  (ii)  1 4 3  (iii)  3 1 2  (iv)  4 2 2 
 1 2 1   1 3 4   0 1 2   2 2 0 
3. For the following find non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ is in normal form and hence
determine the rank of A.
1 1 1  1 1 2 
 2 2 6  1 2 1 
(i)   (ii)   (iii)  1 1 1  (iv)  1 2 3 
 1 2 2  3 4 1   3 1 1   0 1 1 

1 1 2 3 
 3 2 1 5   1 2 1 2  1 3 0 3 
(v)  5 1 4 2  (vi)  1 5 2 3  (vii) 
  1 2 3 3 
 1 4 11  19   1 2 1 2   
1 1 2 3 

Answers
 1 0 0   1 0 0   1 0 0   1 0 1 1 2 0 
2. (i)  2 1 0   0 1 0   0 1 0   0 1 0  0 1 0 
 0 0 1   1 0 1   0 0 2   0 0 1  0 0 1 

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 3 1 3 0
(ii)  1 1 0  0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
     
 0 0 1   1 0 1   0 0 1   0 0 1 

 1 0 0   1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0   1 0 0  1 0 1  1 1 0 
    
(iii)  3 1 0   0 5 0 0 1 0  0 1  0   0 1 1/ 5  0 1 0  0 1 0 
      
 0 0 1   0 0 1  0 1 1   0 0 9 / 5   0 0 1  0 0 1   0 0 1 

 1 0 0   1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 1 1 1 0 
(iv)  4 1 0   0 1 0   0 6 0   0 1 0   0 1 0  0 1 1  0 1 0  0 1 0 
     
 0 0 1   2 0 1   0 0 1   0 4 1   0 0  2  0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 1 

3. Although the matrices P and Q are not unique here we are giving one of the answers
 1 1/ 3 8 / 3 
 1/ 2 0   0 1/ 3 1/ 3  ; ( A)  2
(i) P    and Q   
 1/ 2 1   0 0 1 

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 2 Rank of a matrix 85

 1 2 3 
 1 0  0 1
(ii) P    and Q  2  ; ( A)  2
 
 3 / 2 1/ 2   0 0 1 

 1 0 0  1 1 0 
(iii) P   1/ 2 1/ 2 0  and Q 
  0 1 1  ; ( A)  2
 
  2 1 1   0 0 1 

 1 0 0  1 1 1 
(iv) P   1 1 0  and Q   0 1 1  ; ( A)  2
 
 1 1 1   0 0 1 

 1 4 / 7 9 / 119 9 / 217 
0 0 1   0 1/ 7 1/ 7 1/ 7 
(v) P  0 1/ 3  5 / 3  and Q 
   ; ( A)  2
  0 0 1/ 17 0 
 1  2 / 3 1/ 3   
0 0 0 1/ 31 
 1  2 / 3 1/ 3  4 / 3 
 1 0 0   0 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 
(vi) P   1 1 0  and
 Q   ; ( A)  3
0 0 1 0 
 1/ 2 0 1/ 2   
0 0 0 1 

 1 0 0 0   1 1 1/ 3  3 / 4 
 1/ 3 0 1/ 3 0   0 1 5 / 3 3 / 4 
(vii) P    and Q    ; ( A)  3
 5 / 16  3 / 16 1/ 8 0  0 0 1 3 / 4 
   
 1 0 0 1  0 0 0 1 

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 2 Rank of a matrix 87

True-false exercise 9. A row-equivalent pair of matrices is

1 2 1 1 0 3 
1. This matrix is in row echelon form :  2 7 8 0 1 2 
   
5 4 2 
0 0 7 
  10. Any 1 occurring in the reduced row
echelon form of a matrix is called a pivot
2. This matrix is in reduced row echelon form element.
0 1 3 0
:   11. There exists a nonzero matrix in reduced
0 0 0 1 
row echelon form such that one column can
be removed, leaving a matrix in reduced
3. None of these four matrices is in reduced
row echelon form.
row echelon form :
0 1 3 2  12. If two matrices A and B are row equivalent
0 0  0 1  0 0 0 1 
1 0  1 0    to each other, then the two matrices have
    0 0 0 0  the same number of rows.
0 1 3 0
0 0 0 1  13. This matrix is in reduced row echelon
  0 3 6 1 
0 0 0 0 form :  
0 0 0 7 
4. This matrix is in reduced row echelon
14. The following matrix is in row echelon
0 1 0 2
0 0 1
0 0 1  3
form :  1 
0 0 0 0 form : 
  0 0
0 0 1 3  
0 1

5. The following matrix is in reduced row

15. This matrix is in row echelon form :
echelon form :
0 9 3 7 6 7 
0 1 7 0 6 8 0 0 0 6 2 5
0 0 0 1 5 3  
 0 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 2   2 7 8
6. This matrix is in row echelon form : 16.  ~
1 0 3  1 2 1
5 3 2 1 
0 3 2 4 
  17. These two matrices are row equivalent to
each other :
7. This matrix is in reduced row echelon
3 4 2   2 1 0 
1 5 0 3 1 3 2  ~  1 3 2 
form :      
0 0 1 6
18. This matrix in row echelon form :
8. The number of pivots in a matrix is equal to
the number of rows that contain pivots.

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88 Linear Algebra

0 1 4 2 echelon form, then the resulting matrix is

0 0 5 3  still in echelon form.

0 0 0 7
  31. If any column is deleted from a matrix in
0 0 0 0 row canonical form, then the resulting
matrix is still in row reduced echelon form.
2 4 2  1 0 3
19.  ~ 
 6 21 24  0 1 2 32. If any column without a pivot is deleted
from a matrix in row canonical form, then
20. This matrix is in reduced row echelon the resulting matrix is in row reduced
1 0 1 0
echelon form.
form : 0 1 1 0
 
0 0 0 0 Assignment

---------------- S C Q ---------------------
21. All nonzero matrices have several row
echelon forms. 1. If x, y , z are in A.P. with common

22. Some matrices have several reduced row difference d and the rank of the matrix
echelon forms. 4 5 x
5 6 y  is 2, then the value of d and k
23. If A ~ C and A ~ D , then C ~ D .  
 6 k z 
24. Two different matrices can be row
equivalent to a third matrix that is in are
reduced row echelon form. x
1. d  ; k is an arbitrary number
2
25. A matrix can be row equivalent to two
different matrices that is in reduced row 2. d an arbitrary number; k  7
echelon form. 3. d  k ; k  5
26. There exist examples of matrices A, B and x
C such that A is row equivalent to C and B 4. d  ; k  6
2
is row equivalent to C but A is not row
equivalent to B.
2. Square matrix A of order n over  has
27. There exists a 4  4 matrix A having three
pivot positions, namely, a11, a23 and a44 . rank n. Which one of the following
statement is not correct ?
2 9 4 3
0 1. AT has rank n
7 8 5 
28. The rank of the matrix  2. A has n linearly independent columns
0 0 6 2 
  3. A is non-singular
0 0 3 1
is 4. 4. A is singular

29. It is possible for a p  q matrix to have 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 
rank p  1 . 3. If X   , then the rank of
0 0 0 1
30. If any column is deleted from a matrix in  
0 0 0 0
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Chapter 2 Rank of a matrix 89

X T X , where X T denotes the transpose of 4. rank( A2 )  rank( A)  rank( A3 )  rank( A2 )

X , is (GATE)
1. 0 2. 2 7. Let A be n  n matrix over  . Consider
3. 3 4. 4 the following statements
4. Consider the following statement I. rank A  n
Assertion(A): If M is an n  n matrix with II. det( A)  0
rank (n  1) , then M can be made non- Then,
singular by changing one element. 1. I  II but II does not imply I
Reason (R): An n  n matrix with rank 2. II  I but I does not imply II
n  1 , has a non-vanishing minor of order 3. I  II
n 1. 4. There is no relation between the
1. Both A and R are true and R is the statements
correct explanation of A . 8. If M is a 7  5 matrix of rank 3 and N is a
2. Both A and R are true, but R is not a 5  7 matrix of rank 5, then rank ( MN ) is
correct explanation of A . 1. 5 2. 3
3. A is true but R is false. 3. 2 4. 1
4. A is false but R is true.

 4 2 1 3
1 1 0 9. The rank of the matrix  6 3 4 7  is
 1 1 2   2 1 0 1 
5. Let M   . Then, the rank of M
2 2 0
  1. 4 2. 3 3. 2 4. 1
 1 0 1
is equal to
10. If the rank of a 5  6 matrix A is 4, then
1. 3 2. 4 3. 2 4. 1
which one of the following statements is
correct?
6. Let A  C mn and A ', A * denote, 1. A will have four linearly independent
respectively the transpose and conjugate rows and four linearly independent
transpose of A . Then, columns
1. rank ( AA * A)  rank ( A) 2. A will have four linearly independent
2. rank ( A)  rank ( A2 ) rows and five linearly independent

3. rank ( A)  rank ( A ' A) columns

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90 Linear Algebra

3. AAT will be invertible 1. det( D )  0  rank( D )  0

4. AT A will be invertible 2. det( D )  1  rank( D )  1
3. rank ( D )  1  det( D )  0
11. Let A, B, C be m  n matrices. Then, rank 4. rank ( D )  n  det( D )  1
 A B (CSIR NET June 2011)
 0 C  is
  16. Let A, B be two n  n matrices. Then,
1. equal to [rank ( A)  rank( B)  rank(C )] incorrect statement is
2. equal to [rank( A)  rank( B)  rank(C )] 1. trace ( AB)  trace ( BA)
3. equal to [rank (A)+rank(C)rank(B)] 2.  ( AB)   ( BA)
4. atleast rank A  rank C 3. AB  BA

4. if AB  0, then r ( A)  r ( B)  2n
12. Consider the two statements
17. In context of a matrix, which one of the
I.rank ( A)  rank( B)  max{rank( A), rank( B)}
following is not an elementary row
II.rank ( A)  rank( B )  min{rank( A), rank( B )}
operation?
Then, 1. Interchanging of two rows
1. I is true but II is false 2. To multiply any row by a non-zero
2. II is true but I is false scalar
3. Both are true 3. Ri  R j  kRs , where Ri  ith row, k
4. Both are false
any scalar
13. Let A  [aij ] be an n  n matrix such that
4. None of the above
aij  3 for all i and j . Then the nullity of 18. The rank of the 4  4 skew-symmetric
A is 0 1 0 1
 1 0 1 0 
1. n  1 2. n  3
matrix  is
 0 1 0 1
3. n 4. 0  
14. Let A be a non-zero matrix of order 8 with  1 0 1 0
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
A2  0. Then, one of the possible value for
rank of A is
19. Let A be a matrix of order m  n and B be a
1. 5 2. 6
matrix of order n  p, n  p. If rank ( A)  n
3. 4 4. 8
and rank ( B )  p , then the rank ( AB) is

15. Let D be a non-zero n  n real matrix with 1. n 2. p

n  2. Which of the following implications 3. np 4. n  p
is valid?

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 2 Rank of a matrix 91

20. If A be an n  n matrix of rank 24. Let T be the matrix (occurring in a typical

n  2 ; n  2, then the rank of adj A is transportation problem) given by
1. n 2. n  1 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 
3. 2 4. 0 
1 0 1 0
21. For a fixed positive integer n  3, let A be  
0 1 0 1
1
the n  n matrix defined as A  I  J, Then,
n
1. Rank T  4 and T is unimodular
where I is the identity matrix and J is the
2. Rank T  4 and T is not unimodular
n  n matrix with all entries equal to 1.
3. Rank T  3 and T is unimodular
Which of the following statements is NOT
4. Rank T  3 and T is not unimodular
true ?
(GATE 2001)
1. Ak  A for every positive integer k.
25. If A be a n  1 non zero column matrix then
2. trace  A   n  1
the rank of n  n matrix AA ' is
3. rank  A   rank  I  A   n 1. 0 2. 1 3. n  1 4. n
4. A is invertible 26. The rank of the following  n  1   n  1
(CSIR NET Dec 2013) matrix where a is real number
22. Let A, B be n  n real matrices. Which of
1 a a 2 ... a n 
the following statements is correct ?  
1 a a 2 ... a n 
is
1. rank  A  B   rank  A   rank  B      
 
1 a a 2 ... a n 
2. rank  A  B   rank  A   rank  B 
1. 1 2. 2
3. rank  A  B   min rank  A  , rank  B 
3. n 4. depends on ‘a’
4. rank  A  B   max rank  A  , rank  B  27. Let A be an n  m matrix with each entry
equal to 1,  1 or 0 such that every column
CSIR NET June 2012)
has exactly one 1 and exactly one 1 . We
k 1 2  can conclude that
23. If the nullity of the matrix  1 1 2 is 1. rank A  n  1
 1 1 4  2. rank A  m
1, then the value of k is 3. n  m
1. 1 2. 0 3. 1 4. 2 4. n  1  m
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
(GATE 2010)

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92 Linear Algebra

28. Let A be a  m  n  matrix and B be a I 4 is the 4  4 identity matrix. Which of the

n m matrix over real numbers with following is/are always true ?
1. rank  A   4
m  n . Then
1. AB is always nonsingular 2. rank  B   7
2. AB is always singular 3. nullity  B   0
3. BA is always nonsingular
4. BA  I 7 , where I 7 is the 7  7 identity
4. BA is always singular
(CSIR NET June 2018) matrix
29. What is the rank of the following matrix ? (CSIR NET Dec 2014)

1 1 1 1 1
True false key
1
 2 2 2 2 
1. T 2. T 3. F 4. F
1 2 3 3 3
  5. F 6. T 7. T 8. T
1 2 3 4 4
1 2 3 4 5  9. T 10. F 11. T 12. T

13. F 14. F 15. T 16. T
1. 2 2. 3
17. T 18. T 19. T 20. T
3. 4 4. 5
21. T 22. F 23. T 24. T
(CSIR NET June 2019)
25. F 26. F 27. F 28. F

------------------ M C Q -------------------- 29. F 30. F 31. F 32. T

1. Let A and B be the n  n real matrices such
that AB  BA  0 and A  B is invertible. Assignment key
Which of the following are always true ?
SCQ
1. rank  A   rank  B 
1. 2 2. 4 3. 3 4. 2
2. rank  A   rank  B   n 5. 3 6. 1 7. 3 8. 2
3. nullity  A   nullity  B   n 9. 3 10. 1 11. 4 12. 4
4. A  B is invertible 13. 1 14. 3 15. 2 16. 2
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) 17. 3 18. 4 19. 2 20. 4
2. Let A be 5  5 matrix and let B be obtained
21. 4 22. 2 23. 1 24. 4
by changing one element of A. Let r and s
25. 2 26. 1 27. 1 28. 4
be the ranks of A and B respectively. Which
of the following statements is/are correct ? 29. 4
1. s  r  1 2. r  1  s
3. s  r  1 4. s  r MCQ
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
1. 2,3,4 2. 1,2 3. 1,3

3. Let A be a 4  7 real matrix and B be a

7  4 real matrix such that AB  I 4 , where

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Chapter 3
System of linear equations
You are what you repeatedly do. Excellence is not an event-it is a habit.
– Aristotle

3.1 System of non-homogeneous linear equations

Consider a system of m linear non-homogeneous equations in n unknowns x1 , x2 ,......., xn

a11 x1  a12 x2  .............  a1n xn  b1 


a21 x1  a22 x2  .............  a2 n xn  b2 

......................................................  ......(1)
...................................................... 

am1 x1  am 2 x2  ............  amn xn  bm 

This system can be written as a single matrix equation Ax  b

 a11 a12 .... a1n   x1   b1 

a a22 .... a2 n  x   b2 
where A   21 , x  2 , b   
 .... .... .... ....     
     
 am1 am 2 .... amn  m n  xn  n 1  bm  m 1
The matrix A is called the co-efficient matrix of the system of equations (1). Any set of values of
x1 , x2 ,........., xn which simultaneously satisfy all these equations is called a solution of system (1).

When the system of equations has one or more solutions, the equations are said to be consistent,
otherwise they are said to be inconsistent.
 a11 a12 .... a1n : b1 
a a22 .... a2 n : b2 
 21 
The matrix [ A : b]   .... .... .... .... : ....  is called the Augmented matrix of the given system.
 
 .... .... .... .... : .... 
 am1 am 2 .... amn : bm 
94 Linear Algebra

Results :
1. The system of linear equations Ax  b is consistent i.e., possesses a solution if and only if the co-
efficient matrix A and the augmented matrix  A: b  are of the same rank.

2. If A be an n  n square matrix and x and b be n  1 matrices then the system of equations Ax  b

possesses a unique solution if the matrix A is non-singular (i.e., if A1 exists).
3.   A     A : b  iff the last column of  A : b  has no pivot.

4.   A     A : b  iff the last column of  A : b  has a pivot.

5. Working rule for finding a solution of a system of non-homogeneous linear equations Ax  b :
Write the augmented matrix  A:b and reduce it to row echelon form to find the rank of  A:b

and A. Now
(i) [ A : b ]   ( A) iff the system of equations is inconsistent.
(ii) [ A : b ]   ( A)  number of unknowns iff the system is consistent and has a unique
solution.
(iii) [ A : b ]   ( A)  number of unknowns iff the system is consistent and has an infinite
number of solutions. In this case if there are n unknowns and  ( A)  r , then by giving
arbitrary values to n  r unknowns, we get the values of r unknowns.
6. A system of linear equations Ax  b is consistent iff b can be expressed as the linear
combination of columns of A.

 a11 a12 ... a1n   x1 

a a22 ... a2 n  x 
Proof : Let A   21  be any m  n matrix and x   2  be n  1 column vector, then
      
   
 am1 am 2 ... amn   xn 

 a11 x1  a12 x2  ...  a1n xn 

 a x  a x  ...  a x 
Ax  
21 1 22 2 2n n 
is m  1 column vector.
  
 
 am1 x1  am 2 x2  ...  amn xn 

 a11 x1  a12 x2  ...  a1n xn 

 a x  a x  ...  a x 
Let Ax  b is consistent, then b   21 1 22 2 2n n 
is written as the linear combination
  
 
 am1 x1  am 2 x2  ...  amn xn 
of columns of A.

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 3 System of linear equations 95

n
Conversely : Let b can be expressed as the linear combination of columns of A i.e., b   xi ai
i 1

where ai are the columns of A and xi are scalars, then the vector x having components xi is a

solution of the system Ax  b .

Remark : A system of linear equations need not be consistent if b is expressed as the linear
combination of rows of A.
1 3  3
Example : Let A    and b    , then b is expressed as the linear combination of rows of A but
2 6 9 
the system of equations Ax  b is inconsistent.
7. Let A be any m  n matrix. The system of equations Ax  b is consistent for all b   m iff each
row of the coefficient matrix A has a pivot position.
8. Let A be any m  n matrix and b be a m  1 vector (with real entries). If Ax  b , x   n has a
unique solution, then m  n and   A   n .

9. In a non-homogeneous system,
(i) If number of variables  number of equations, then the system has either no solution or
infinitely many solutions.
(ii) If number of variables  number of equations, then the system may have no solution, unique
solution or infinitely many solutions.

Sr. No. Relation Unique solution Infinite solutions No solution

1. V E not possible x  y  2z  1 x  y  2z  1
2x  y  z  7 5 x  5 y  10 z  6
2. V E x  2y 1 x  2y 1 x  2y 1
2x  3 y  4 2x  4 y  2 2x  4 y  3
3. VE x  2y 1 x  2y 1 x  2y 1
2x  3 y  4 2x  4 y  2 2x  3 y  4
3x  5 y  5 3x  6 y  3 3x  5 y  6

Example 1 : Show that the equations x  y  z  6, x  2 y  3 z  14 , x  4 y  7 z  30

are consistent and solve them .
Solution : The given system of equations can be written as a single matrix equation

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96 Linear Algebra

1 1 1   x   6 
AX   1 2 3   y   14   B
     
 1 4 7   z  30 

1 1 1: 6 
The augmented matrix is [ A : B]   1 2 3 : 14 
 
 1 4 7 : 30 

We shall reduce the augmented matrix  A : B  to row echelon form by applying elementary row

transformations only.
Operating R2  R2  R1 , R3  R3  R1

1 1 1 : 6 
[ A : B] ~ 0 1 2 : 8 
 
 0 3 6 : 24 
Operating R3  R3  3R2

1 1 1 : 6
~ 0 1 2 : 8
 
 0 0 0 : 0 

which is the row echelon form of the matrix  A : B  .

We have rank of  A: B   the number of non-zero rows in echelon form  2 .

Also by the same elementary transformations, we get

1 1 1 
A ~ 0 1 2
 
 0 0 0 

 rank of A  2 .
Since rank A  rank  A : B   2  number of unknowns therefore the given equations are consistent and

will have an infinite number of solutions.

We see that the given system of equations is equivalent to the matrix equation

1 1 1  x 6
0 1 2  y  8
     
 0 0 0   z   0 

which gives the equations

x y z 6 ……(1)
y  2z  8 ……(2)

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 3 System of linear equations 97

From (2), y  8  2 z . Putting the value of y in (1), we get

x  6  y  z  6  (8  2 z )  z  z  2
Taking z  k , we get x  k  2, y  8  2k , z  k is the general solution of the given system, where
k is an arbitrary constant.
Example 2 : Investigate for what values of  ,  the simultaneous equations
x  y  z  6, x  2 y  3z  10, x  2 y   z   have
(i) no solution, (ii) a unique solution (iii) an infinite number of solutions.

Solution : The matrix form of the given system of equations is

1 1 1  x  6 
AX  1 2 3   y    10   B
     
1 2    z    

The augmented matrix is

1 1 1 : 6 
[ A: B]   1 2 3 : 10 
 
 1 2  :  

Operating R2  R2  R1 , R3  R3  R1

1 1 1 : 6 

~ 0 1 2 : 4 
 
 0 1   1 :   6 

Operating R3  R3  R2

1 1 1 : 6 

~ 0 1 2 : 4 
 
 0 0   3 :   10 

(i) The system will have no solution if [ A : B ]   ( A) which is possible only if   3 and   10 .
(ii) The system will have a unique solution if [ A : B]   ( A)  number of unknowns  3 , which is
possible only if   3 and  is arbitrary.
(iii) The system will have an infinite number of solutions if [ A : B]   ( A)  number of unknowns.
which is possible only if   3,   10

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Exercise 3.1
Type I
Check the consistency of the following system of equations and find the solution if it is consistent :
1. x  y  2 z  w  5 , 2 x  3 y  z  2w  2 , 4 x  5 y  3z  7
2. 2 x  y  z  4 , 3 x  y  z  6 , 4 x  y  2 z  7 ,  x  y  z  9
3. 4 x  3 y  2 z  7 , 2 x  y  4 z  1 , x  2 y  z  1
4. x  2 y  3z  4t  0 , 2 x  3 y  4 z  1 , 3 x  4 y  t  2 , 4 x  z  2t  3
5. x  4 y  3z  16 , 2 x  7 y  12 z  48 , 4 x  y  6 z  16 , 5 x  5 y  3z  0
6. 2 x  y  3z  3 , x  2 y  z  5w  4 , x  3 y  2 z  7 w  5
7. x  y  2 z  4 , 2 x  3 y  6 z 10 , 3 x  6 y  10 z 17
8. x  2 y  3z  2 , 2 x  3 y  8 z  7 , 3 x  4 y  13z  8
9. x  2 y  3z  3 , 2 x  3 y  8 z  4 , 5 x  8 y  19 z 11

10. 1  i  x  2 y  1 , 1  i  x  2iy  i

11. Write v as a linear combination of u1 , u2 , u3 , where :

(i) v  (4, –9,2), u1  (1, 2, –1), u2  (1, 4, 2), u3  (1, –3, 2) ;

(ii) v  (1, 3, 2), u1  (1, 2, 1), u2  (2, 6, 5), u3  (1, 7, 8) ;

(iii) v  (1, 4, 6), u1  (1, 1, 2), u2  (2, 3, 5), u3  (3, 5, 8).

Type II
12. For what values of a and b do the system of equations
x  y  5 z  0, x  2 y  3az  b , x  3 y  az  1 have
(i) no solution (ii) unique solution (iii) infinitely many solutions.
13. Investigate the values of  and  so that the equations
2x  3 y  5z  9 , 7 x  3 y  2z  8 , 2x  3 y   z   have
(i) no solution (ii) a unique solution (iii) an infinite number solution.
14. For what value of  , the equations x  y  z  1 , x  2 y  4 z   , x  4 y  10 z   2 have a
solution and solve them completely in each case.
15. Show that the equations 2 x  y  z  a , x  2 y  z  b , x  y  2 z  c have no solution unless
a  b  c  0 in which case they have infinitely many solutions. Find the solution when
a  1, b  1, c  2 .

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Chapter 3 System of linear equations 99

1  2 1   x   1 
16. For what value of  , does the system  3 1 2   y    1  has
 
 0 1    z   1 

(i) no solution (ii) unique solution (iii) More than one solution
17. Consider each of the following systems in unknowns x and y :
(i) x  ay 1 (ii) ax  3 y  2 (iii) x  ay  3
ax  4 y  b 12x  ay  b 2x  5 y  b
For which values of a does each system have a unique solution, and for which pairs of values (a, b)
does each system have more than one solution ?
18. Consider each of the following systems in unknowns x, y, z :
(i) x  2 y 1 (ii) x  2 y  2z  1 (iii) x  y  az 1
x  y  az  2 x  ay  3 z  3 x  ay  z  4
ay  9 z  b x  11y  az  b ax  y  z  b

For which values of a does the system have a unique solution, and for which pairs of values  a, b 

does the system have more than one solution ? The value of b does not have any effect on whether
the system has a unique solution. Why ?

Answers
1. Inconsistent system 2. Inconsistent
13 5 3 9 1 1 1
3. x   , y , z 4. x  , y , z , t
4 2 4 11 11 11 11
9 16 6 16
5. x   k  , y   k  , z k
5 3 5 3
6. x  2  k1  k2 , y  1  k1  2k2 , z  k1, w  k2

 1
7.  2,1,  , 8. no solution 9. u   7a  1, 2a  2, a  .
 2
1  2k
10. x   , yk
1 i
11. (i) 2, –1, 3 (ii) 4, –2, 1 (iii) not possible
1 1
12. (i) a  1, b  (ii) a  1, b is arbitrary (iii) a  1, b 
2 2

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100 Linear Algebra

13. (i)   5,   9 (ii)   5,  arbitrary (iii)   5,   9

14. For   1; x  1  2k , y  3k , z  k , for   2; x  2k , y  1  3k , z  k
15. x  z  1, y  z  1
16. (i)   1, (ii)   1 (iii) More than one solution is not possible.

5 5 
17. (i) a  2,  2, 2  ,  2,  2  , (ii) a  6,  6, 4  ,  6,  4  , (iii) a  ,  ,6 
2 2 

18. (i) a  3,  3,3 ,  3,  3 , (ii) a  5 and a  1,  5,7  ,  1,  5  , (iii) a  1 and a   2,  2,  5 

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.2 System of homogeneous linear equations

Consider a system of m homogeneous linear equations in n unknowns

a11 x1  a12 x2  .............  a1n xn  0 

a21 x1  a22 x2  .............  a2 n xn  0 

...................................................... ......(1)
......................................................

am1 x1  am 2 x2  ............  amn xn  0 

This system can be written as a single matrix equation Ax = O ......(2)

 a11 a12 .... a1n   x1   0 
a a22 .... a2 n  x   0 
where A   21 , x  2 , O 
 .... .... .... ....     
     
 am1 am 2 .... amn  m n  xn  n  1  0  m 1
The matrix A is called the co-efficient matrix of the system of equations (1).
Obviously x1  0, x2  0,......., xn  0 i.e., x  O is always a solution of system (1). it is called a
trivial (or obvious) solution of system (1).
Results :
1. Since zero solution is always a solution of a homogeneous system so the system of homogeneous
linear equations is always consistent.
2. Linear combination of solutions of a homogeneous system is also a solution.
Suppose x1 and x2 are two solutions of (2). Then their linear combination k1 x1  k2 x2 is also a

solution of (2), where k1 and k2 are any arbitrary numbers. Since x1 and x2 are solutions of (2)

 Ax1  O and Ax2  O  A(k1 x1  k2 x2 )  k1 Ax1  k2 Ax2  k1 (O)  k2 (O)  O

Hence k1 x1  k2 x2 is also a solution of (2).

3. Linear combination of solutions of a non-homogeneous system need not be a solution.

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Chapter 3 System of linear equations 101

4. Let Ax  b be a non-homogeneous system and x1, x2 are two solutions of this system. If k1 and

k2 are two scalars such that k1  k 2  1, then k1x1  k2 x2 is also a solution of Ax  b . In words,

convex combination of solutions of a non-homogeneous system is also a solution.

5. A homogeneous system of n linear equations in n unknowns , whose determinant of co-efficients
does not vanish, has only trivial solution.
6. A system of m homogeneous equations in n unknowns has a solution other than trivial solution if
and only if rank r of the coefficient matrix A is less than n, the number of unknowns .
7. The number of linearly independent solutions of m homogeneous linear equations in n variables
Ax  O is  n  r  , where r is the rank of the matrix A.

8. Working rule for finding the solution of the system of homogeneous equation Ax  O :
Reduce the coefficient matrix A to echelon form by applying elementary row transformations only
and find the rank of the matrix A. Let it be r then
(i) If  ( A)  n , the number of unknowns, then zero solution (trivial solution) is the only solution.
(ii) If  ( A)  n , the number of unknowns, then the system will have infinitely many solutions of

which  n  r  solutions are linearly independent. These linearly independent solutions are obtained

by giving arbitrary values to  n  r  unknowns and solving for remaining r unknowns.

9. Dimension of solution space of the homogeneous system Ax  O is n  r where n is number of

unknowns and r is the rank of the matrix A.
Remark : The set of all solutions of a non-homogeneous system does not form a vector space and
therefore, there is no question of its basis and dimension.
10. The set of all solutions of a non-homogeneous system Ax  b spans a vector space of dimension
n   ( A)  1 .
OR
Let A be an m  n matrix with rank r, then the dimension of smallest subspace of  n containing
all solutions of the non-homogeneous system Ax  b is n  r  1 .
11. For the homogeneous system Ax  O , the following statements are equivalent :
(i) The system has a unique solution.
(ii) The system has only the trivial solution.
(iii) The system has no non-trivial solutions.
12. For the homogeneous system Ax  O , the following statements are equivalent :

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(i) The system has infinitely many solutions.
(ii) The system has non-trivial solutions.
(iii) The system has atleast two solutions.
13. For the homogeneous system Ax  O , where A is a square matrix, then
(i) A  0 iff system has unique solution i.e., only the trivial solution.

(ii) A  0 iff system has infinitely many solutions i.e., non-trivial solutions exists.

Remark : The determinant approach does not work for non-square system.
14. In a homogeneous system,
(i) If number of variables  number of equations, then the system has infinitely many solutions.
(ii) If number of variables  number of equations, then the system has either unique or infinitely
many solutions.
Proof : (i) Let Ax  0 be a system such that A is an m  n matrix, where n  m .
Then, r  rank of A  min{m, n}  m  n
 nr  0  nr 1  system has atleast 1 free variable
 system has infinitely many solutions.
(ii) Let Ax  0 be a system such that A is an m  n matrix, where n  m ,
then r = rank of A  min{m, n}  n  n  r  0.
If n  r  0 , then there is no free variable and hence system has a unique solution i.e.,
x  0, y  0, z  0 (only trivial solution)
If n  r  0 , then there is atleast 1 free variable and hence the system has infinitely many solutions.
The following table illustrates the situation with the help of examples.

Sr. No. Relation Unique solution Infinite solutions No solution

1. V E not possible x y z  0 not possible
2x  y  2z  0
2. V E x  2y  0 x  2y  0 not possible
2x  3 y  0 2x  4 y  0
3. VE x  2y  0 x  2y  0 not possible
2x  3 y  0 2x  4 y  0
3x  5 y  0 3x  6 y  0

Here, V denotes the number of variables and E denotes the number of equations.
Example 1 : Find all the solutions of the following system of equations :
3 x  4 y  z  6 w  0, 2 x  3 y  2 z  3w  0, 2 x  y  14 z  9w  0, x  3 y  13z  3w  0
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Chapter 3 System of linear equations 103

Solution : The given system of equations can be written as a single matrix equation
3 4 1  6   x 
2 3 2  3   y 
AX   O
2 1 14  9   z 
   
1 3 13 3  w
We shall first find the rank of the coefficient matrix A by reducing it to echelon form by applying E-
row transformations only
Applying R4  R1 , we get

1 3 13 3
2 3 2 3 
A~
2 1 14 9 
 
3 4 1  6 

Applying R2  R2  2 R1 , R3  R3  2 R1 , R4  R4  3R1

1 3 13 3 
 0  3  24  9 
~ 
 0  5  40  15 
 
 0  5  40  15 
1 1 1
Applying R2   R2 , R3   R3 , R4   R4
3 5 5
1 3 13 3 
0 1 8 3 
~
0 1 8 3
 
0 1 8 3

Applying R3  R3  R2 , R4  R4  R2

1 3 13 3 
0 1 8 3 
~ 
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0

 Rank of A  2  4 , the number of unknowns

Therefore the given system of equations possess 4  2  2 linearly independent solutions. The given
system of equations is equivalent to

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1 3 13 3   x   0 
0 1 8 3   y   0 
 
0 0 0 0  z  0
     
0 0 0 0 w 0

x  3 y  13z  3w  0 
This give the equations 
y  8 z  3w  0 
Solving these equations, we get
y   8 z  3w, x   3( 8 z  3w)  13z  3w or y  8 z  3w, x  11z  6w
Then x  11k1  6k2 , y   8k1  3k 2 , z  k1, w  k2 is the general solution of the given system of
equations, where k1 and k2 are arbitrary numbers.
Example 2 : Discuss for all values of k the system of equations
2 x  3ky  (3k  4) z  0, x  (k  4) y  (4k  2) z  0, x  2(k  1) y  (3k  4) z  0
Solution : The given system of equations can be written as a single matrix equation

2 3k 3k  4  x
AX  1 k  4 4k  2 
  yO
   
 1 2k  2 3k  4   z 

Operating R1  R2 , we have

 1 k  4 4k  2 
A  2 3k 3k  4 
 
 1 2k  2 3k  4 

Operating R2  R2  2 R1 , R3  R3  R1 , we have

 1 k  4 4k  2  x
 0 k  8  5k   y  O ……(1)
   
 0 k  2  k  2   z 

The given system of equations possess linearly independent solution if rank of coefficient matrix A is
less than 3. For the matrix A to be of rank less than 3, we must have
A 0

i.e., (k  8)( k  2)  5k (k  2)  0

i.e.,  k 2  2k  8k  16  5k 2  10k  0

i.e., 4k 2  16  0
i.e., k 2
Now three cases arise.

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Chapter 3 System of linear equations 105

Case I : When k  2 , the given system of equations possesses no linearly independent solution and
x  y  z  0 is the only solution.
Case II : If k  2 , the equation (1) reduces to

1 6 10  x
 0  6 10  yO
   
 0 0 0   z 

The coefficient matrix being of rank 2, the given system of equations now possesses
3  2  1 linearly independent solution.
This gives equations 6 y  10 z  0, x  6 y  10 z  0
5
Thus y   z, x  0
3
5
Hence x  0, y   c, z  c
3
or x  0, y   5k , z  3k is the general solution of the given system where k is an arbitrary
parameter.
Case III : If k  2 , the equation (1) reduces to

1 2  6  x 
 0 10 10   y   O
  
 0  4 4   z 

 1 2 6  x
1 1  0 1 1   y O
Operating R3  R3 , R2  R2
4 10    
 0 1 1   z 

1 2 6  x
Operating R3  R3  R2  0 1 1   y O
   
 0 0 0   z 

The coefficient matrix being of rank 2, the given system of equat ions now possesses
3  2  1 linearly independent solution.
This gives the equations  y  z  0, x  2 y  6 z  0
Thus y  z, x  4z
Hence x  4k , y  k , z  k is the general solution of the given system, where k is an arbitrary
parameter.

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Exercise 3.2
1. Solve the following system of equations and show they can have only trivial solution:
(i) x y z  0 (ii) x y z  0
x  2y  z  0 3x  y  4 z  0
2 x  y  3z  0 7 x  3 y  9z  0
4x  2 y  5z  0
2. Solve the following system of equations :
(i) x  y  2 z  3w  0 (ii) x1  2 x2  x3  x4  0

3x  2 y  4 z  w  0 3 x1  2 x2  3 x3  4 x4  0

4 x  2 y  9w  0 4 x1  x2  x4  0
3. Solve the following system of equations completely :
(i) 3 x  y  z  2w  0 (ii) x  2y  z  w  0 (iii) 4 x  2 y  z  3u  0
6 x  2 y  2 z  4 w  0 x  y  2 z  3w  0 6 x  3 y  4 z  7u  0
12 x  3 y  4 z  6 w  0 4 x  y  5 z  8w  0 2x  y  u  0
5x  7 y  2 z  w  0
4. (i) Find the value of k such that the system of equations x  ky  3 z  0, 4 x  3 y  kz  0,
2 x  y  2 z  0 has a non-trivial solution.
(ii) Find the value of k such that the given system of equations has a non-trivial solution.

 3k  8 x  3 y  3 z  0
3 x  (3k  8) y  3 z  0
3 x  3 y  (3k  8) z  0
5. Find the dimension and a basis of the general solution W of each of the following homogeneous
systems :
(a) x  y  2 z  0 (b) x  2 y  3z  0 (c) x  2 y  3z  t  0
2x  y  z  0 2x  5 y  2z  0 2 x  4 y  7 z  4t  0
5x  y  4 z  0 3x  y  4 z  0 3 x  6 y  10 z  5t  0
6. Find the dimension and a basis of the general solution W of each of the following systems :
(a) x1  3x2  2 x3  x4  x5  0 (b) 2 x1  4 x2  3x3  x4  2 x5  0

2 x1  6 x2  5 x3  x4  x5  0 3 x1  6 x2  5 x3  2 x4  4 x5  0

5 x1  15 x2  12 x3  x4  3x5  0 5 x1  10 x2  7 x3  3x4  18 x5  0

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Chapter 3 System of linear equations 107

Answers
1. (i) x  y  z  0 (ii) x  y  z  0
13 17 11 7 29
2. (i) x  k , y  k, z  k, w  k (ii) x1  k , x2   k , x3  k , x4  k
2 4 16 4 16
1 1
3. (i) x  k1 , y  k2 , z  k1 , w  k 2
3 2
5 4
(ii) x  k1  k 2 , y  k1  k2 , z  k1 , w  k 2
3 3
(iii) x  k1 , u  k2 , y  2k1  k2 , z   k2

9 11 2
4. (i) k  0, (ii) k  or
2 3 3
5. (a) dim W 1, u1   1,1,1 (b) dim W  0, no basis, (c) dim W  2, u1   2,1,0, 0  , u2   5,0,  2,1

6. (a) dim W  3, u1  (–3, 1, 0, 0, 0), u2  (7, 0, –3, 1, 0), u3  (3, 0, –1, 0 1)

(b) dimW = 2, u1  (2, 1, 0, 0,0), u2  ( 12 , 0, 12, 14, 1)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.3 Relation between homogeneous and non-homogeneous system
Results :
 Generalsolution of non   Particular solution of non   General solution of corresponding 
1.    homogeneous system   homogeneous system 
 homogeneous system     
2. (i) If Ax  0 has infinitely many solutions, then Ax  b has either no solution (if relation is not
maintained) or infinitely many solutions (if relation is maintained).
(ii) If Ax  0 has a unique solution, then Ax  b has either unique solution or no solution.

Sr. No. Homogeneous system Solution Corresponding Solution

non-homogeneous system
1. x  2y  0 unique x  2y 1 unique
2x  3 y  0 2x  3 y  4
2. x  2y  0 unique x  2y 1 no solution
2x  3 y  0 2x  3 y  4
3x  5 y  0 3x  5 y  6

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3. x  2y  0 infinite x  2y 1 infinite
2x  4 y  0 2x  4 y  2
4. x  2y  0 infinite x  2y 1 no solution
2x  4 y  0 2x  4 y  3

3. (i) If Ax  b has a unique solution, then Ax  O has also a unique solution.

(ii) If Ax  b has infinitely many solutions, then Ax  O has also infinitely many solutions.
(iii) If Ax  b has no solution, then Ax  O has either a unique solution or infinitely many
solutions.
Sr. No. Non-homogeneous system Solution Corresponding Solution
homogeneous system
1. x  2y 1 unique x  2y  0 unique
2x  3 y  4 2x  3 y  0
2. x  2y 1 infinite x  2y  0 infinite
2x  4 y  2 2x  4 y  0
3. x  2y 1 no solution x  2y  0 infinite
2x  4 y  3 2x  4 y  0
4. x  2y 1 no solution x  2y  0 unique
2x  3 y  4 2x  3 y  0
3x  5 y  6 3x  5 y  0

4. Let A be any m  n matrix and b be any m  1 vector, then

(i) if m  n,   A   m , then the system Ax  b and Ax  0 both have infinite solutions.

(ii) if m  n,   A   m , then the system Ax  b has either no solution or infinite solution and

Ax  0 has infinte solutions.

(iii) if m  n,   A   m , then the system Ax  b and Ax  0 has either unique solution or infinite

solutions.
(iv) if m  n,   A   m , then the system Ax  b has either no solution or infinite solutions and

Ax  0 has infinite solutions.

(v) if m  n ,   A   n , then the system Ax  b has either no solution or unique solution and

Ax  0 has a unique solution.

(vi) if m  n ,   A   n , then the system Ax  b has either no solution or infinite solutions and

Ax  0 has infinite solutions.

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Chapter 3 System of linear equations 109

(vii) if m  n ,   A   n , then the system Ax  b has either no solution or unique solution and

Ax  0 has a unique solution.

(viii) if m  n ,   A   n , then the system Ax  b has either no solution or infinite solutions and

Ax  0 has infinite solutions.

Exercise 3.3
1. Show that the system of equations
x y z 0
x  2y  z  0
2 x  y  3z  0
has only the trivial solution and hence find the number of solutions of the corresponding non-
homogeneous system Ax  b for any b  3
2. Show that the system of equation
3x  y  z  2w  0
6 x  2 y  2 z  4 w  0
12 x  3 y  4 z  6w  0
has infinitely many solutions and have find the number of solutions of the corresponding non-

1
homogeneous system Ax  b where b   2
 2

3. Show that the system of equations

2x  3 y  z  9
x y z  6
x y z  2
has a unique solution and hence find the number of solution of the corresponding homogeneous
system of equation Ax  0 .
4. Show that the system of equation
x  3y  z  4
2x  y  z  7
2x  4 y  4z  6
3x  4 y  11

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110 Linear Algebra
has infinite solutions and hence find the number of solution of the corresponding homogeneous
system of equation Ax  0 .
5. Solve the system of non-homogeneous equation
x  4 y  3 z  16
2 x  7 y  12 z  48
4 x  y  6 z  16
5x  5 y  3z  0

Answers
1. unique 2. no 3. unique
 16 16   9k 6k 
4. infinite 5.  , ,0    , ,k 
 3 3   5 5 

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Chapter 3 System of linear equations 111

True-false exercise 9. The product Ax, where A is an m  n matrix

and x is a column vector with n
3 x1  2 x2  5 x3  1 components, is defined to be the linear
 combination of the columns of A with
1. Let  4 x2  x3  14
 coefficients equal to the components in the
 2 x3  4 x vector.
If  x1 , x2 , x3  is a solution of this system of
10. The product Ax of a matrix A and a vector
equations, then x2  3.
x is defined to be a linear combination of
the rows of A, with coefficients equal to the
 x1  3 x2  7 x3  2 components of the vector x.

2. Consider  4 x2  x3  8 x1
2 x  2  3 x  11 11. The product Ax is defined if the number of
 3 1
components in the vector x equals the
The augmented matrix for the system is number of rows of A.
1 3 7 2 
0 4 1 8  12. Let A be an m  n matrix in which m  n .
  Then there will exist a vector b such that
 2 2 3 11
the system of linear equations Ax  b is
inconsistent.
3. Any two linear equations in three variables
has a solution. 13. Let A be an m  n matrix for which n  m .
If the equation Ax  b is consistent, then it
4. Some pair of linear equations in two has many solutions.
variables has no solution.
14. If A is a k  q matrix and x is a vector in
5. Every equation of the form ax  by  c has
 q , then Ax is in  k .
at least one solution.
15. The matrix equation Ax  b , where A is
6. Sometimes a system of two linear n
equations with two unknowns will have m  n , means that a pq x p  bq for
exactly two solutions. p 1

1 q  m .
 2 x3  3
 16. For any system of linear equations, if there
7. Let 5 x1  2 x2  7 x3  1
 x  3 x  14 is a free variable, then there will be
 2 3 infinitely many solutions.
If  x1 , x2 , x3  is a solution of this system of
17. A system of linear equations is consistent if
equations, then x1  1 .
and only if the reduced row echelon form
of the augmented matrix has a pivot
3 2  6 element in each column.
8. If A    and x    , then
5 4   7 
18. Every system of linear equations having no
4
Ax    free variables is consistent.
58

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112 Linear Algebra

19. Let A be an m  n matrix. If the equation a: pn b: pn

Ax  b has a solution for every b in  m , c: pm d : 2p  n m
then A has a pivot position in each row. 30. If A is row equivalent to B, then for any
vector b, the equations Ax  b and Bx  b
20. If A is an m  n matrix, then for each b in have the same solutions.
 m , the equation Ax  b has a solution.
31. If an m  n matrix A has fewer than n
21. Let A be an m  n matrix. If the equation pivots (pivot positions), then for any vector
Ax  b is consistent for every b in  m , b in  m , there will be infinitely many
then A has a pivot position in each column. solutions to the equation Ax  b .

22. A system of linear equations is inconsistent 32. If an m  n matrix A has n pivots (or pivot
if and only if the reduced row echelon form positions), then for any vector b in  m ,
of the augmented matrix contains a row of there will be finitely many solutions to the
the type  a1 a2 .... an | 0 , in which at least equation Ax  b .
one of the terms ai is not zero.
33. Let A be an m  n matrix, where n  m . If
Ax  b for some x and b, then for some y
23. Consider two systems of linear equations,
different from x, we have Ay  b .
Ax  b and Cy  d . If A is row equivalent
to C, then the two systems have the same
34. Whenever a system of equations Ax  0
solutions.
has no free variables, the system has a
unique solution.
24. If all the entries in A and b are integers, and
if the system of equations Ax  b is
35. If the system of equations Ax  b is
consistent, then the solution vectors will
inconsistent, then the augmented matrix
have only integer components.
 A | b has a pivot position in the last
1 h 4  column.
25. If the matrix   is the augmented
 3 6 8  36. If A is an m  n matrix and Ax  0 for
matrix of a consistent system of equations, some nonzero vector x, then m  n .
then h  2 .
37. A system of equations Ax  0 has a
26. If A is a p  q matrix and if q  p , then nontrivial solution if and only if the rows of
every equation of the form Ax  b (where A form a linearly dependent set.
b   p ) will have infinitely many
solutions. 38. Consider a system of equations whose
 1 0 4 / 3 1
27. If the matrix A has more rows than
augmented matrix is  0 1 0 2
columns, then for some vectors b the 
system Ax  b will be inconsistent.  0 0 0 0 
The general solution of this system can be
28. The equation Ax  b has a solution if and written as
only if the corresponding system of  x1   1  4 
equations has at least one free variable.  x    2   t 0  , t  
 2    
29. Let A be an m  n matrix, and let p be the  x3   0   3 
number of pivot positions in A. Only one of
these conclusions is justified by the 39. Every homogeneous system of linear
hypothesis : equations is consistent.

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Chapter 3 System of linear equations 113

40. Let A be a 6  6 matrix such that the x1  x2  x3  0

equation Ax  b is consistent for each x1  2 x2  0
vector b in  6 . A valid deduction from this
x2  x3  0
information is that the equation Ax  0 has
nontrivial solutions. 1. 1 2. 2
3. 3 4. 0
41. For a 5  4 matrix A, the equation Ax  0
implies either A  0 or x  0 . 4. If the system of equations x  2 y  3z  1,
( p  2) z  3,(2 p  1) y  z  2 is
42. If a non-homogeneous system of n linear inconsistent, then what is the value of p?
equations in n variables has a solution, then 1
the coefficient matrix of the system must be 1. 2 2.  3. 0 4. 2
2
invertible. 5. The system of equation and kx  y  z  1 ,

43. If A is an n  n matrix such that for each b x  ky  z  k , x  y  kz  k 3 does not have

in  n the equation Ax  b has a solution, a solution, if k is equal to
then A is invertible. 1. 0 2. 1
3. 1 4. 2

Assignment 6. The system of equations

4 x1  x2  3x3  x4  0
-------------------- S C Q --------------------- 2 x1  3 x2  x3  5 x4  0
x1  2 x2  2 x3  3x4  0 has
1. Under which one of the following
1. no solution
condition does the system of equations
2. only one solution (0,0,0,0)
1 2 4   x  6 3. infinite number of solutions
2 1 2   y    4
      4. only two solutions
 1 2 a  4   z   a 
7. The system of equations
have a unique solution ?
x  y  3z  4
1. for all a   2. a  8
3. for all a   4. a  8 x z  2
x y z  0
2. The system of equations 1. a unique solution
x  y  z 1 2. finitely many solutions
3. infinitely many solutions
2x  3 y  z  5 4. no solution
x  2 y  kz  4
where k  , has an infinite number of 8. Consider the equation AX  B, where
solutions for  1 2  3
1. k  0 2. k  1 A   and B    , then
 2 1 1
3. k  2 4. k  3
1. the equation has no solution.
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
0
2.   is a solution of the equation
3. What is the dimension of the vector space 0
formed by the solution of the system of the 3. there exists a non-zero unique solution
following equations ? 4. the equation has infinitely many solution
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114 Linear Algebra
9. The system of the equations 2. for every b in  m , Mx  b has a solution
2x  y  5 but it is not unique
x  3 y  1 3. there exists b   m for which Mx  b has
3 x  4 y  k is consistent, when k is no solution
1. 1 2. 2 3. 5 4. 10 4. None of the above

10. The value of  for which the system of 14. Let A be a m  n matrix with row rank
equation  r  column rank. The dimension of the
x y z 0 space of solutions of the system of linear
equation AX  0 is
y  2z  0
1. r 2. n  r
 x  z  0 has more than one solution is 3. m  r 4. min (m, n)  r
1. 1 2. 0
1
3. 4. 1 15. Let A be an m  n matrix where m  n .
2 Consider the system of linear equation
AX  b , where b is an m  1 column vector
11. The system of equations
and b  0. Which of the following is
x  2y  z  9
always true?
2 x  y  3z  7 1. The system of equations has no solution.
can be expressed as 2. The system of equations has a solution
x if and only if it has infinitely many
 1 2 1  9    solutions.
1.       y 3. The system of equations has a unique
 2 1 3  7   
z solution.
x 4. The system of equations has atleast one
 1 2 1  9    solution.
2.       y
 2 1 3  7   
z 16. The set of all solutions to the system of
x equations (1  i) x1  ix2  0,
 1 2 1    9  2 x1  (1  i ) x2  0 is given by
3.    y   
 2 1 3    7  1. ( x1 , x2 )  (0,0)
z
4. None of these 2. ( x1 , x2 )  (1,1)
  5 5  
12. If 3 x  2 y  z  0 3. ( x1 , x2 )  c  1,  cos  i sin  2
  4 4  
x  4y  z  0
where c is any complex number
2x  y  4z  0  3 3 
be a system of equation, then 4. ( x1, x2 )  c  cos , i sin  , where c is
 4 4 
1. it is inconsistent
any complex number.
2. it has only the trivial solution x  0,
y  0, z  0 17. Let S be the solution space of a set of
3. it can be reduced to a single equation m homogeneous linear equations with real
and so a solution does not exist coefficients in n unknowns. If A is the
4. the determinant of the matrix of matrix of this system of equations, then
coefficient is zero 1. dimension S  n  rank A
2. dimension S is always n
13. Let M be a m  n(m  n) matrix with rank m. 3. dimension S is infinite
Then, 4. dimension S  n  rank A
1. for every b in  m , Mx  b has unique
solution
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Chapter 3 System of linear equations 115

18. Consider the system of linear equations 23. Consider the system
x  y  z  3, x  y  z  4, x  5 y  kz  6 x  y  z  0; x  y  z  0
Then, the value of k for which this system then the system of equation have
has an infinite number of solutions is 1. no solution
1. k  5 2. k  0 2. infinite number of solution
3. k  1 4. k  3 3. unique solution
4. None of the above
19. Find the value of k for which the following
simultaneous equations x  y  z  3; 24. For the set of equations
x  2 y  3z  4; x  4 y  kz  6 will not x1  2 x2  x3  4 x4  2
have a unique solution. 3 x1  6 x2  3 x3  12 x4  6
1. 0 2. 5 The following statement is true
3. 6 4. 7 1. only the trivial solution
x1  x2  x3  x4  0 exists
20. In the matrix equation AX  B, which of 2. there are no solution
the following is a necessary condition for 3. a unique non-trivial solution exists
the existence of atleast one solution for the 4. multiple non-trivial solutions exists
unknown vector X ?
1. Augmented matrix [ A : B] must have the 25. Let A be a 4  3 matrix whose columns
same rank as matrix A . form a linearly independent set which
2. Vector B must have only non-zero conclusion is justified i.e., which are true?
elements. The set of rows in A is linearly dependent.
3. Matrix A must be singular. 2. The equation Ax  b is consistent for
4. Matrix A must be square.
every b in  4 .
21. Solution for the system defined by the set 3. The equation Ax  0 has a non-trivial
of equations 4 y  3 z  8;2 x  z  2 and solution.
4. There is a matrix B s.t. AB  I 4 .
3 x  2 y  5 is
4
1. x  0; y  1; z  26. Consider the equation 2 x  2 y  1 and
3
1 2 x  2 y  1 over  3  0,1, 2 (is a finite
2. x  0; y  ; z  2 field with three elements under addition
2
1 modulo three). What is the solution of
3. x  1; y  ; z  2 ( x, y ) ?
2
4. not exist 1. (1,1) but not (2,0) 2. (2,0) but not (1,1)
1 
3. Both (1,1) and (2,0) 4.  ,0 
22. Consider the system of simultaneous 2 
equations
x  2 y  z  6; 2 x  y  2 z  6 ; 27. Let A be a 3  3 matrix and consider the
x y z 5 1
The system has system of equation AX   0  . Then,
1. unique solution
 1
2. infinite number of solution
3. no solution 1. if the system is consistent, then it has a
4. exactly two solutions unique solution.

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116 Linear Algebra
2. if A is singular, then the system has I. the corresponding homogeneous system
infinitely many solution Ax  0 has unique solution  Ax  b has
3. if the system is consistent, then the infinitely many solutions for each vector
A 0 b in  m .
4. if the system has a unique solution, then II. the corresponding homogeneous system
A is non-singular Ax  0 has a non zero solution  there is a
vector b in  m for which Ax  b has no
28. A system of linear equations solution
x  2 y  z  11, 3 x  y  2 z  10, x  3 y  5 Choose the correct code
1. no solution 1. I and II are true
2. exactly one solution 2. I is true but II is false
3. exactly 3 solution 3. I is false but II is true
4. infinitely many solution 4. both I and II are false

29. Let A be an m  n matrix and 33. The system of equations

b  (b1 , b2 ,..., bm )t be a fixed vector. x y z 0
Consider a system of m linear equations 3x  6 y  z  0
Ax  b, where x  ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )t . x  2y  z  0
Consider the following statements. has infinitely many solutions, then  is
I. If rank n the system has a unique equal to
solution. 7 5
1. 7 2. 3. 4. 4
II. If rank  n , the system has 5 7
infinitely many solutions.
III. If b  0, the system has atleast one 34. Let A be a 5  4 matrix with real entries
solution. such that Ax  0 if and only if x  0
Which of the following is correct? where x is a 4  1 vector and 0 is null
1. I and II are true vector. Then, the rank of A is
2. I and III are true 1. 4 2. 5
3. Only I is true 3. 2 4. 1
4. Only III is true (CSIR NET Dec 2013)

30. A homogeneous system of 5 linear 35. Let A be an m  n matrix of rank n with

equation in 6 variables admits real entries. Choose the correct statement.
1. no solution in  6 1. Ax  b has a solution for any b.
2. a unique solution in  6 2. Ax  0 does not have a solution.
3. infinitely many solutions in  6 3. If Ax  b has a solution, then it is
4. finite, but more than 2 solutions in  6 unique.
4. yA  0 for some nonzero y, where y
31. Consider the system of equations denotes the transpose of the vector y.
Ax  0 where A is a 2  3 matrix. Then, it (CSIR NET June 2015)
must be true that 36. Let A be a n  m matrix and b be a n  1
1. there is a solution x  0 vector (with real entries). Suppose the
2. there are atleast two linearly equation Ax  b , x   m admits a unique
independent solutions solution. Then we can conclude that
3. any solution x satisfies x1  x2  x3  0 1. m  n 2. n  m
4. any two solutions are linearly dependent 3. n  m 4. n  m
32. Consider the non-homogeneous system of (CSIR NET June 2016)
linear equations Ax  b , where A is m  n ,
X   n , b   m , then 37. Let A be a 5  4 matrix with real entries
such that the space of all solutions of the
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 3 System of linear equations 117

t
linear system AX t  1, 2,3, 4,5 is given 3. Ax  0 has a nonzero solution
4. Dimension of the space of all solutions
by 1  2s, 2  3s,3  4s, 4  5s : s   .
t
is at least n  m .
(CSIR NET June 2014)
(Here M t denotes the transpose of a
2. Let A be a 3  4 and b be a 3  1 matrix with
matrix M.) Then the rank of A is equal to
integer entries. Suppose that the system
1. 4 2. 3
Ax  b has a complex solution. Then
3. 2 4. 1
1. Ax  b has an integer solution.
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
2. Ax  b has a rational solution.
 1 1 1  1  3. The set of real solutions to Ax  0 has
38. Let A   1 1 1  and b   3  . Then
 
a basis consisting of rational solutions.
 2 3      4. If b  0 then A has positive rank.
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
the system AX  b over the real numbers
has 3. If A is a  5  5  matrix and the dimension
1. no solution whenever   7
of the solution space of Ax  0 is at least
2. an infinite number of solutions
whenever   2 two, then
3. an infinite number of solutions if   2
and   7  
1. Rank A2  3  
2. Rank A2  3
4. a unique solution if   2
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)  
3. Rank A2  3  
4. Det A2  0
39. The system of equations : (CSIR NET June 2018)
2 0 3 2 0 2  5 
1  x  2  x 2  3  xy  0  y  6 0  1 
1 0 1 3 4 
4. Let M   , b1   
2  x  1 x 2  3  xy  1  y  5 0 0 1 0 4 4 1 
   
1  x  1 x 2  0  xy  1  y  7 1 1 1 0 1 1  4
5
1
1. has solutions in rational numbers and b2    . Then which of the following
3
2. has solutions in real numbers  
3
3. has solutions in complex numbers
are true ?
4. has no solution
1. both systems MX  b1 and MX  b2
(CSIR NET June 2018)
are inconsistent
------------------- M C Q ------------------- 2. both systems MX  b1 and MX  b2

1. Consider a homogenous system of linear are consistent

equation Ax  0 , where A is an m  n real
3. the systems MX  b1  b2 is consistent
matrix and n  m . Then which of the
following statements are always true ? 4. the systems MX  b1  b2 is inconsistent
1. Ax  0 has a solution
2. Ax  0 has no nonzero solution (CSIR NET Dec 2018)

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118 Linear Algebra

True false key

1. T 2. F 3. F 4. T
5. F 6. F 7. F 8. T
9. T 10. F 11. F 12. T
13. T 14. T 15. F 16. F
17. F 18. F 19. T 20. F
21. F 22. F 23. F 24. F
25. F 26. F 27. T 28. F
29. T 30. F 31. F 32. T
33. T 34. T 35. T 36. F
37. F 38. T 39. T 40. F
41. F 42. F 43. T

Assignment key
SCQ
1. 4 2. 3 3. 1 4. 1
5. 4 6. 3 7. 3 8. 3
9. 4 10. 1 11. 3 12. 2
13. 2 14. 2 15. 2 16. 3
17. 1 18. 1 19. 4 20. 1
21. 4 22. 3 23. 2 24. 4
25. 1 26. 2 27. 4 28. 1
29. 4 30. 3 31. 1 32. 3
33. 2 34. 1 35. 3 36. 2
37. 2 38. 4 39. 4

MCQ
1. 1,3,4 2. 2,3,4 3. 1,4
4. 1,3

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Chapter 4
Vector space
The secret of success is consistency of purpose.
– Benjamin Disraeli

4.1 Definition and Examples

Def . Vector Space : Let F be a field. A non empty set V together with two binary operations called
vector addition ‘+’ (internal composition in V) and scalar multiplication ‘.’ (external composition in
V over F ) , is called a vector space over the field F , if following axioms are satisfied :
I. V is an additive abelian group :
(i) V is closed under addition : u  v  V for all u, v  V .
(ii) Associativity : u  (v  w)  (u  v)  w for all u , v , w  V
(iii) Existence of additive identity : There exists an element 0  V such that u  0  u  0  u
for all u  V . This element ‘0’ is called zero vector.
(iv) Existence of additive inverse : For each u  V , there exist an element v  V such that
u  v  0  v  u . v is called additive inverse of u and is denoted by ‘ u ’.
(v) Commutativity : u  v  v  u for all u, v  V .
II. V is closed under scalar multiplication : a u  V for all a  F , u  V .
III. Scalar multiplication satisfies the following properties :
(i) a(u  v )  au  av for all u , v  V , a  F
(ii) ( a  b)u  au  bu for all a , b  F , u  V
(iii) ( ab)u  a(bu ) for all a , b  F , u  V
(iv) 1. u  u for all u  V where ‘1’ is the multiplicative identity of F.
We, then , write that V is a vector space over F or V(F) is a vector space.
120 Linear Algebra

Remarks :
1 . The elements of V are called vectors and the elements of F are called scalars.
2 . Here, by the word ‘vector ’ , we do not mean a quantity having magnitude and direction both.
Similarly, by the word ‘scalar’ , we do not mean a quantity having magnitude only and no
direction. These two definitions of vector and scalar are commonly used in physics and applied
mathematics. In a vector space V(F) , by the word ‘vector’ , we just mean the elements of V and
by the word ‘scalar’ , we just mean the elements of F.
3 . In all , a vector space has ten properties. We have divided these ten properties into three parts. In
part I , we have five properties of additive abelian group , in part II we have one property that
scalar multiplication is closed and in part III , we have four properties of scalar multiplication.
Properties of vector space : If 0 denotes the zero element of F and 0 denotes the zero element of
vector space V over F , then

(i) a 0  0 for all a  F

(ii) 0 u = 0 for all u  V
(iii) ( 1)u  u for all u  V
(iv) a( u )  ( au )  (  a )u for all a  F and u  V
(v) a(u  v )  au  av for all a  F and u , v  V

(vi) au  0  a  0 or u  0
(vii) au  bu and u  0  ab
(viii) au  av and a  0  u  v.
Example 1 : Let V be the set of ordered pairs (a, b) of real numbers with addition in V and scalar
multiplication on V defined by  a, b    c, d    a  c, b  d  and k  a, b    ka, 0  . Show that V

satisfies all the axioms of a vector space except 1  v  v . Hence this axiom is not a consequence of
the other axioms.
Proof : I. (i) Closure Property : Let  a, b  ,  c, d  V then  a, b    c, d    a  c, b  d  V

(ii) Addition is associative : Let  a, b  ,  c, d  ,  x, y   V then

 a, b    c, d    x, y     a, b    c  x, d  y    a  c  x, b  d  y 
 a  c, b  d    x, y    a, b    c, d    x, y 
(iii) Existence of additive identity : Let  a, b   V then  a, b    0,0    a, b  and  0,0  V

 (0, 0) is the additive identity of V.

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 4 Vector space 121

(iv) Existence of additive inverse : Let  a, b   V then   a, b   V

   a,  b  is additive inverse of  a, b  .

(v) Addition is commutative : Let  a, b  ,  c, d  V then  a, b    c, d    c, d    a, b 

II. Scalar multiplication is closed : Let  a, b   V and k  , then k  a, b    ka,0  V

III. Properties of scalar multiplication :

(i) Let k   and  a, b  ,  c, d  V , then
k  a, b    c, d    k  a  c, b  d    ka  kc,0    ka, 0    kc,0   k  a, b   k  c, d 

(ii) Let k1 , k2   and  a, b   V , then

 k1  k2  a, b    k1a  k2a,0    k1a,0    k2a,0   k1  a, b   k 2  a, b 

(iii) Let k1 , k2   and  a, b   V , then  k1k2  a, b    k1k 2a,0   k1  k2a,0   k1 k 2  a, b  

(iv) Let v   a, b  V and 1  , then 1   a, b    a,0    a, b  .

Thus, V satisfies all axioms of a vector space except 1  v  v .

Example 2 : Show that the axiom u  v  v  u of a vector space can be derived from the other
axioms.
Proof : Commutativity can be derived from associativity, distributivity and from the existence of
inverses as : u  v    v  u   u  v   v  u (by distributivity)

 u  v  v  u (by associativity)

u 0u (by existence of inverse)

u u (by existence of inverse)
0
So, u v  vu
Exercise 4.1
1. (Number system) : Which of the following are vector spaces ?
(i)     (ii)     (iii)     (iv)    

(v)     (vi)     (vii)     (viii)    

(ix)     (x)     (xi)     (xii)    

(xiii)     (xiv)     (xv)     (xvi)    

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122 Linear Algebra
2. (n-tuples) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :
(i) n    (ii) n    (iii) n   

(iv)  n    (v)  n    (vi) n   

 
Notation : M m ,n  F    aij  aij  F = Set of all m  n matrices whose entries are from F.
mn

3. (Matrices) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :

(i) M m,n    over  (ii) M m,n    over  (iii) M m,n    over 

(iv) M m,n    over  (v) M m,n    over  (vi) M m,n    over 

Notation : Pn  F   a0  a1 x  .....  an x n : ai  F and n is a fixed non negative integer

 Set of all polynomials of degree atmost n with coefficients from F and the zero
polynomial.
4. (Polynomials of degree atmost n) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :
(i) Pn    over  (ii) Pn    over  (iii) Pn    over 

(iv) Pn    over  (v) Pn    over  (vi) Pn    over 

Notation : P  F   a0  a1 x  .....  an x n : ai  F and n is any non negative integer

 Set of all polynomials with coefficients from F.

5. (All polynomials) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :
(i) P    over  (ii) P    over  (iii) P    over 

(iv) P    over  (v) P    over  (vi) P    over 

6. (Functions) : Show that the set V of all real valued continuous functions of x defined on interval
 0,1 is a vector space over the field R of real numbers with respect to vector addition and scalar

multiplication defined by ( f1  f 2 ) x = f1 ( x )  f 2 ( x) for all f1 , f 2  V

(af1 ) x = af1 ( x) for all a  R , f1  V .

7. (Finite vector spaces) : Show that the following are the vector spaces :
(i) np over  p (ii) M m,n   p  over  p (iii) Pn   p  over  p

8. Find the number of elements in the vector spaces given in above question.
9. Write all the elements of following vector spaces :
(i)  22 over  2 (ii) 32 over  2 (iii)  23 over  3

(iv) 33 over  3 (v) M 2,2   2  over  2 (vi) M 2,3   2  over  2

(vii) P2   2  over  2 (viii) P2   3  over  3 (ix) P3   2  over  2

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 4 Vector space 123

10. Show that every field is a vector space over itself.

11. Show that every field is a vector space over its subfield .
12. Let   be the set of all positive real numbers. Define the operations of addition and scalar
multiplication as : u  v  u.v for all u , v    and au  u a for all u    , a   . Show that

  is a vector space over  .

13. Let V  (a , b) : a , b   then show that V is not a vector space over reals under addition

and scalar multiplication defined as in each one of the following cases :

(i) ( a , b)  (c , d )  (0 , b  d ) and k ( a , b)  ( ka , kb)
(ii) ( a , b)  (c , d )  ( a  c , b  d ) and k ( a , b)  (0 , kb)
(iii) ( a , b)  (c , d )  ( a  c , b  d ) and k ( a , b)  ( ka , b)

(iv)  a , b    c, d    a  d , b  c  and k  a, b    ka, kb 

(v)  a , b    c, d    a  c, b  d  and k  a, b    a, b 

(vi)  a, b    c, d    0, 0  and k  a, b    ka, kb 

(vii)  a, b    c, d    ac, bd  and k  a, b    ka, kb 

14. Prove that the set of all vectors in a plane over the field of real numbers is a vector space over 
with respect to vector addition and scalar multiplication.
 x y
15. Prove that the set of all matrices of the form  , where x, y   , the set of complex
 y x 
numbers , is a vector space over  with respect to matrix addition and scalar multiplication.

16. Show that the set   2  = a  b 

2 : a, b   is a vector space over  with respect to the

vector addition and scalar multiplication defined as ( a  b 2)  ( c  d 2)  ( a  c)  (b  d ) 2

and  ( a  b 2)  a  b 2 where a, b, c, d and  are all rational numbers.

17. Show that the set V of all polynomials with constant term 2 over  is not a vector space over  .
Further tell which fixed value can be assigned to the constant term so that V can become a vector
space.

Answers
1. (vi), (vii), (viii), (xi), (xii), (xvi) 8. (i) p n (ii) p mn (iii) p n1

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124 Linear Algebra

4.2 Subspaces

Def. Subspace : Let V(F) be a vector space. A non empty subset W of V is said to be a subspace of
V if W itself is a vector space over F with the same vector addition and scalar multiplication as for V.
Remarks :
1. For every vector space V , the entire space V and zero space {0} are always subspaces of V and are
called improper subspaces. All subspaces other than these two are called proper subspaces.
2. It is clear that in any subset W of V , associativity of addition , commutativity of addition and four
properties of scalar multiplication are always satisfied. i.e., out of ten properties of a vector space ,
six are always satisfied in every subset. So to prove W a subspace our main emphasis is on the
four remaining properties, namely, closure of addition, existence of additive identity , existence of
additive inverse and closure of scalar multiplication.
Def . Disjoint subspaces : Let V(F) be a vector space. Two subspaces W1 and W2 of V are said to be

disjoint if their intersection is the zero subspace, i.e. W1  W2  0 .

Remark : By two disjoint sets A and B we mean that their intersection is empty. That intuition
should not be mixed up with the definition of disjoint subspaces.
Results :
1. A necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty subset W of a vector space V to be a subspace
of V is that W is closed under addition and scalar multiplication.
2. A necessary and sufficient condition for a non-empty subset W of a vector space V(F) to be a
subspace of V is that au  v  W for all u , v  W and a  F .
3. A necessary and sufficient conditions for a non empty subset W of a vector space V(F) to be a
subspace are : (i) u  v  W for all u , v  W (ii) au  W for all a  F , u  W .
4. A necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty subset W of a vector space V(F) be a
subspace of V is that au  bv  W for all u , v  W ; a , b  F .
5. The intersection of two subspaces of a vector space V(F) is again a subspace of V(F).
6. The intersection of an arbitrary family of subspaces of a vector space is again a subspace of that
vector space.
7. The union of two subspaces of a vector space V(F) may not be a subspace of V(F) .
e.g., Consider the vector space V3  R  where V3  ( x , y , z ) : x , y , z  R then it can be

easily checked that W1  (x , 0 , 0) : x  R and W2  (0 , y , 0) : y  R are both

subspace of V3 .

Now consider , W1  W2  (x , 0 , 0) or (0 , y , 0) where x , y  R

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Chapter 4 Vector space 125

Now 1,0,0  and  0,1,0  belongs to W1  W2 but 1,0,0    0,1,0   1,1,0   W1  W2 . Hence

W1  W2 is not closed under addition and so it is not a subspace of V3  R  .

8. The union of two subspaces is a subspace iff one is contained in the other.
9. Geometrical interpretation of subspaces of  3 :
(i) A line in the space  3 is a subspace iff it passes through the origin. Further,

 x, y, z    3
: a1x  b1 y  c1z  0, a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  0 is the mathematical representation of this

line.
(ii) A plane in the space  3 is a subspace iff it passes through the origin. Further,

 x, y, z    3
: a1x  b1 y  c1 z  0 is the mathematical representation of this plane.

Example 1 : Show that the set V   x, y    2 : xy  0 is not a vector subspace of  2 .

Proof : Let 1, 2   V and  2, 1  V , then 1, 2    2, 1   1,1  V

So, V is not closed under addition and therefore V is not a vector subspace of  2 .
Example 2 : If a vector space V is the set of all real valued continuous functions over R , then show
d2y dy
that the set W of solutions of differential equations 3 2
 5  2 y  0 is a subspace of V.
dx dx
Solution : W is the set of solutions of differential equation.
d2y dy
3 2
 5  2y  0 ......(1)
dx dx
Let y1 , y2  W , so y1 , y2 are solutions of differential equation (1) , i.e.

d 2 y1 dy d 2 y2 dy
3 2
 5 1  2 y1  0 and 3 2
 5 2  2 y2  0
dx dx dx dx
Let  ,   R be any two scalars. To prove that W is a subspace we have to show that
 y1   y2  W

d2 d
2 
Consider 3  y1   y2   5  y1   y2   2  y1   y2 
dx dx
 d2y dy   d2y dy 
  3 21  5 1  2 y1    3 22  5 2  2 y2    .0   .0  0
 dx dx   dx dx 
  y1   y2 is a solution of differential equation (1).

  y1   y2  W and hence W is a subspace of V.

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126 Linear Algebra

Exercise 4.2
1. Let V be a vector space given by V   3  ( x, y, z ) : x, y, z   then which of the following are

subspaces of V over  ?
(i) W = ( x , y , z ) : 3x  y  z  0 , x , y , z  

(ii) W = ( x , y , z ) : x  y  z  0 , 2x  3 y  z  0, x , y , z  

(iii) W = ( x , y , z ) : x  y  0, x , y , z  

(iv) W = ( x , y , z ) : x 2
 y 2  z 2  1 , x , y , z  

(v) W = ( x , y , z ) : x  3 y  4 z  0 , x , y , z  

(vi) W = ( x , 2 y , 3 z ) : x , y , z  

(vii) W = ( x, x , x) : x  

(viii) W = ( x , y , z ) : x , y , z  

(ix) W = ( x , y , z ) : x  0, x , y , z  

(x) W = ( x , y , z ) : xy  0, x , y , z  

2. Let V  M n () be the vector space of all n-square matrices over  . Which of the following sets of
matrices are subspaces of V.
(i) set of all diagonal matrices. (ii) set of all scalar matrices.
(iii) set of all lower triangular matrices. (iv) set of all upper triangular matrices.
(v) set of all super lower triangular matrices. (vi) set of all super upper triangular matrices.
(vii) set of all backward diagonal matrices. (viii) set of all backward scalar matrices.
(ix) set of all symmetric matrices. (x) set of all skew symmetric matrices.
(xi) set of all hermitian matrices. (xii) set of all skew hermitian matrices.
(xiii) set of all orthogonal matrices. (xiv) set of all unitary matrices.
(xv) set of all normal matrices. (xvi) set of all idempotent matrices.
(xvii)set of all involutory matrices. (xviii)set of all nilpotent matrices.
3. What is your opinion in the above question, if the vector space M n () over  is replaced by

M n () over  ?

4. What is your opinion in the question 2, if the vector space M n () over  is replaced by

M n () over  ?

5. Let M2, 2(  ) denotes the vector space of all 2  2 matrices over reals. Determine which of the
following are subspaces of M 2,2    .

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Chapter 4 Vector space 127

a b   a 0 
(i) W     : a , b , c   (ii) W     : a  
 c 0   0 0 
0 a   a 0 
(iii) W     : a   (iv) W     : a , b  
0 0   0 b 

(v) W  A  M 2,2 () : A 2  A (vi) W  A  M 2,2 () : A 2  I

(vii) W  A  M 2,2 () : A is singular

6. Let V(  ) be the vector space of all function from  to  (reals). Prove that the following subsets
are the subspaces of V(  )
(a) set of all odd functions (b) set of all even functions (c) set of all continuous functions.
7. Let Pn ( ) denotes the vector space of all polynomials of degree at the most n over the field of

real numbers. Determine which of the following are subspaces of Pn ( ) .

(i) W   f ( x ) : constant term of f ( x )  1 (ii) W   f ( x) : deg f ( x)  2

(iii) W   f ( x ) : deg f ( x )  2 (iv) W   f ( x ) : coeff. of x in f ( x ) is zero

(v) W   f ( x ) : f (2) = f (4)  0 (vi) W   f ( x ) : constant term of f ( x)  0

(vii) W =  f ( x ) : f (0)  1 (viii) W =  f ( x ) : deg f ( x )  4

(ix) W   f ( x) : f (1)  0 , f (3)  0 (x) W   f ( x ) : coefficient of x 2 is 1 or  1

(xi) W   f ( x) : having positive coefficient

Answers
1. (i), (ii), (v), (vi), (vii) 2. (i) to (x) 3. (i) to (xii)
4. (i) to (xii). In fact (xi) and (xii) are just (ix) and (x)
5. (i) to (iv) 7. (iii) to (vi) , (viii) and (ix)

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 4 Vector space 129

True-false exercise 12. The set of all vectors x   x1 , x2  such that

x1  0 and x2  0 is a subspace of  2 .
1. The set of all polynomials that take the
value 1 at the point 0 is a vector space.
13. A vector space is a subspace of itself.
2. The set of all polynomials that take the
value 0 at the point 1 is a vector space. 14. The set of all vectors x   x1 , x2 , x3 , x4  that are
linear combinations of  4, 2,0,1 and 1,3, 1, 2 
3. One of the axioms for a vector space is the
equation x  0  x for all x (or 0  x  x ). and in addition satisfy the equation
2 x1  3 x2  5  0 , is a subspace of  4 .
4. One of the axioms for a vector space is the
equation 1x  x for all x. 15. If u and v are arbitrary real numbers, then
the set of all vectors of the form
5. The set of all polynomials p of degree  3u3  5v, 2u 3  7v, u3 11v,5u3  v  is a
atmost 7 that take the value 0 at the point 7
(i.e., p(7)  0 )is a vector space. subspace of  4 .

6. The set of all n  n matrices is not a vector 16. The vectors  x1 , x2 , x3 , x4  in  4 that obey
space because AB is usually different from the inequality 3 x1  x2  x4  5 x3 form a
BA. subspace in  4 .
7. An example of a vector space is the set of 17. The sum of two subspaces in a vector space
all polynomials of the form is also a subspace in that vector space.
p  t   a  bt 2  ct 5  dt 3 . (Here a, b, c, d
are parameters.) 18. The union of any number of subspaces in a
vector space is another subspace in that
8. An example of a vector space is the set of vector space.
all polynomials of the form
p  t   a  bt  ct 2  dt 3 that have the 19. Consider the set of all polynomials of the
form p  t   a  t 2  3  5 , where the
property p 1  0 .
coefficient a ranges over  . This is a
9. The set of all polynomials p such that subspace of the vector space 4 .
p  3  p  5  is a vector space.
20. The vector space of all polynomials has as
one of its subspaces the set of polynomials
10. The set of all vectors having the form
having the form a 1  t   b  t 2  t 3  . Here a
 3t , 2t  1,5t  , where t is a parameter
and b are arbitrary real numbers.
ranging over  is a subspace in  3 .
21. The set of all polynomials of the form
11. For any m  n matrix A and for any vector t 4  a1t 3  a2t 2  a3t  a4 is not a subspace of 4
b in  m , the set of solutions to the system
Ax  b is a subspace of  n . 22.  2 is not a subspace of  3 .

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130 Linear Algebra
23. If x, y and z are three nonzero vectors in Assignment
 n , then the set of linear combinations
x  ay  bz is a subspace of  n . ------------------------- S C Q -----------------------

24. The set of all m  m upper triangular 1. Consider the real vector space V   3 and
matrices is a subspace of  mm . following of its subsets
I. S   x, y, z  V : x  y  0
25. The set of invertible n  n matrices is a
subspace of  nn .
II. T   x, y, z  V : x  0
III. W   x, y, z   V : z  0
26. The set of all non-invertible n  n matrices Which one of the following statement is
is a subspace of  nn . correct?
1. S , T and W are subspaces
27. The set  x , x : x x
1 2 1 2  0 is a subspace of 2. Only S and W are subspaces
2 . 3. Only T and W are subspaces
4. Only S and T are subspaces
28. In  3 , the set of all vectors of the form
(1, a,  a) is a subspace. 2. If V is the real vector space of all mapping
from  to  ,
V1  { f  V : f ( x )  f ( x )} and
29. In  4 , the set of all vectors of the form
(a  b, 2a  c, 2b  c, a  b  4c) is a V2  { f V : f ( x)   f ( x )}, then which
subspace. one of the following is correct ?
1. Neither V1 nor V2 is a subspace of V .
30. In 33 , the set of all matrices of the form 2. V1 is a subspace of V , but V2 is not a
 a 0 0 subspace of V .
 0 b 0  is a subspace. 3. V1 is not a subspace of V , but V2 is a
 
 a 0 c  subspace of V .
4. Both V1 and V2 are subspace of V .
31. An example of a subspace in  n is the set
of all solutions of the equation Ax  0 , 3. Let R be the set of all real number and
where A is an m  n matrix.  2   x1 , x2  : x1  , x2  . Then, which
one of the following is a subspace of
 a b  2 over  ?
32. The set of all matrices of the form  
 b c  1.  x1 , x2  : x1  0, x2  0
is a subspace of  22 . 2.  x , x  : x  , x  0
1 2 1 2

33. The smallest subspace in a vector space V 3.  x , x  : x  0, x  0

1 2 1 2

is the set consisting solely of the zero 4.  x ,0  : x  

1 1
element of V.
4. Suppose X   a, b, c, d  : b  c  4;
34. The intersection of these two plane
3 x1  2 x2  4 x3  0 and 2 x1  3x2  8  0 is Y   a, b, c, d  : a  b  c
a subspace in  3 . Z   a, b, c, d  : b  0, c  d 
Which of these subset of the vector space
 4 is /are subspace(s) ?
1. X only 2. Y and Z
3. X ,Y and Z 4. X and Z
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5. Which one of the following is correct? 10. Which of the following sets are subspaces
1.  is a vector space over  . of the space C (a, b) of all real-valued
2.  is a vector space over  . continuous functions defined on the open
3.  is a vector space over  . interval (a, b)
4. None of the above. 1. { f  C (a, b) : f ( x0 )  0, x0  (a, b)}
2. { f  C (a, b) : f '( x)  0, for all x  (a, b)}
6. The set V  {( x, y )   2 : xy  0} is
  ab  
1. a vector subspace of  2 3.  f  C (a, b) : f    1
2. not a vector subspace of  2 , since   2  
every element does not have an inverse 4. None of the above
in V
3. not a vector subspace of  2 , since it is 11. Which of the following sets are subspaces
not closed under scalar multiplication of the space C (a, b) of all real-valued
4. not a vector subspace of  2 , since it is continuous functions defined on the open
not closed under vector addition interval (a, b)
(GATE 2004) 1. { f  C (a, b) : f ( x )  x 2 f ( x)}
2. { f  C (a, b) : 2 f "'( x)  3 xf "( x )
7. If V and W are subspaces of  n , then – f '( x)  x 2 f ( x)  0}
1. V  W is necessarily a subspace of  n b
2. V  W is never a subspace of  n 3. { f  C (a, b) :  f ( x )dx  0}
a

3. V  W is a subspace of  n if and only if 4. All of the above

one of V ,W is contained in the other
4. V  W is a subspace of  n if and only if 12. Which of the following sets is not a
one of V ,W in {0} subspace of C (a, b)
1. { f  C (a, b) : lim
a b
f ( x )  0}
x
8. Consider the set of all functions f defined 2

on [0,1] such that 2. { f  C (a, b) : lim

a b
f ( x)  1}
x
I. f ( x )  0 at a finite number of points in 2

[0,1] 3. { f  C (, ) : f ( x )  f ( x )}
II. f has a local maxima at x  1 / 2 4. All of the above
III. f has a local extrema at x  1 / 2
13. Let V be the vector space of all 2  2
Then, the correct code is
matrices over  . Then, the set W ,
1. only (I) is vector space over R
consisting of all matrices A for which
2. only (II) is vector space over R
3. only (III) is vector space over R A2  A ,
4. None of the above 1. is a subspace of V
2. is not a subspace of V as it is not closed
9. Which of the following sets are subspaces of with respect to vector addition
P (the vector space of all polynomials) 3. is not a subspace of V as it is not closed
1. { p  P : degree of p  4} w.r.t. scalar multiplication
4. Both (b) and (c)
2. { p  P : degree of p  3}
3. { p  P : degree of p  4 and p '(0)  1} 14. Let V be the vector space of all n  n
4. None of the above matrices over  . Then, the set W ,
consisting of all matrices which commute
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132 Linear Algebra
with a given matrix M i.e., 4. W2 is not a subspace of V
W  { A  V : AM  MA}
1. is a subspace of V 3. V be the vector space of all n  n complex
2. is not a subspace of V as it is not closed matrices over  and W1 ,W2 be the
w.r.t. vector addition collection of all hermitian and skew
3. is not a subspace of V as it is not closed hermitian matrices respectively in V, then
w.r.t. scalar multiplication
1. W1 is a subspace of V
4. None of the above
2. W1 is not a subspace of V
15. Which of the following is not a vector 3. W2 is a subspace of V
subspace of the vector space of 4. W2 is not a subspace of V
polynomials with real coefficient
1. W consists of all polynomials divisible
by x 4. In the vector space  2    , consider the
2. W  { p ( x )  V : p(3)  0} subsets
3. W  { p ( x )  V : p (a)  p(1  a), a  } A   x, y  : x  y  0 , B   x, y  : x  y  0
4. W consists of all polynomials with  x 
integral coefficient C   x, y  : x y  0 , D   x, y  :  0, y  0 
 y 
16. Consider the set of all functions f defined Then
1. A is a subspace
on [0,1] such that
2. B is a subspace
1  3 3. C is a subspace
I. f    0 II. f    1
2  4 4. D is a subspace
III. f ( x )  x f ( x) IV. f (0)  f (1)
Then, the correct code is 5. In the vector space  2    , consider the
1. only I is vector space. subsets
2. only I and IV are vector spaces.
A  x, y  : x 2  y 2  0
3. only I, III and IV are vector spaces.
4. all are vector spaces. B  x, y  : x 2  y 2  0
Then
---------------------- M C Q -----------------------
1. A is a subspace
2. B is a subspace
1. V be the vector space of all n  n real
3. A is not a subspace
matrices over  and W1 ,W2 be the 4. B is not a subspace
collection of all symmetric and skew
symmetric matrices respectively in V, then 6. Let V be the vector space of all real valued
1. W1 is a subspace of V functions defined on  0,1 . Let W1 , W2 , W3
2. W1 is not a subspace of V be the collection of all continuous
3. W2 is a subspace of V functions, differentiable functions,
4. W2 is not a subspace of V monotonic functions respectively in V, then
1. W1 is a subspace
2. V be the vector space of all n  n complex 2. W2 is a subspace
matrices over C and W1 ,W2 be the 3. W3 is a subspace
collection of all hermitian and skew 4. All are subspaces
hermitian matrices respectively in V, then 7. Let M be the vector space of all 3  3 real
1. W1 is a subspace of V  2 1 0
2. W1 is not a subspace of V matrices and let A   0 2 0 
3. W2 is a subspace of V 0 0 3
 
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 4 Vector space 133

Which of the following are subspaces of M True false key

1.  X  M : XA  AX 
1. F 2. T 3. T 4. T
2. X  M : X  A  A  X 
5. T 6. F 7. T 8. T
3.  X  M :trace  AX   0 9. T 10. F 11. F 12. F
4.  X  M :det  AX   0
13. T 14. T 15. F 16. F
(CSIR NET June 2011)
17. T 18. F 19. F 20. T
8. Which of the following are subspaces of
21. T 22. T 23. F 24. T
the vector space  3 ?
1.  x, y , z  : x  y  0 25. F 26. F 27. F 28. F

2.  x, y, z : x  y  0 29. T 30. T 31. T 32. T

3.  x, y, z : x  y  1 33. T 34. F
4.  x, y, z : x  y 1
(CSIR NET June 2015) Assignment key
9. Let A be an m  n real matrix and b   m SCQ
with b  0 1. 4 2. 4 3. 4 4. 2
1. The set of all real solutions of Ax  b is
a vector space. 5. 4 6. 4 7. 3 8. 4
2. If u and v are two solutions of Ax  b , 9. 4 10. 1 11. 4 12. 2
then u  1    v is also a solution of
13. 4 14. 1 15. 4 16. 3
Ax  b for any    .
3. For any two solutions u and v of Ax  b ,
the linear combination u  1    v is MCQ
also a solution of Ax  b only when 1. 1,3 2. 2,4 3. 1,3
0    1.
4. If rank of A is n, then Ax  b has at 4. 1,2 5. 1,4 6. 1,2
most one solution. 7. 1,2,3 8. 1,2 9. 2,4
(CSIR NET Dec 2015)
10. 3,4
10. Let M n denote the vector space of all n  n
real matrices. Among the following subsets
of M n , decide which are linear subspaces.
1. V1   A  M n : A is nonsingular
2. V2   A  M n : det( A )=0
3. V3   A  M n : trace( A )=0
4. V4   BA: A  M n  , where B is some
fixed matrix in M n .
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)

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Chapter 5
Basis and dimensions
Continuous learning is the minimum requirement for success in any field!
– Denis Waitley

5.1 Linear combinations

Def . Linear Combination : Let V(F) be a vector space. A vector v  V is said to be Linear
Combination (L.C.) of the vectors v1 , v2 ,............., vn  V if v can be expressed as

v  a1v1  a2v2  .............  anvn where a1 , a2 ,............., an  F are scalars.

Def. Linear Span : Let S be a non empty subset of vector space V(F) then the set of all linear
combinations of finite number of elements of S is called linear span (or span) of S. It is denoted by
 n 
 S  or L(S) i.e. L  S   S   ai vi : ai  F , vi  S , n finite  .
 i1 
Remark : Here it should be noted very carefully that the set S may be finite or infinite but L(S)
contains linear combinations of only finite number of elements of S . In fact , linear combination of
infinite elements is not defined , in general .
Results :
1. Every non empty set is always contained in its linear span . Let S be a non empty subset of
vector space V , for any v  S , we can write v  1 . v  L(S)  S  L(S)

2. The linear span of empty set  is defined to be 0 .

3. The set of all linear combinations of a non-empty set S of a vector space V(F) is the smallest
subspace of V(F) containing S.
OR
In a vector space V , L(S) is the smallest sub-space containing S.
4. L W   W iff W is a subspace of V.
136 Linear Algebra
5. If S and T are two non-empty subsets of a vector space V(F), then show that
(i) S T  L(S)  L(T)
(ii) L ( S  T ) = L(S) + L(T)
(iii) L (L (S)) = L(S)
6. If S is a non-empty subset of a vector space V  F  then span(S) = span  S  0  . That is, by

joining or deleting the zero vector from a set, we do not change the space spanned by the set.
Def. Generating (Spanning) set : A non-empty set S of vector space V is called a generating set of V
if every element v  V is a linear combination of finite number of elements of S i.e. V  L  S  .

Def. Finitely generated vector space : As clear by its name , a vector space V over F is said to
finitely generated if it is generated by finite number of vectors.
e.g.  n and Pn    are finitely generated vector space.

Def. Infinitely generated vector space : A vector space V over a field F is called infinitely generated if
it can not be generated by finite number of vectors e.g. the vector space P    of all polynomials

over a field is infinitely generated vector space. The vectors {1 , x , x 2 ,...., x n,....} generates P   

but no finite set can generate P    .

2 0
Example 1 : Express the matrix   as L.C. of the matrices
 4 5

 0  3 0 0   2 3
P  , Q  , R .
2 0  2 1  0 5
Solution : Method I :
Let a1 , a2 , a3 be the scalars such that

2 0   0 3  0 0  2 3
 4 5  a1  2 0   a2  2 1   a3  0 5
       
 2 0   2a3 3a1  3a3 
  4 5   2a  2a
   1 2 a2  5a3 

 2a3  2 ......(1)

3a1  3a3  0 ......(2)

2a1  2a2  4 ......(3)

a2  5a3  5 ......(4)

Equations (1) , (2) and (3) give , a1  a2  a3  1

But this solution does not satisfy (4)
 Equations (1) , (2) , (3) , (4) have no solution.
Hence , the given matrix can not be written as a L.C. of P , Q , R.

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 5 Basis and dimensions 137

Method II :
Construct a matrix A by writing the elements of matrix P,Q and R in columns i.e.,

0 0 2 2 0 0 2 : 2
 3 0 
3 0  3 0 3 : 0 
A  and b    . Then  A : b  
2 2 0 4 2 2 0 : 4
     
0 1 5  5  0 1 5 : 5

2 2 0 : 4
 3 0 3 : 0 
operate R3  R1 , we get ~ 
0 0 2 : 2
 
0 1 5 : 5

1 1 0 : 2
 1 0 1 : 0
R R R
operate R1  1 , R2  2 , R3  3 , we get ~  
2 3 2 0 0 1 : 1
 
0 1 5 : 5 

1 1 0 : 2
0 1 1 : 2 
operate R2  R1  R2 , we get ~ 
0 0 1 : 1
 
0 1 5 : 5

1 1 0 : 2
0 1 1 : 2 
operate R4  R4  R2 , we get ~ 
0 0 1 : 1
 
0 0 4 : 7 

1 1 0 : 2 
0 1 1 : 2 
operate R4  R4  4 R3 , we get ~ 
0 0 1 : 1 
 
0 0 0 : 11

2 0 
  A   3,   A : b   4 , therefore the system Ax  b is not consistent and hence   cannot be written
 4 5 
as the linear combination of P,Q and R.

Exercise 5.1
1. Express the vector v = (4,  5, 9,  7) as a linear combination of vectors v1  (1, 1,  2, 1) ,

v2  (3, 0, 4,  1) , v3  (1, 2, 5, 2)

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138 Linear Algebra

2. Is it possible to express the vector v  (2,  5, 4) as a linear combination of v1  (1,  3, 2) and

v2  (2,  1, 1) .

3. Consider the vector v  (1, 2, k ) in 3    . For what value of k (if any) the vector v can be

expressed as a linear combination of vectors v1  (3, 0,  2) and v2  (2,  1,  5) ?

3 1
4. Express the vector v =   in the vector space of 2  2 matrices as a linear combination of
1 2
1 1   1 1 1 1
v1    , v2    , v3   .
 0 1  1 0 0 0 
 a b 
5. Find the condition on a , b , c such that the matrix   is a linear combination of
b c 
1 1   1 1 1 1
v1    , v2   1 0 , v3  0 0  .
 0 1    
6. Is the vector (3,  1, 0,  1) in the subspace of  4 spanned by the vectors v1  (2,  1, 3, 2) ,

v2  (1, 1, 1,  3) and v3  (1, 1, 9,  5) ?

7. Let V3 = 3    and S = { v1  (1, 1, 0) , v2  (0,  1, 1) , v3  (1, 0, 1) } . Prove that

(a , b , c)  L(S) iff a = b + c.
8. In the complex vector space  2    does (1 + i , 1  i ) belongs to < (1 + i ,1) , (1 , 1  i) > ?

9. Which of the following polynomials belong to the vector space generated by

{x 3 , x 2  2 x , x 2  2 ,1  x}

(i) 3 x 2  x  5 (ii) 2 x3  3 x 2  3 x  7 (iii) x 4  7 x  2

10. Consider the vectors u  1, 2,3 and v   2,3,1 in 3 .

(i) Write w  1,3,8  as a linear combination of u and v.

(ii) Write w   2, 4,5  as a linear combination of u and v.

(iii) Find k so that w  1, k , 4  is a linear combination of u and v.

(iv) Find conditions on a, b, c so that w   a, b, c  is a linear combination of u and v.

2
11. Write the polynomial f  t   at 2  bt  c as a linear combination of the polynomials p1   t  1 ,

p2  t  1, p3 1.

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 5 Basis and dimensions 139

Answers
1. v  3v1  2v2  v3 2. No 3. k =  8 4. v  2v1  v2  2v3

5. a  b  2c  0 6. No 8. Yes 9. only (i)

11
10. (i) w  3u1  u2 (ii) Impossible (iii) k  (iv) 7a  5b  c  0
5
11. Using f  xp1  yp2  zp3 , we get x  a, y  2a  b, z  a  b  c .

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.2 Linear independence and dependence

Def. Linearly dependent (L.D.) vectors : Let V be a vector space over a field F. The vectors
v1 , v2 ,......., vn are said to be linearly dependent if there exist scalars a1 , a2 ,....., an (not all zero)

such that a1v1 + a2v2 +......+ anvn = 0

OR
Some finite vectors are said to be linearly dependent if their linear combination can be made zero
without taking all scalars zero.
Def. Linearly independent (L.I.) vectors : Vectors which are not L.D. are called L.I.
OR
Vectors v1 , v2 ,......., vn are called linearly independent if , whenever

a1v1 + a2v2 +......+ anvn = 0 for some scalars ai ’s , then a1 = a2 =.......= an = 0

OR
Some finite vectors are said to be L.I. if the only way to make their linear combination zero is to take
all scalars zero.
Def. An infinite subset of V is said to be linearly independent if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent , otherwise it is linearly dependent.
Results :
1. The empty set is defined to be linearly independent.
2. (i) A set containing only the zero vector i.e. {0} is linearly dependent.
(ii) A set containing only a non – zero vector is linearly independent.
3. A set which contains the null vector ‘0’ is linearly dependent.
4. If two vectors are L.D. , then one of them is scalar multiple of other.
5. Every super set of a linearly dependent set is linearly dependent.
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140 Linear Algebra
6. Every subset of a linearly independent set is linearly independent.
7. If a vector v is a linear combination of vectors v1 , v2 ,.........., vr then the set {v , v1 , v2 ,.........., vr }

is linearly dependent.
8. If the set {v1 , v2 ,.........., vr } is L.I. and the set {v1 , v2 ,.........., vr , v} is L.D. , then v is a linear

combination of the vectors v1 , v2 ,.........., vr .

9. The set of non – zero vectors v1 , v2 ,.........., vn of a vector space V(F) is L.D. iff one of the vectors

vr (r  1) is a linear combination of the preceding vectors.

10. To determine that given vectors are L.D. or L.I.

Input : Vectors v1 , v2 ,......., vn are given.

Output : v1 , v2 ,........, vn L.D. or L.I.

Working Steps :
(i) Take n scalars a1 , a2 ,......., an and form the system a1v1 + a2v2 +.........+ anvn = 0 ......(1)

(ii) Solve the system (1) to find the values of a1 , a2 ,........, an .

(iii) If a1 = a2 =..............= an  0 is the only solution of (1) , then v1 , v2 ,......., vn are linearly

independent.
(iv) If system (1) has a non-trivial solution i.e. atleast one ai is non-zero, then v1 , v2 ,......., vn are

linearly dependent.
Remark : In above method , we are not required to find the actual values of a1 , a2 ,........, an rather

our only need is to decide whether the system has a non – trivial solution or not.
11. To determine that given vectors are L.D. or L.I.
Input : Vectors v1 , v2 ,.............., vn are given.

Output : v1 , v2 ,.............., vn L.D. or L.I.

Working Steps :
(i) Construct a matrix A by writing the given vectors in the column.
(ii) Reduce the matrix A into row echelon form by using elementary row operation.
(iii) Number of non – zero rows gives the rank of A i.e.  (A) . If  (A) = number of columns
of A , then given vectors are L.I. and if  (A) < number of columns of A , then given vectors
are L.D.
12. Vectors constructed from given L.I. vectors : Let v1 , v2 ,...., vn are L.I. vectors and suppose

w1 , w2 ,...., wm are constructed as

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 5 Basis and dimensions 141

w1  a11v1  a12 v2  ....  a1nvn

w2  a21v1  a22v2  ....  a2 nvn
.............................................
wm  am1v1  am 2v2  ....  amn vn

Let A   aij  denotes the coefficient matrix of above system, then

mn

(i) if m  n then w1 , w2 ,...., wm are L.D.

(ii) if m  n then w1 , w2 ,...., wm are L.I. if   A   m and L.D. if   A   m .

Result : If v1, v2 ,...., vn    n be a L.I. set and P is a n  n real invertible matrix, then the set

Pv1, Pv2 ,...., Pvn is also L.I.

Proof : Let 1Pv1   2 Pv2  ....   n Pvn  0

 P 1v1   P  2v2   ....  P  nvn   0

 P 1v1   2v2  ....   n vn   0

 1v1   2v2  ....   n vn  0 (  P is invertible)

 1   2  .....   n  0 (  v1, v2 ,...., vn are L.I.)

Example 1 : Determine whether the following vector is linearly dependent or independent

(1 , 2 ,  3 , 1) , (3 , 7 , 1 , 2 ) , (1 , 3 , 7 , 4 ).
Solution : We construct a matrix A whose columns are given vectors i.e.
1 3 1
2 7 3
A =  
 3 1 7 
 
 1 2 4 
1 3 1 
0 1 1 
~   (Operating R 2  R 2  2R 1 , R 3  R 3  3R1 , R 4  R 4  R 1 )
 0 10 10 
 
 0 5 5
1 3 1
0 1 1 
~  ( Operating R 3  R 3  10R 2 , R 4  R 4  5R 2 )
0 0 0
 
0 0 0
which is in row echelon form.
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142 Linear Algebra

Here ,  (A) = 2 < number of columns. So the given vectors are L.D.

Example 2 : Determine whether the polynomials x 3  5 x 2  2 x  3 , x 3  1 , x 3  2 x  4 are linearly

dependent or independent.
Solution : We construct a matrix A by writing the coefficients of given polynomials in columns of A
1 1 1
 5 0 0 
i.e. A = 
 2 0 2
 
 3 1 4

1 1 1
0 5 5 
~  (Operating R 2  R 2  5R 1 , R 3  R 3  2R 1 , R 4  R 4  3R1 )
0 2 4
 
 0 4 1

1 1 1
0 1 1  1
~  (Operating R 2  R 2 )
0 2 4 5
 
 0 4 1

1 1 1
0 1 1 
~  (Operating R 3  R 3  2R 2 , R 4  R 4  4R 2 )
0 0 2
 
0 0 5

1 1 1
0 1 1  5
~  (Operating R 4  R 4  R 3 )
0 0 2 2
 
0 0 0
which is in row echelon form.
Here  (A) = 3 = number of columns. So the given vectors are L.I.

Exercise 5.2
1. Determine whether the following set of vectors are linearly dependent or independent
(i) (1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 2 , 3), (0 , 1 , 2) in 3   

(ii) (1 , 2 , 1) , (2 , 1 , 1) , (7 , 4 , 1) in 3   

(iii) (1 ,  2 , 3) , (2 , 3 , 4) , (0 , 1 , 2) in 3   

(iv) (2 , 3 , 1 ,  1) , (1 ,  1 ,  2 ,  4) , (3 , 1 , 3 ,  2) , (6 , 3 , 0 , 7) in  4   

(v) (1 , 2 , 3 , 4) , (0 , 1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 0 , 0) in  4   

(vi) (1 , 1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 ,  1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 0 , 3)  in  4   
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(vii) (0 , 1 , 0 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 0 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1) in 5   

(viii) (1  i , 2i ) , (1 , 1  i) in  2   

(ix) (1  i , 2i ) , (1 , 1  i) in  2   

2. In the vector space of polynomials of degree  4, which of the following vectors are L.I.
(i) x 2  x  1 , x , 1 (ii) x 3  2 x  1 , x3  x  1 , x  1

(iii) x 4  x3 , x 4  1 , x 3  x 2 , x 2  x , x  1 (iv) x 4  x , x 3  1 , x 3  1

 2 3 6
3. Show that the three row vectors as well as the three column vectors of the matrix  0 4 2  are
 5 2 2 
linearly independent.
4. Prove that the four vectors (1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1) and (1 , 1 , 1) are linearly dependent
but any three of them are linearly independent .
5. Prove that the non – zero rows in an echelon matrix form a linearly independent set.
 1   1   
6. Find  if the vectors  1 ,  2  ,  0  are linearly dependent.
 3   3  1 

7. Prove that the vectors (a1 , a2 ) and (b1 , b2 ) in  2    are linearly dependent if a1b2  a2b1  0 .

8. If v1 , v2 ,........, vn are linearly independent vectors of a vector space V , then show that none of
them can be a zero vector.
9. Let S be a set of four vectors such that any three of them are linearly independent. Does it follow
that the four vectors are linearly independent ?
10. In the vector space     , prove that the set {1 , u} is L.I. iff u is irrational.

11. Under what conditions on scalar a   , the vectors (1  a , 1  a ) and (1  a , 1  a ) in  2   

are linearly dependent.

12. Show that the set {1 , i} is linearly dependent in the vector space     but {1 , i} is linearly

independent in the vector space     .

13. Determine whether the following vectors in  4 are linearly dependent or independent :
(a) (1, 2, –3, 1), (3, 7, 1,–2), (1, 3, 7, –4), (b) (1, 3, 1, –2), (2, 5, –1, 3), (1, 3, 7, –2).

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14. Determine whether the following polynomials u, v, w in   t  are linearly dependent or

independent
(a) u  t 3  4t 2  3t  3, v  t 3  2t 2  4t  1, w  2t 3  t 2  3t  5

(b) u  t 3  5t 2  2t  3, v  t 3  4t 2  3t  4, w  2t 3  7t 2  7t  9 .
15. Show that the following functions f, g, h are linearly independent :
(a) f  t   et , g  t   sin t , h  t   t 2 (b) f  t   et , g  t   e 2t , h  t   t .

16. Show that u   a, b  and v   c, d  in  2 are linearly dependent if and only if ad  bc  0 .

17. Suppose u1,..., ur , w1 ,..., ws  is a linearly independent subset of V. Show that

span  ui   span  w j   0 .

18. If u , v , w are linearly independent , then show that the vectors u  v , v  w , u  2v  w are
linearly independent.
19. If v1 and v2 are vectors in V and a , b  F , show that the set {v1 , v2 , av1  bv2 } is linearly

dependent.
20. Show that if {v1 , v2 ,....., vn } is a linearly independent set of vectors and a1 , a2 ,......., an 1 are

any scalars , then the set {v1  a1vn , v2  a2 vn ,....., vn1  an1vn } is also linearly independent.

21. Let u , v , w be the vectors of V(F) and a, b  F . Show that the set {u , v , w} is L.D. if the set
{u  av  bw , v , w} is L.D.
22. If u , v , w are L.I. in V(F) , then show that u  v , v  w , w  u are L.I.
23. Suppose u, v, w are linearly independent vectors. Prove that S is linearly independent where :
(a) S u  v  2 w, u  v  w, u  w (b) S  u  v  3w, u  3v  w, u  w .

24. Suppose v1 , v2 ,...., vn are linearly independent. Prove that S is linearly independent where

(a) S a1v1, a2v2 ,...., anvn  and each ai  0 .

(b) S  v1,...., vk 1, w, vk 1,...., vn  and w   i bi vi and bk  0 .

Answers
1. (i) Linearly dependent (ii) Linearly dependent (iii) Linearly Independent
(iv) Linearly dependent (v) Linearly dependent (vi) Linearly Independent
(vii) Linearly dependent (viii) Linearly Independent (ix) Linearly dependent
2. (i) Linearly Independent (ii) Linearly Independent (iii) Linearly dependent
(iv) Linearly Independent 6.  = 1 9. No 11. a   i
13. (a) Dependent (b) Independent 14. (a) Independent (b) Dependent
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Chapter 5 Basis and dimensions 145

5.3 Basis and dimension

Def. Basis of a vector space : Let V be a vector space over the field F. A set of vectors
v1 , v2 ,........, vn  V is called a basis of V if

(i) v1 , v2 ,.........., vn are L.I. and (ii) v1 , v2 ,.........., vn span V .

Remark : The basis for a vector space is not unique.
Def. Minimal generating set : A subset S of a vector space V is said to be minimal generating set if
(i) S is a generating set of V. (ii) Any proper subset of S can not generate V.
Def. Maximal Linearly independent set : A subset S of a vector space V is said to be maximal linearly
independent set if
(i) S is linearly independent.

(ii) No proper superset of S is linearly independent i.e. if S  S then S must not be linearly

independent.
Results :
1. A set of vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn  V is a basis of V iff each element of V can be uniquely

expressed as a linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vn .

2. If S ={ v1 , v2 ,...., vn }spans a vector space V(F), then there exists a subset of S which is a basis of V.

3. A minimal generating set is always a basis in a finitely generated vector space.

4. A maximal linearly independent set is always a basis in a finitely generated vector space.
5. If S = u1 , u2 , ..., un  spans a vector space V(F), then any n  1 vectors in V are linearly

dependent. In words, a set containing more vectors than dimension is always linearly dependent.
6. If V is a finitely generated vector space , then any two basis of V have same number of elements.
Def . Dimension of a vector space : The numbers of elements in any basis of a vector space V(F) is
called dimension of V and is denoted by dimV.
If dimV = n , then V is called n dimensional vector space. A vector space of finite dimension is
called finite dimensional vector space .
7. If dim V = n and S = {v1 , v2 ,......., vn } is L.I. subset of V then S is a basis of V .
OR
A L.I. set of n vectors in a n-dimensional vector space is always a basis .

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8. If dim V = n and S = {v1 , v2 ,......, vn } generates V then S is a basis of V.

OR
A generating set of n vectors in a n-dimensional vector space is a basis .
9. In a finite dimensional vector space we have
No. of elements in any L.I. set   No. of elements in any basis   No. of elements in any generating set
10. Let V be a vector space of dimension n and S is a non-empty subset of V then
(i) If card  S   n then S is L.D. and S may or may not generate V.

(ii) If card  S   n then S cannot generate V and S may or may not be L.I.

(iii) If card  S   n then S cannot be a basis of V.

11. If W is a subspace of V then dimW  dim V . Further dim W  dim V iff W  V .

Tables of basis :
Table 1
Sr. No. Vector space Standard basis General basis Dimension
1  1 a  ib s.t. a  ib  0 1

2  1, i a  ib, c  id  s.t. ad  bc  0 2

3  ---- --- 

4  1 a ; a  0 , a 1

5    --- --- 

6   1  p 1
  ; p, q  0
q
Table 2
Sr. No. Vector space Standard basis General basis Dimension
1 n    1, 0,...,0  ,  0,1,...,0  ,....,  0,0,...,1 Any n L.I. vectors n

2 n    1,0,..., 0  ,  0,1,..., 0  ,....,  0,0,...,1  Any 2n L.I. vectors 2n

 
 i,0,...,0  ,  0, i,..., 0  ,....,  0,0,..., i  
3 n    ---- --- 

4 n    1, 0,...,0  ,  0,1,...,0  ,....,  0,0,...,1 Any n L.I. vectors n

5 n   --- --- 

6 n    1, 0,...,0  ,  0,1,...,0  ,....,  0,0,...,1 Any n L.I. vectors n

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Chapter 5 Basis and dimensions 147

Table 3
Sr. Vector space Standard basis General Dimension
No. basis
1 M m ,n    over  1 0 ... 0   0 1 ... 0 0 0 ... 1  Any mn
0 0 ... 0   0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0 
 ,   ,....,   mn
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
      L.I.
0 ... ... 0   0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0 
vectors
.......................
0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0 
0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0 
 ,   ,....,  
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
     
1 0 ... 0  0 1 ... 0  0 0 ... 1 

2 M m ,n    over  1 0 ... 0   0 1 ... 0 0 0 ... 1 Any 2mn

0 0 ... 0   0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0 
 , ,....,  2mn
 ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 
      L.I.
0 ... ... 0   0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
....................... vectors
0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
 ,   ,....,  
 ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 
     
1 0 ... 0 0 1 ... 0 0 0 ... 1

i 0 ... 0   0 i ... 0 0 0 ... i

0 0 ... 0   0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0 
 , , ...., 
 ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 
     
0 ... ... 0   0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
.......................
0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0  0 0 ... 0
 ,   , ....,  
 ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 
     
i 0 ... 0 0 i ... 0 0 0 ... i

3 M m ,n    over  ---- --- 

4 M m ,n    over  Same as 1 Any mn mn

L.I.
vectors
5 M m ,n    over  --- --- 
Any mn
6 M m ,n    over  Same as 1 mn
L.I. vectors

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Table 4
Sr. No. Vector space Standard basis General basis Dimension
1 Pn    over  1, x, x ,....., x 
2 n
Any  n  1 L.I. vectors n 1

2 Pn    over  1, x, x 2 ,....., x n  Any 2  n  1 L.I. vectors 2  n  1

 2 n
i, ix, ix ,....., ix 
3 Pn    over  ---- --- 

4 Pn    over  1, x, x ,....., x 

2 n
Any  n  1 L.I. vectors n 1

5 Pn    over  --- --- 

6 Pn    over  1, x, x ,....., x 

2 n
Any  n  1 L.I. vectors n 1

Table 5
Sr. No. Vector space Standard basis General basis Dimension
1 P    over  1, x, x ,.....
2 ---- 

2 P    over  2
1, x, x ,.....  ---- 
 2 
i, ix, ix ,.....
3 P    over  ---- --- 

4 P    over  1, x, x ,.....

2 --- 

5 P    over  --- --- 

6 P    over  1, x, x ,.....

2 --- 

Example 1 : A subspace W of R5 is generated by the vectors

v1 = (1 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 3) , v2 = (1 , 2 ,  1 ,  2 , 1)
v3 = (3 , 5 , 1 , 2 , 5) , v4 = (3 , 6 , 3 , 6 , 3).
Find a basis of W and dimension of W. Also extend this basis to get a basis of R5.
Solution : We construct a matrix A whose rows are the given vectors
1 1 1 2 3
1 2 1 2 1 
A = 
3 5 1 2 5
 
3 6 3 6 3

Operating R 2  R 2  R 1 , R 3  R 3  3R 1 , R 4  R 4  3R1 , we get

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1 1 1 2 3
0 1 2 4 2 
A ~ 
0 2 4 8 4 
 
0 3 6 12 6 

Operating R 3  R 3  2R 2 , R 4  R 4  3R 2 , we get

1 1 1 2 3
0 1 2 4 2
A ~ 
0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0
which is in row echelon form.
Hence basis of W is
{(1 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 3) , (0 , 1 ,  2 ,  4 ,  2) } and so dim W = 2.
To extend this to form a basis of R5 , we have to select three more vectors out of standard basis
e1 = (1 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0) , e2 = (0 , 1 , 0 , 0 , 0) , e3 = (0 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 0) ,

e4 = (0 , 0 , 0 , 1 , 0) , e5 = (0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 1) of R5.
By noticing these five vectors , we find that e3 , e4 and e5 form a row echelon matrix with basis of
W. Hence these three vectors together with basis of W forms a linear independent set and therefore a
basis of R5.
So, (1 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 3) , (0 , 1 ,  2 ,  4 ,  2) , (0 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 0 , 1 , 0) and (0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 1)
forms a basis of R5.

Exercise 5.3
1. Which of the following set are L.I. generating set, basis of the vector space     .

 7 
(i) 1,i (ii) 1, 2,i (iii) 2,3i (iv) 2,3i, i 
 2 

(v) 2i,3i (vi) 2, 2  3i (vii) 2,3, 4  5i (viii) 1  i,1  i

(ix) i, 2  3i (x) 2  3i, 4  6i (xi) 2  3i, 3  4i (xii) 1, i,1  i

(xiii) 3,1  i (xiv) 4,3i (xv) i, i (xvi) 1  i,1  i, 2

2. Determine whether or not the following sets form a basis of 3    .

(i) {(4 , 3 , 2) , (2 , 1 , 0) , ( 1 , 1 , 1)} (ii) {(1 , 3 , 2) , (2 , 4 , 1) , (1 , 1 , 1)}

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(iii) {(1 , 0 , 0) , (1 , 1 , 0) , (4 , 5 , 0)} (iv) {(2 , 4 , 3) , (0 , 1 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 1)}

(v) {(1 , 2 , 1) , (5 , 0 , 1) , (2 , 1 , 0) , (5 , 2 , 1)}

3. Determine whether or not the following sets form a basis of  4    .

(i) {(1 , 0 , 0 , 0) , (1 , 2 , 0 , 0) , (1 , 2 , 3 , 0) , (1 , 2 , 0 , 4)}

(ii) {(1 , 0 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 0 , 1)}
(iii) {(1 ,  2 , 5 ,  3) , (0 , 7 ,  9 , 2) , (0 , 0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 0 , 1)} .

4. Let {u , v , w} be a basis for the vector space  3 . Prove that the sets {u  v , v  w , w  u} and

{u , u  v , u  v  w} are also bases of  3 .

5. Show that the set {(1,0,0), (1,1,0), (1,1,1)} is a basis of 3    but not a basis of 3    or 3   

d3y dy
6. Let V be the vector space of solutions of the differential equation 3
 7  6 y  0 . Show that
dx dx
V    is a 3-dimensional real vector space. Find a basis of this vector space.

7. Determine whether each of the following is a basis of the vector space n  t  :

(a) { 1, 1+t, 1  t  t 2 , 1  t  t 2  t 3 , …., 1  t  t 2  ....  t n 1  t n },

(b) { 1+t, t  t 2 , t 2  t 3 , …., t n 2  t n1 , t n 1  t n }.

8. Find a subset of u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 that gives a basis for W  span  ui  of 5 where :

(a) u1  (1, 1, 1, 2, 3), u2  (1, 2, –1, –2, 1), u3  (3, 5, –1, –2, 5), u4  (1, 2, 1, –1, 4)

(b) u1  (1, –2, 1, 3, –1), u2  (–2, 4, –2, –6, 2), u3  (1, –3, 1, 2, 1), u4  (3, –7, 3, 8, –1)

(c) u1  (1, 0, 1, 0, 1), u2  (1, 1, 2, 1, 0), u3  (2, 1, 3, 1, 1), u4  (1, 2, 1,1, 1)

(d) u1  (1, 0, 1, 1, 1), u2  (2, 1, 2, 0, 1), u3  (1, 1, 2, 3, 4), u4  (4, 2, 5,4, 6)

9. Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace W of   t  spanned by :

(a) u  t 3  2t 2  2t  1, v  t 3  3t 2  3t  4, w  2t 3  t 2  7t  7 ,

(b) u  t 3  t 2  3t  2, v  2t 3  t 2  t  4, w  4t 3  3t 2  5t  2
10. Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace W of V  M 2.2 spanned by

 1 5  1 1  2 4   1 7 
A  , B  , C  , D 
 4 2   1 5  5 7   5 1 
11. Find a homogeneous system whose solution space is spanned by the following sets of three vectors :
(a) (1, –2, 0, 3, –1), (2, –3, 2, 5, –3), (1, –2, 1, 2, –2)
(b) (1, 1, 2, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1, 4, 3), (3, 5, 4, 9, 7).

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12. Let V  M n ,n    be the vector space over the field  , then find the dimension and a basis of

following subspaces W of V.
(i) W = set of all diagonal matrices in V.
(ii) W = set of all scalar matrices in V.
(iii) W = set of all lower triangular matrices in V.
(iv) W = set of all upper triangular matrices in V.
(v) W = set of all super lower triangular matrices in V.
(vi) W = set of all super upper triangular matrices in V.
(vii) W = set of all backward diagonal matrices in V.
(viii) W = set of all backward scalar matrices in V.
(ix) W = set of all symmetric matrices in V.
(x) W = set of all skew symmetric matrices in V.
13. (a) What is the dimension and basis of W in above question, if the vector space M n () over 

is replaced by M n () over  ?

(b) What is your opinion for the set of hermitian and skew-hermitian matrices in this case.
14. (a) What is the dimension and basis of W in question 14, if the vector space M n () over  is

replaced by M n () over  ?

(b) Also, find the dimension and basis for the set of hermitian and skew-hermitian matrices in
this case.
15. Find the dimension of following vector space over  ?


(i) V   aij  : aij  0 if i  j  n  1
nn

(ii) V   a 
ij : aij  0 if i  1 or n
nn

(iii) V   a 
ij 
: aij  0 if i  1 or n or j  1 or n
nn

(iv) V   a ij : a1 j  a2 j for 1  j  n 

n n

(v) V   a 
ij : aii  0 and aij  a ji  ij
nn

(vi) V   x1 , x2 ,....., x100  : x1  x3  .....  x99  0 : xi  

(vii) V   x1, x2 ,....., x100  : x1  x2  ......  x50 and x51  x52  ....  x100  0, xi  

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(viii) V   x1, x2 ,...., xn  : x1  x3  x5  ....  xk  0 where k is the largest odd integer less than n

(ix) V   x1, x2 ,....., xn  : x3  x3k for k  1


(x) V   aij  : aij  akl if i  j  k  l
nn

(xi) V   a 
ij : aij  0 if i divides j 
nn

(xii) V   p  x   P4    : p 1  p  2   p  3

(xiii) V   p  x   P4    : p 1  p  2   p  3  0


(xiv) V   aij  : aij  a ji , a1 j  a2 j  i, j
n n

(xv) V   x1, x2 ,....., xn  : x1  x4  x9  .....  0


(xvi) V   aij  : aij  a ji and aij  0 if j  1
nn

(xvii) V   a  ij 
: aij  0 if i  j  1
nn

(xviii) V   a  ij : aij  0 if i  j is even 

nn

(xix) V  a0  a1 x  .....  a100 x100 : ai  0 if i  3n for some integer n


(xx) V   aij  : aij  0 if i or j  1 and aij  a ji
nn

(xxi) V   x, y, z, t  : x  y  2t  0, 2 x  y  z  0, 3 x  2t  z  0

(xxii) V   x, y, z, t  : x  y  0, z  t  0

(xxiii) V   x, y, z, t  : 2 x  y  0, x  y  z  7t  0

(xxiv) V   x1, x2 ,....., x100  : x1  x3  0, x3  x5  0,...., x97  x99  0

(xxv) V   x1, x2 ,...., x2015  : xi  0 if i is a perfect square

Answers
1. (i) L.I., generating set, basis (ii) L.D., generating set, not a basis
(iii) L.I., generating set, basis (iv) L.D., generating set, not a basis
(v) L.D., not a generating set, not a basis (vi) L.I., generating set, basis
(vii) L.D., generating set, not a basis (viii) L.I., generating set, basis
(ix) L.I., generating set, basis (x) L.D., not a generating set, not a basis
(xi) L.I., generating set, basis (xii) L.D., generating set, not a basis
(xiii) L.I., generating set, basis (xiv) L.I., generating set, basis
(xv) L.D., not a generating set, not a basis (xvi) L.D., generating set, not a basis

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Chapter 5 Basis and dimensions 153

2. (i) Yes (ii) Yes (iii) No (iv) Yes (v) No

3. (i) Yes (ii) Yes (iii) Yes
7. (a) Yes. (b) No, since dim n  t   n  1 , but the set contains only n elements

8. (a) u1 , u2 , u4 ; (b) u1 , u3 ; (c) u1 , u2 , u4 ; (d) u1 , u2 , u3

9. (a) dim W  3 (b) dim W  3 10. dim W  2

11. (a) 5 x  y  z  s  0, x  y  z  t  0; (b) 3 x  y  z  0, 2 x  3 y  s  0, x  2 y  t  0

n n  1 n n  1
12. (i) n (ii) 1 (iii) (iv)
2 2
n n 1 n n 1
(v) (vi) (vii) n (viii) 1
2 2
n n  1 n n 1
(ix) (x)
2 2
n n  1 n n  1
13. (a) (i) n (ii) 1 (iii) (iv)
2 2
n n 1 n n 1
(v) (vi) (vii) n (viii) 1
2 2
n n  1 n n 1
(ix) (x)
2 2
(b) In this case, hermitian matrices reduces to symmetric and skew-hermitian matrices reduces to
skew-symmetric.
14. (a) (i) 2n (ii) 2 (iii) n  n 1 (iv) n  n 1

(v) n  n 1 (vi) n  n 1 (vii) 2n (viii) 2

(ix) n  n 1 (x) n  n 1

(b) n 2 , n 2

(iii) n  2
2
15. (i) n 2  n (ii) n 2  2n (iv) n 2  n

n n 1
(v) (vi) 99 (vii) 50 (viii) n 1
2
 n  n   n   n 
(ix) n    1 (x) 2n 1 (xi) n 2        ....    
 3    1   2   n  

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n n 1
(xii) 3 (xiii) 2 (xiv) (xv) n   n 
2  

n  2n 1  n2 
(xvi) (xvii) n 2  2n  2 (xviii)   (xix) 67
2 2
 
n n 1
(xx) (xxi) 2 (xxii) 2 (xxiii) 2
2
(xxiv) 51 (xxv) 1971
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.4 Basis and subspaces of finite vector spaces

Results :
1. Let Vn   p  be a finite vector space of dimension n over the field  p then the total number of

distinct basis is
p n
 p n1  p n  p n 2  ..... p n  p  p n  1
n!
2. Let Vn   p  be a finite vector space of dimension n over the field  p then the total number of

subspaces of dimension r is
p n
 p r 1  p n  p r 2  ..... p n  p  p n  1
p r
 p r 1  p r  p r 2  ..... p r  p  p r  1

Exercise 5.4
1. Find the number of distinct basis of the following vector spaces :
(i) 32   2  (ii)  23   3  (iii)  25   5  (iv)  33   3 

(v) M 2,3   2  (vi) M 2,2   3  (vii) P3   2  (viii) P2   3 

2. Find the number of 1-dimensional and 2-dimensional subspaces of the following vector spaces.
Hence find the total number of proper subspaces and subspaces. Also write all the distinct basis and
all subspaces.
(i) 32   2  (ii) P2   3  (iii)  33   3 

Answers
1. (i) 28 (ii) 24 (iii) 240 (iv) 1872
(v) 27998208 (vi) 1010880 (vii) 840 (viii) 1872
2. (i) 1-dimensional 7, 2-dimensional 7, total subspaces 16, no. of distinct basis 28.
(ii) 1-dimensional 13, 2-dimensional 13, total subspaces 28, no. of distinct basis 1872.
(iii) 1-dimensional 13, 2-dimensional 13, total subspaces 28, no. of distinct basis 1872.

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True-false exercise 11. The set of all vectors having the form
 a  2b, b  a,3b  5a  is the span of the set
1. If a system of linear equations Ax  b is
consistent, then the vector b is in the span
1, 1, 5 ,  2,1,3 .
of the set of columns of A.
12. The vector  3,1,11 is in the span of the set
2. If the system of equations Ax  b is of vectors (3,2,5), (1,1,1), (0,0,1).
consistent, then b is in the span of the set of
rows of A. 13. The vector (12, 1, –21) is in the span of this
set of three vectors : {(11,3,7), (0,12,5),
3. The span of the set of rows in an m  n (0,0,66)}.
matrix A is the same as the set
 Ax : x   n . 14. The span of the set of columns in an n  m
matrix A is the same as the set

4. The system of equations Ax  b is  Ax : x   n .

consistent if x is in the span of the set of
columns of A. 1 2 9 5 
15. Let A    . Every solution
 0 1 2 6 
5. If the columns of a matrix A span  k , then to the equation Ax  0 is a linear
for every vector b in  k the system of 10   21
equations Ax  b is consistent.  4  18 
combination of the vectors   and   .
6. If the vector b is not in the span of the set 2 0
of columns of the matrix A, then the system    
0 3
of equations Ax  b is inconsistent.
16. Let u  1,3, 2  , v   2,  1,3 and
7. If the vector b is in the span of the set of
rows of a matrix A, then the equation w   3, 2,5  . The set u , v, w is linearly
Ax  b is consistent. dependent.

8. If each column of an m  n matrix A has a 17. Let v1, v2 ,...., vn  be a set of n vectors in
pivot position, then the columns of A span
m .  m , and suppose that m  n . A valid
conclusion is that the set is linearly
dependent.
9. These three vectors span 3 :
0 0  3 18. If S is a linearly dependent set of vectors,
0 5  2 then each vector in S is a linear
     
 5   8  9  combination of the other vectors in S.

19. The span of a set of vectors u1, u2 ,...., uk 

10. If a set of vectors v1, v2 ,....., vn  spans
is the collection of all vectors that can be
 m , then every vector in  m has a unique written in the form c1u1  c2u2  ....  ck uk ,
representation as a linear combination of using integers c1, c2 ,...., ck .
v1, v2 ,...., vn .

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20. If n  m , the span of a set of n vectors in 32. If two sets of vectors have the same span,
 m is a subset of  n . then the two sets contain the same number
of elements.
21. The vector (9,3,7) is in the span of the set
of vectors (3,2,1), (1,2,0), and (3,0,0). 33. If a set of two or more vectors is linearly
independent, then the removal of a vector
from that set will not disturb the linear
22. If x, y and z are three points in  2 , then independence.
there exist scalars a, b, c (not all zero),
such that ax  by  cz  0 . 34. If a vector space V is spanned by a set of n
vectors, then every set of n  1 vectors in V
23. If u , v and w are any three points in 3 , is linearly independent.
then there are three scalars a, b and c such
35. If a set of vectors is linearly dependent,
that au  bv  cw  0 and a  b  c  0 . then we can add vectors to the set and make
it linearly independent.
24. The span of a pair of vectors u and v is the
set of all vectors that are either a multiple 36. A set of vectors is linearly dependent if
of u or a multiple of v. some nontrivial linear combination of
vectors in the set is 0.
25. If x is a nonzero vector in  n and if
ax  bx, then a  b . 37. Let V  span u1, u2 ,...., un  in some vector
space. A linearly independent set in V can
26. Define functions p0  t   3, p1  t   5t , have no more than n elements.
p2  t   t 2 , and p3  t   2t 3 . The span of 38. The vector  3, 4,7  is a linear
this set of four functions is the vector space
of all polynomials of degree at most 3. combination of the two vectors  6,5, 2  and
 5, 2, 1 .
n
27. If m vectors are selected in  , and m  n ,
then the span of that set of vectors is  n . 39. If S is a linearly independent set of n
vectors in a vector space V, and if Q is a
subset of m elements in V that spans V, then
28. A set of three vectors can span  4 .
mn.
29. If two sets of vectors have the same span,
then the sets must be the same. 40. If v1, v2 ,...., vn  is a linearly dependent set
in a vector space, then a correct conclusion
30. If two sets of vectors differ, then the span is that vn is a linear combination of the
of the two sets must be different. vectors v1, v2 ,...., vn1 .

5 1
41. If a set of three vectors u , v, w is linearly
31. The vector 15  is in the span of  4  and
  dependent, then one of the three is a
 3  2  multiple of another.
 3
7  42. If a vector space V is spanned by a set of m
  vectors and if some other set of n vectors in
 1  V is linearly independent, then n  m .

43. Any set of six 2  2 matrices is linearly

dependent.
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44. If the columns of a matrix form a linearly 57. If a vector space V has a spanning set
dependent indexed set, then the matrix has v1, v2 ,...., vn  and if w1, w2 ,...., wn  is a
more columns than rows.
linearly independent set in V, then
45. If A is an m  n matrix whose rows form a w1, w2 ,...., wn  is a basis for V.
linearly independent set, then n  m .
58. Any linearly independent set of n
46. Let A be an m  n matrix and let B be an polynomials, each of degree at most n, is a
n  k matrix. If k  m , a valid conclusion basis for n .
is that the columns of AB form a linearly
dependent set in  m .  0 1 1 0  1 1
59. The matrices  ,  ,   and
 1 1 1 1   0 1
47. Each row of the product AB is a linear
combination of the rows in A. 1 1 
1 0 form a basis for the vector space of
 
48. If A is an m  n matrix whose columns all 2  2 matrices.
form a linearly independent set, then
n m. 60. The dimension of the space spanned by
these four vectors is two : 1,3, 4,7  ,
49. If A is an invertible n  n matrix, then the
rows of A form a linearly independent set.  2, 1,1,5 , 5,1,6,17 , 3, 2,5,12 .

50. If a set of n vectors is linearly independent 61. If u1 , u2 , u3 span V, then w, u1 , u2 , u3 span

in an n–dimensional vector space, then the V.
given set spans the vector space.
62. Let A be an n  n matrix. If B and C are
51. If a set of n vectors spans an n–dimensional linear combinations of powers of A, then B
vector space, then the given set is linearly and C commute with each other.
independent.
63. If u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 are linearly independent,
52. A basis for a vector space V is defined to be
then u1 , u2 , u3 are linearly independent.
any set that spans V.

53. A basis for a vector space is a spanning set  5

that is as large as possible. 64. The vector  1  is a linear combination of

54. If a vector space V has a basis consisting of  4 

exactly n vectors, then any linearly  1 0  3
independent set in V can have at most n the columns of the matrix  3 2 2 
vectors.
 2 0 1 
55. If u1, u2 ,...., un  is a linearly independent
65. Every subspace in a vector space V is the
set in a vector space V, then the dimension
span of some set of vectors in V.
of V is at least n.
66. If u1 , u2 , u3 span V, then dim V  3.
56. If a set of n vectors spans a vector space V,
then the dimension of V is at least n.
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158 Linear Algebra

67. If A is a 4  8 matrix, then any six columns 5. Which one of the following is correct ? The
are linearly dependent. set S  {a  ib, c  id } is a basis for the
vector space C over  iff
68. If u1 , u2 , u3 are linearly independent, then 1. ad  bc  0 2. ad  bc  0
u1 , u2 , u3 ,w are linearly dependent. 3. ad  bc  0 4. ad  bc  0

6. Let S  {(1, i,0),(2i,1,1),(0,1  i,1  i )} be a

69. If u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 are linearly independent
then dim V  4 . subset of the complex vector space C 3 and
T  {(1,1,1),(1,1,0), (1,0,0)} be a subset of
the real vector space  3 . Which one of the
Assignment following statements is correct ?
1. S and T are both basis.
------------------------ S C Q -------------------- 2. S is a basis but T is not a basis.
1. Let V be a vector space over the field F of 3. S is not a basis but T is a basis.
dimension n . Consider the following 4. Neither S nor T is a basis.
statements
I. Every subset of V containing n elements 7. Consider the real vector space  3 . The
is a basis of V . subspace {( x, y, z )   3 : y  x} of  3 is
II. No linearly independent subset of V generated by which one of the following ?
contains more than n elements. 1. {(1,1,0),(0,0,1)}
Which of the above statement is/are 2. {(1,1,0),(1,0,0)}
correct?
3. {(1,0, 0),(0,1,0)}
1. I only 2. II only
3. Both I and II 4. Neither I and II 4. {(1,0,1),(0,0,1)}

2. Consider the vector space V over the field 8. What is the dimension of the vector space
of real numbers spanned by the set C over the field R ?
S   0,1,0,0  , 1,1,0,0  , 1,0,1, 0  1. 1 2. infinite 3. 2 4. 4

 0,0,1, 0 ,(1,1,1,0),(1,0,0,0) 9. Which one of the following polynomials

What is the dimension of V ? lies in the linear span of S  {1,1  x  x 2 }?
1. 1 2. 2 1. 5 x 2  5 x  1 2. 100 x 2  10 x  10
3. 3 4. 4 3.  ( x 2  1) 4. 7 x 2   x  3
3. Let X  (3, 2, 1), Y  (2, 4,1)
10. Given the vector
Z  (4,0, 3) and W  (10, 4, 5) be vector   (1, 2,3),   (3,1,0),   (2,1,3) and
in 3 , a real vector space. Which one of   (1,3,6)
the following is correct ? Consider the following statements
1. 2 X  Z  W , Y  Z  W I.  is a linear combination of  and  .
2. 2 X  Y  Z , Y  2Z  W II.  is a linear combination of  and  .
3. X  Z  W , 2 X  Y  Z Which of the following statement given
4. Y  2 Z  W , X  Y  Z above is/are correct ?
1. I only 2. II only
4. Let F [ x] be the ring of polynomials in one 3. Both I and II 4. Neither I nor II
variable x over a field F with the relation
11. A basis of
x n  0, for a fixed n  N . What is the
V  { x, y, z , w    4 : x  y  z  0,
dimension of F [ x] over F ?
1. 1 2. n  1 y  z  w  0, 2 x  y  3 z  w  0} is
3. n 4. infinite 1. {(1, 1, 1,0), (0, 1, 1, 1), (2, 1, 3, 1)}
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 5 Basis and dimensions 159

2. {(1, 1, 0, 1)} 4 

3. (1,2,3) 4.  ,1,1
3. {(1, 0, 1, 1)} 3 
4. {(1, 1, 0, 1), (1, 0, 1, 1)} 17. In  , consider the three statement about
3
(GATE 2007)
the subset E  {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1),
(1,1,1), (1,1,0)}
12. Let v1 , v2 and v3 be the vector space V over
I. E is linearly dependent set.
the field F . If r and s are arbitrary element II. Any three vector of E are linearly
of F and the set v1 , v2 , rv1  sv2  v3  is independent.
linearly dependent, then v1 , v2 , v3 is III. Any four vectors of E are linearly
dependent.
1. linearly dependent set Which of the above statement are correct?
2. a null set 1. I,II and III 2. I and II
3. linearly independent set 3. I and III 4. II and III
4. None of the above
18. Which of the following sets of vector in
13. The dimension of the subspace of
 3 are linearly independent ?
 3 spanned by (3,0,1),(1,2,1) and (3,0,1) I. {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (1,1,0)}
1. 0 2. 1 II. {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)}
3. 2 4. 3 III. {(0,1,0), (1,0,1), (1,1,0)}
IV. {(0,0,1), (0,1,0), (0,1,1)}
14. The set Select the correct answer using the codes
 1 2 4   2 4 8   given below
S1   
3 0  1 ,  6 0 2   and 1. I and II 2. II and III
    
3. III and IV 4. I and IV
S 2  u 3  3u  4, u 3  4u  3 are
1. both linearly dependent 19. Which one of the following statement is
2. both linearly independent correct ?
3. S1 is linearly dependent but S 2 is not 1. There is no vector space of dimension 1.
4. S 2 is linearly dependent but S1 is not 2. Any three vectors of a vector space of
dimension 3 are linearly independent.
3. There is one and only one basis of a
1 0 0  vector space of finite dimension.

15. Let M   0 cos   sin   , where 4. If a non-zero vector space V is

 0 sin  cos   generated by a finite set S , then V can
be generated by a linearly independent

0   . Let V u   3 , Mu t  u t . subset of S .
2 20. Let n be a positive integer and let H n be
Then, the dim V is
1. 0 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3 the space of all n  n matrices A  (aij ) with
(GATE 2008) entries in  satisfying aij  ars whenever
i  j  r  s (i, j, r , s  1, 2,..., n). Then, the
16. If S  {(1,1, 0),(2,1,3)}  3 , then which dimension of H n , as a vector space over
one of the following vectors of  3 is not in R is
the span [S ] ? 1. n2 2. n 2  n  1
1. (0,0,0) 2. (3,2,3) 3. 2n  1 4. 2n  1
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160 Linear Algebra

21. Let V be the vector space of m  n matrices 29. The dimension of the vector space
over a field K, then the dimension of V is
1. n 2. m 3. mn 4. mn

V  A   aij 
nn

: aij  , aij   a ji over the

field  is
22. Let V be the vector space of ordered pairs
of complex numbers over the real field  . 1. n2 2. n 2  1
Then, the dimension of V is n2
3. n2  n 4.
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4 2
(GATE 2009)
23.The dimension of () is
1. 1 2. finite 30. The vector space 3 () is of dimension
3. infinite 4. None of these 1. 1 2. 3
3. 2 4. None of these
24. Let V be the vector space of real
polynomials of degree not exceeding 2. Let 31. Let P (3)  {a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3 : ai  R,
f ( x)  x  1, g ( x )  x  1,
i  0,1, 2,3}. Under the standard operation
h( x)  x 2  1, j ( x )  x 2  1. of addition (+) and scalar multiplication (.),
Then the set  f , g , h, j is P(3) is
1. linearly independent 1. not a vector space
2. linearly dependent fg  h 2. a vector space of infinite dimension
3. linearly dependent because 3. a vector space of dimension 3
f  gh 0 4. a vector space of dimension 4
4. linearly dependent because
32. Consider
f  g h j  0
S  {a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3 : ai  }
25. Let W1 and W2 be finite dimensional with usual addition and multiplication
1. S does not form a vector space
subspaces of a vector space V . If
2. for vector space with dim 4
dim W1  2, dim W2  2,dim(W1  W2 )  3, 3. S does not form vector space because
then dim (W1  W2 ) is does not have identity
1. 1 2. 2 4. form a vector space with dim 3
3. 3 4. 4
33. If (m,3,1) is a linear combination of vectors
26. In the vector space  , the coordinate
3
(3,2,1) and (2,1,0) in  3 , then the value of
vector of (3,5,2) relative to the ordered m is
basis {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)} is 1. 1 2. 3
1. (5,3,2) 2. (3,5,2) 3. 5 4. None of these
3. (2,5,3) 4. (2,3,5)
34. The number of elements in the vector space
27. Let V be the vector space of all of polynomials of degree atmost n in
2  2 matrices over the field F . The which the coefficients are the elements of
dimension of V is the field  p over the field  p , p being a
1. 2 2. 3 prime number is
3. 4 4. None of these 1. p n1 2. p n
28. The dimension of the vector space spanned 3. p n1 4. None of these
by (1,2,3,1) and (1,1,2,3) is
1. 1 2. 2 35. Let V be the vector space of all real
3. 4 4. None of these polynomials. Consider the subspace
W spanned by t 2  t  2, t 2  2t  5,
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 5 Basis and dimensions 161

5t 2  3t  4 and 2t 2  2t  4 . Then, the 40. Let Vn ( p ) be a vector space of dimension

dimension of W is n over the field  p . The total number of
1. 4 2. 3 3. 2 4. 1
subspaces of dimension 1 of the vector
(GATE 2006)
space V2 ( 5 ) is
36. The set of all x   for which the vectors 1. 1 2. 2
(1, x,0) , (0, x 2 ,1) and (0,1, x ) are linearly 3. 3 4. 6
independent in  3 is
41. It is given that v1 , v2 ,..., vn are n non-zero
1. {x   : x  0} 2. {x   : x  0}
orthogonal vectors. The dimension of the
3. {x   : x  1} 4. {x   : x  1}
vector space spanned by the 2n vectors
(GATE 2005) v1 , v2 ,..., vn ,  v1 ,  v2 ,..., vn is
37. Let Vn ( p ) be a vector space of dimension 1. 2n
2. n+1
n over the field  p . Then, the total number 3. n
of distinct basis are 4. dependent on the choice of v1 , v2 ,..., vn
( p n  1)( p n  p)...( p n  p n1 )
1.
n! 42. Consider the set of vectors (columns)
( p  1)( p  p)...( p n  p n1 )
n n defined by X  {x   3 : x1  x2  x3  0,
2.
p! where xT  [ x1 , x2 , x3 ]T }.
( p  1)( p  p)...( p n  p n1 )
n n Which of the following is true?
3.
(n ! p !)2 1. {[1, 1,0]T ,[1,0, 1]T } is a basis for the
4. None of the above subspace X .
2. {[1, 1,0]T ,[1,0, 1]T } is a linearly
38. Let Vn ( p ) be a vector space of dimension independent set, but it does not span
n over the field  p . Then, the total number X and therefore is not a basis X .
3. X is not a subspace for  3
of subspaces of dimension r are
4. None of the above
( p n  1)( p n  p)...( p n  p r 1 )
1.
( p r  1)( p r  p)...( p r  p r 1 )
( p n  1)( p n  p)...( p n  p n1 ) 43. Let M nn ( ) be the set of all n  n matrices
2.
r! and
( p  1)( p  p)...( p n  p n1 )
n n  n 
3. S  [dij ] s.t. dij  0if i  j and  dii  0  ,
p!  i 1 
( p  1)( p  p)...( p n  p n1 )
n n
then
4. 1. the set S does not form a subspace of
( p n  1)( p n  p)...( p n  p r 1 )
M nn .
39. Let Vn ( p ) be a vector space of dimension 2. the set S is not closed w.r.t.
multiplication.
n over the field  p . The total number of
3. the set S form a subspace of dimension
basis of the vector space V3 ( 3 ) are n1
1. 11232 2. 11223 4. the set S form a subspace of dimension
3. 1024 4. 1872 n2 1 .

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162 Linear Algebra

44. S  {( x1 , x2 ,..., x100 )  . s.t. n  n  1

1. n 2.
x1  x2  ...  x50 , x51  x52  ...  x100  0 } 2
Then dim S is 3. n  1 4. n(n  1)
1. 49 2. 50
3. 47 4. 51 49. Let S  {(0,1, ),( ,1, 0),(1, ,1)}. Then
S is a basis for  3 if and only if
45. Let v1 , v2 , v3 be the three non-zero vectors in 1.   0 2.   1
 n are linearly dependent, then 2
3.   0 and   2 4. 1    1
1. v3 must be a linear combination of
v1 and v2 50. Let S  {(1,0,1), (2,1,4)}. The value of k
for which the vector (3k  2,3,10) belongs
2. v2 must be a linear combination of
to the linear span of S is
v1 and v3
1. 2 2. 2
3. v1 must be a linear combination of 3. 8 4. 3
v2 and v3
4. None of the above 51. Let S  {x1 , x2 ,..., xm } and
T  { y1 , y2 ,..., yn } be the subsets of the
46. Let S , T be subsets of a vector space V and vector space V . Then,
S  T . Consider the following statements. 1. if S and T are both linearly
I. If T is linearly independent, then so independent, then m  n
is S . 2. if S is a basis for V and if T spans V
II. If T generates V , then S also must then m  n
generate V . 3. if S is a basis for V and if T in linearly
III. If S is linearly independent, then T independent, then m  n
must be linearly independent. 4. if S is linearly independent and if
IV. If S generates V , then so does T T spans V, then m  n
Then, 52. Which one of the following is not a basis of
1. I and III are true, but I and IV are false 3 ?
2. I and IV are true, but II and III are false 1
1. {(3,0,0),(0, 1, 0),(0,0, )
3. I and III are true, but II and IV are false 2
4. II and IV are true, but I and III are false 2. (0,0,3),(1,2,3),(1,2,1)
3. (1,2,1),(1,1,1),(1,3,5)
47. Let {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } be a basis of  4 and 4. (1,1,0),(1,2,3),(0,0,1)
v  a1v1  a2 v2  a3v3  a4 v4 , where 53. Which of the following sets of function is
linearly dependent in the vector space
ai  R, i  1, 2,3, 4. Then,
C[0,1] of real continuous functions over
{v1  v, v2  v, v3  v, v4  v} is a basis of  4 [0,1]?
if and only if 1. {1, x, x 2  1} 2. { 2, x 2 , x 3 ,3x 2  2}
1. a1  a2  a3  a4
3. {x  1, x 2  1} 4. {x 2  1, x 2  5}
2. a1a2 a3a4  1
3. a1  a2  a3  a4  1 54. Let {e1 , e2 , e3} be a basis of a vector space
4. a1  a2  a3  a4  0 V over  . Consider the following sets
(GATE 2004) A  {e2 , e1  e2 , e1  e2  e3 }
B  {e1 , e1  e2 , e1  e2  e3 }
48. Let V be vector spaces of n  n matrices
over  , and W be the subspace of matrices C  {2e1 ,3e2  e3 ,6e1  3e2  e3},
with entries in each row adding upto zero. then,
Then, the dimension of W is 1. A and B are basis of V
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 5 Basis and dimensions 163

2. A and Care basis of V v1  (1, 2,0,3,0)

3. B and C are basis of V v2  (1, 2, 1, 1,0),
4. only B is a basis of V
v3  (0, 0,1, 4,0),
55. Let V be the vector space of all 5  5 real v4  (2, 4,1,10,1) and v5  (0,0, 0,0,1).
skew-symmetric matrices. Then, the The dimension of the linear span of
dimension of V is {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5} is
1. 20 2. 15 1. 2 2. 3 3. 4 4. 5
3. 10 4. 5 (GATE 2004)
56. Let
62. The set {e 2 x , e3 x }, x  , is
V  {( x1 , x2 ,..., x100 )  100 : x1  2 x2  3 x3
1. LI over 
and x51  x52  ...  x100  0}. 2. LD over 
Then, dim V is 3. LI over any interval (a, b), only when
1. 98 2. 49 0  ( a, b)
3. 99 4. 97 4. None of the above
57. The dimension of the subspace 63. Choose the correct statement
{( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) : 3x1  x2  x3  0} of 1. Every subset of a LI set is LI
 5 is 2. Every superset of a LI set is LI
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4 3. Every subset of a LD set is LD
(GATE 2006) 4. Every subset of a LD set is LI
64. Let [ 3]  {a  b 3 : a, b  }, then
58. The dimension of the vector space of all which of the following is correct?
symmetric matrices of order n  n(n  2)
1. [ 3] is infinite dimensional vector
with real entries and trace equal to zero is
space over 
 n2  n   n2  n 
1.    1 2.   1 2. [ 3] is two-dimensional vector space
 2   2  over 
 n 2  2n   n 2  2n  3. [ 3] is two-dimensional vector space
3.   1 4.   1
 2   2  over 
(CSIR NET June 2011) 4. R is finite dimensional vector space
over [ 3]
59. Consider the subspace W  {[aij ] : aij  0
if i is even } of all 10  10 real matrices. 65. The dimension of the vector space of all
Then, dimension of W is 3  3 real symmetric matrices is
1. 25 2. 50 3. 75 4. 100 1. 3 2. 9 3. 6 4. 4
(GATE 2008) (GATE 2002)

60. The number of distinct bases of a two 66. The vectors u  [3  2,1  2]T and
dimensional vector space over  3 is v  [7,1  2 2]T in  2 are
1. 24 2. 27 1. LI over  2. LI over 
3. 9 4. 48 3. LI over  4. All of these
61. Let
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164 Linear Algebra

67. Let u , v, w are LI vectors. Then, consider 2. only II and III are true
the statements 3. only III and IV are true
I. u  v  2 w, u  v  w and u  w are LI 4. only I and IV are true
II. u  v  3w, u  3v  w and v  w are LD
Choose the correct code  1 0 1
1. I is true but II is false 72. Consider the matrix M   0 1 0  and
2. I is false but II is true  1 1 1
 
3. both I and II are true
4. both I and II are false let S M be the set of 3  3 matrices N , such
that MN  0 . Then, the dimension of the
68. Let V be the space of 2  2 matrices over real vector space S M is equal to
 and let W be the subspace generated by 1. 0 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3
 1 5  1 1  2 4
 4 2  ,  1 5 ,  5 7  and 73. Let S be the set of all n  n matrices over
     
 with zero trace. Then,
 1  7  1. S is not a vector space
 5 1 
  2. S is a vector space of dimension n  1
Then, dimension of W is 3. S , together with the identity matrix,
1. 2 2. 3 3. 4 4. 5 form a vector space
4. S is a vector space and it has a basis
69. Which of the following sets of vectors is a consisting of n 2  1 matrices
basis for  3
I. {(1, 2,3),(3,5,7),(5,8,11)} 74. Let S  {x1 ,  x2 , x3} and
II. {(1,0,1),(0,1,0),(1,0,1)} T  {x1  x3 , x1  x2 , 2 x2  x3  x1} .
III. {(1, 2,3), (2,3, 4),(2, 4,6)} Then
1. only I and II 2. only II 1. Both S and T are basis for  3
3. only I and III 4. only I 2. S is not a basis for  3 but T is a basis for
70. Let S  {(1, 2,3),(1,0, 1)}. The value of 3
3. T is not a basis for  3 but S is a basis for
k for which the vector (2,1, k ) belongs to
3
the linear span of S is
4. Neither S nor T is a basis for  3
1. 1 2. 1 3. 2 4. 0
75. Let W be the space spanned by
71. Let f and g be two elements of the vector
f  sin x and g  cos x. Then for any real
space of all continuous functions defined
value of  , f1  sin( x   ) and
on [a, b] over real field  . Consider the
following statements g1  cos( x   ) . Which of the following is
I. f and g are LI on [a, b] implies that not true ?
they are LI on each subinterval of 1. are vectors in W
[ a, b] 2. are linearly independent
II. f and g are LD on [a, b] implies that 3. do not form a basis for W
4. form a basis for W
they are LD on each subinterval of
[ a, b]
76. If V is a vector space over an infinite field
III. f and g are LI on any subinterval of F such that dim V  2 , then the number of
[a, b] implies that they are LI on [a, b] distinct subspaces V has is
IV. f and g are LD on any subinterval of 1. 2 2. 3
[a, b] implies that they are LD on [a, b] . 3. 4 4. infinite
Then,
1. only I and II are true
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 5 Basis and dimensions 165

1 1 1  81. The dimension of vector space of all

77. Let A   2 2 3  and symmetric matrices A   a jk  of order
 x y z  n  n  n  2  with real entries a11  0 and
let V  x, y, z    3 :det  A   0. trace zero is
Then the dimension of V equals n2  n  4 n2  n  4
1. 2.
1. 0 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3 2 2
2 2
(GATE 2007) n  n 3 n n3
3. 4.
2 2
78. Let V be a 3dimensional vector space over (CSIR NET June 2012)

the field F3  of 3 elements. The
3 82. Let x  ( x1 , x2 , x3 ), y  ( y1 , y2 , y3 )  3 be
number of distinct one dimensional linearly independent. Let
subspaces of V is 1  x2 y3  y2 x3 ,  2  x1 y3  y1x3 ,
1. 13 2. 26
3. 9 4. 15  3  x1 y2  y1 x2 . If V is the span of x, y,
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) then
1. V  {(u , v, w) : 1u   2v   3w  0}
1 3 5 a 13 2. V  {(u , v, w) : 1u   2v   3w  0}
79. Let A   0 1 7 9 b  where 3. V  {(u , v, w) : 1u   2v   3w  0}
 0 0 1 11 15 4. V  {(u , v, w) : 1u   2v   3w  0}
a, b  . Choose the correct statement. (CSIR NET June 2016)
1. There exist values of a and b for which
the columns of A are linearly 83. Which of the following subsets of  4 is a
independent. basis of  4 ?
2. There exist values of a and b for which B1  (1,0, 0,0),)(1,1,0,0),(1,1,1,0),(1,1,1,1)
Ax=0 has x=0 as the only solution.
3. For all values of a and b the rows of A B2  (1, 0,0,0),)(1, 2, 0,0), (1,2,3,0), (1, 2,3, 4)
span a 3dimensional subspace of  5 . B3  (1, 2,0,0),)(0,0,1,1),(2,1,0,0),(5,5,0, 0)
4. There exist values of a and b for which 1. B1 and B2 but not B3
rank(A)=2.
(CSIR NET June 2013) 2. B1 , B2 and B3
3. B1 and B3 but not B2
80. Consider the following row vectors 4. Only B1
a1  1,1,0,1,0,0  , a2  1,1,0,0,1, 0  , (CSIR NET Dec 2016)
a3  1,1,0,0, 0,1 , a4  1,0,1,1,0,0  ,
a5  1,0,1,0,1, 0  , a6  1,0,1,0,0,1 ,
The dimension of the vector space spanned ----------------------- M C Q -----------------------
by these row vectors is
1. 6 2. 5 1. Let n be an integer, n  3, and let
3. 4 4. 3 u1 , u2 ,...., un be n linearly independent
(CSIR NET Dec 2013)
elements in a vector space over  . Set
u0  0and un1  u1. Define

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166 Linear Algebra

vi  ui  ui 1 and wi  ui1  ui for i 1, 2,...., n. that xi  0 for every i =1, 2,....,n.
Then 2. xi  0 for every i =1, 2,....,n implies that
1. v1 , v2 ,...., vn are linearly independent, if C is linearly independent set.
n  2010 . 3. The linear span of C is V implies that
2. v1 , v2 ,...., vn are linearly independent, if xi  0 for every i =1, 2,....,n.
n  2011 . 4. xi  0 for every i =1, 2,....,n implies that
3. w1 , w2 ,...., wn are linearly independent, if the linear span of C is V.
n  2010 . (CSIR NET June 2014)
4. w1 , w2 ,...., wn are linearly independent, if
n  2011 .
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) True false key
1. T 2. F 3. F 4. F
2. Let n be an interger  2 and let M n   
5. T 6. T 7. F 8. F
denote the vector space of n  n real
matrices. Let B  M n    be an orthogonal 9. T 10. F 11. T 12. T
matrix and let Bt denote the transpose of B. 13. T 14. T 15. T 16. T
Consider WB  B t AB : A  M n    . Which 17. F 18. F 19. F 20. F
of the following are necessarily true ? 21. T 22. T 23. F 24. F
1. WB is a subspace of M n    and
25. T 26. T 27. F 28. F
dim WB  rank  B  .
29. F 30. F 31. T 32. F
2. WB is a subspace of M n    and
33. T 34. F 35. F 36. T
dimWB  rank  B  rank  B t 
37. T 38. T 39. F 40. F
3. WB = M n   
41. F 42. T 43. T 44. F
4. WB is not a subspace of M n   
45. F 46. T 47. F 48. F
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
49. T 50. T 51. T 52. F
3. Let v1 ,...., vn  be a linearly independent 53. F 54. T 55. T 56. F
subset of a vector space V where n  4. Set 57. T 58. F 59. T 60. T
wij  vi  v j . Let W be the span of
61. T 62. T 63. T 64. T
w ij |1  i, j  n . Then
65. T 66. F 67. T 68. F
1. w ij |1  i  j  n spans W.
69. T
2. w ij |1  i  j  n is linearly
independent subset of W.
3. wij |1  i  n  1, j  i  1 spans W. Assignment key
4. dimW  n . SCQ
(CSIR NET Dec 2013) 1. 2 2. 3 3. 2 4. 3
4. Let V denote a vector space over a field F
and with a basis B  e1 , e2 ,...., en  . Let 5. 4 6. 1 7. 1 8. 3
x1 , x2 ,...., xn  F . Let 9. 1 10. 2 11. 4 12. 1
C  {x1e1 , x1e1  x2e2 ,...., x1e1  x2e2  ....  xnen }. 13. 3 14. 3 15. 2 16. 3
Then 17. 3 18. 2 19. 4 20. 4
1. C is a linearly independent set implies
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 5 Basis and dimensions 167

21. 3 22. 4 23. 3 24. 4

25. 1 26. 2 27. 3 28. 2
29. 3 30. 2 31. 4 32. 2
33. 3 34. 1 35. 3 36. 3
37. 1 38. 1 39. 4 40. 4
41. 3 42. 1 43. 3 44. 2
45. 4 46. 2 47. 3 48. 4
49. 3 50. 2 51. 4 52. 2
53. 2 54. 1 55. 3 56. 4
57. 4 58. 2 59. 2 60. 1
61. 2 62. 1 63. 1 64. 3
65. 3 66. 3 67. 3 68. 1
69. 2 70. 4 71. 2 72. 4
73. 4 74. 1 75. 3 76. 4
77. 3 78. 1 79. 3 80. 3
81. 1 82. 1 83. 1

MCQ
1. 2,3,4 2. 2,3 3. 1,3
4. 1,2,3,4

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Chapter 6
More topics on vector
space
Your ability will grow to match your dreams.
– Jim Rohn
6.1 Row space, column space and null space of a matrix

Def. Row space of a matrix : The space generated by rows of a matrix is called its row space. If A is

a m  n real matrix then its row space is a subspace of  n .

Def. Column space of a matrix : The space generated by columns of a matrix is called its column

space. If A is a m  n real matrix then its column space is a subspace of  m .

 a11 a12 ... a1n 

a a22 ... a2n 
If A   21  then row space of A   a , a ,..., a  ,  a , a ,..., a  ,...,  a , a ,..., a 
11 12 1n 21 22 2n m1 m 2 mn
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 am1 am 2 ... amn 

column space of A   a11, a21,...., am1  ,  a12 , a22 ,...., am 2  ,.....,  a1n , a2n ,...., amn 

Result : The dimension of row space and of the column space of a matrix are both equal to the rank of
the matrix.
Def. Null space of a matrix : Let A be a m  n matrix then null space of A is defined as

Null space of a A   x : Ax  0 , where x is a n  1 vector and 0 is a m  1 vector.

Clearly null space of A is a subspace of  n .

Result :
1. If A is a m  n matrix then dimension of null space of A is n  r , where r is the rank of the matrix A.
2. If two matrices are row equivalent then their null spaces are same, however converse is not true.
170 Linear Algebra
Identical subspaces : Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of a finite dimensional vector space V and
let S1 and S2 be their spanning sets respectively. Then W1 and W2 are identical i.e. W1 = W2 if
every vector of S1 can be expressed as linear combination of vectors of S2 and every vector of S2
can be expressed as linear combination of vectors of S1.
Results :
1. Suppose A and B are two matrices such that AB is defined. Then row space of AB is contained in
the row space of B and the column space of AB is contained in the column space of A.
2. Suppose A and B are row reduced echelon matrices. Then A and B have the same row space if and
only if they have the same non zero rows.
3. The row space of a matrix A is same as the column space of AT .
4. Row spaces of two matrices of same size are same iff they are row equivalent.
5. Two matrices are row equivalent then their column spaces need not be same.
6. The system Ax  b is consistent iff b  column space  A  .

Example 1 : Show that the subspace spanned by the vectors v1  (1 , 2 , 1) , v2  (1 , 2 , 3) and the

subspace spanned by the vectors w1  (0 , 0 , 1) and w2  (1 , 2 , 5) are identical.

Solution : Let us express v1 and v2 as linear combinations of w1 and w2 .

Let (1 , 2 , 1)  a (0 , 0 , 1)  b(1 , 2 , 5)
 b  1 , 2b  2 , a  5b  1
 a  4 and b  1
 v1  4 w1  w2

Now let (1 , 2 , 3)  a (0 , 0 , 1)  b(1 , 2 , 5)

 b  1 , 2b  2 , a  5b  3
 a  2 and b  1
 v2  2 w1  w2

Again we express w1 and w2 as linear combinations of v1 and v2 .

Let (0 ,0 , 1)  a(1 , 2 , 1)  b(1 , 2 , 3)

 a  b  0 , 2a  2b  0 , a  3b  1
1 1
 a and b 
2 2
1 1
 w1   v1  v2
2 2
Now let (1 , 2 , 5)  a (1 , 2 , 1)  b(1 , 2 , 3)
 a  b  1 , 2a  2b  2 , a  3b  5

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 6 More topics on vector space 171

 a  1 and b  2
 w2  v1  2v2

Thus v1 , v2 are linear combinations of w1 , w2 and w1 , w2 are linear combinations of v1 , v2 ,

therefore the subspace generated by v1 , v2 is identical with the subspace generated by w1 , w2 .

Exercise 6.1
1. Find the dimension of row space and column space of each of the following matrices :
 1 3 2 5 4  1 2 3 2  1 1 2 
 1 4 1 3 5   1 3 2 0  4 5 5 
(a)  , (b)  , (c)  
 1 4 2 4 3  3 8 7 2  5 8 1 
     
 2 7 3 6 13   2 1 9 10   1 2 2 
2. For k = 1,2,…,5, find the number nk of linearly independent subsets consisting of k columns for

each of the following matrices :

1 1 0 2 3  1 2 1 0 2
(a) A  1 2 0 2 5  , (b) B   1 2 3 0 4  .
1 3 0 2 7   1 1 5 0 6 

1 2 1 3 1 6 1 2 2 1 2 1
2 4 3 8 3 15  2 4 5 4 5 5 
3. Let (a) A   , (b) B   .
1 2 2 5 3 11  1 2 3 4 4 6
   
4 8 6 16 7 32  3 6 7 7 9 10 

For each matrix (where C1 ,...., C6 denote its column) :

(i) Find its row canonical form M.

(ii) Find the columns that are linear combinations of preceding columns.
(iii) Find columns (excluding C6 ) that form a basis for the column space.

(iv) Express C6 as a linear combination of the basis vectors obtained in (iii).

4. Determine which of the following matrices have the same row space :
1 1 3
1 2 1 1 1 2 
A , B , C   2 1 10 
3 4 5  2 3 1
 3 5 1 

5. Determine which of the following subspaces of 3 are identical :

W1  span[(1, 1, –1), (2, 3, –1), (3, 1, –5)], W2  span[(1, –1, –3), (3, –2, –8), (2, 1, –3)]

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172 Linear Algebra

W3  span[(1, 1, 1), (1, –1, 3), (3, –1, 7)]

6. Determine which of the following subspaces of  4 are identical :

W1  span[(1, 2, 1, 4), (2, 4, 1, 5), (3, 6, 2, 9)], W2  span[(1, 2, 1, 2), (2, 4, 1, 3)],

W3  span[(1, 2, 3, 10), (2, 4, 3, 11)]

7. Find two different basis for (i) the row space and (ii) the column space of each matrix M :
0 0 3 1 4 1 2 1 0 1
1 3 1 2 1  1 2 2 1 3 
(a) M   , (b) M   .
3 9 4 5 2 3 6 5 2 7
   
4 12 8 8 7 2 4 1 –1 0

Answers
1. (a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 3
2. (a) n1  4 , n2  5 , n3  n4  n5  0 (b) n1  4 , n2  6 , n3  3, n4  n5  0

1 2 0 1 0 3
0 0 1 2 0 1
3. (a) (i) M    (ii) C2 , C4 , C6
0 0 0 0 1 2
 
0 0 0 0 0 0

(iii) C1 , C3 , C5 (iv) C6  3C1  C3  2C5 .

1 2 0 0 3 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
(b) (i) M   (ii) C2 , C5 , C6
0 0 0 1 1 2
 
0 0 0 0 0 0

(iii) C1 , C3 , C4 (iv) C6  C1  C3  2C4

1 0 7 
1 0 7  1 0 1 
4. A ~   , B~  and C ~  0 1 4 
0 1 4 0 1 1  0 0 0 

 1 0 2 
5. W1 and W2 are row equivalent to  0 1 1  , but not W3 .
 0 0 0 

1 2 0 1 
1 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 
6. W1 ~  0 0 1 3 , W2 ~   and W3 ~  
 0 0 0 0  0 0 1 1  0 0 1 3

7. (a) (i) (1, 3, 1, 2, 1), (0, 0, 1, –1, –1), (0, 0, 0, 4, 7); C1 , C3 , C4 .

(b) (i) (1, 2, 1, 0, 1), (0, 0, 1, 1, 2) (ii) C1 , C3 .

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 6 More topics on vector space 173

6.2 Sums, direct sums and intersections

Def. Linear sum of subspaces : Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of a vector space V , then linear
sum of W1 and W2 is denoted by W1 + W2 and is defined as :
W1 + W2 = {w1  w2 : w1  W1 , w2  W2 } .

Further a vector space V is said to be linear sum of its subspaces W1 and W2 if every v V can be
expressed as v  w1  w2 ; w1  W1  w2  W2 .
Def . Direct sum of subspaces : A vector space V(F) is said to be direct sum of its two subspaces W1
and W2 if every v  V can be uniquely expressed as
v  w1  w2 ; w1  W1 , w2  W2

We denote the direct sum of W1 and W2 by W1  W2 .

Results :
1. Linear sum of two subspaces is a subspace.
2. If W1 and W2 are two subspaces of a vector space V(F) , where V is finite dimensional.
Then dim(W1  W2 )  dim W1  dim W2  dim(W1  W2 ) .

3. The necessary and sufficient conditions for a vector space V(F) to be a direct sum of its subspaces
W1 and W2 are that (i) V = W1  W2 (ii) W1  W2 = {0}.

OR
The necessary and sufficient condition for a vector space V to be direct sum of its two subspaces
are that V is linear sum of these two subspaces and they are disjoint.
4. If a finite dimensional vector space V is a direct sum of its two subspaces W1 and W2 , then
dim V = dim W1 + dim W2.
5. If W1 and W2 are two subspaces of a vector space V ( F ) then

max{dim W1  dim W2  dimV ,0}  dim(W1  W2 )  min{dim W1,dim W2}

Proof : We know that W1  W2  W1  dim W1  W2   dimW1 ……(1)

Also, W1  W2  W2  dim W1  W2   dim W2 …….(2)

 From (1) and (2), we have

dim W1  W2   min dimW1 ,dim W2 

Now, W1  W2  V  dim W1  W2   dimV

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174 Linear Algebra

 dim W1  dim W2  dim W1  W2   dimV

 dim W1  dim W2  dim V  dim W1  W2 

 dim W1  W2   dimW1  dim W2  dimV ………(3)

Also, dim W1  W2   0 ………(4)

 From (3) and (4), we have

dim W1  W2   max dim W1  dimW2  dim V , 0

 max dimW1  dim W2  dimV , 0  dim W1  W2   min dim W1 , dim W2 

6. If W1 and W2 are two subspaces of a vector space V ( F ) then

max{dim W1,dim W2 }  dim(W1  W2 )  min{dim W1  dimW2 , dim V }

Proof : We know that

dim W1  W2   dimW1  dimW2  dim W1  W2   dim W1  dim W2 ……(1)

Also, dim W1  W2   dim V ……(2)

 From (1) and (2), we have

dim W1  W2   min dim W1  dim W2 ,dim V 

Now, W1  W1  W2  dim W1  dim W1  W2  …..(3)

Also, W2  W1  W2  dim W2  dim W1  W2  …..(4)

From (3) and (4), we have

dim W1  W2   max dimW1 , dimW2 

 max{dim W1,dim W2 }  dim(W1  W2 )  min{dim W1  dimW2 , dim V }

7. If S1 is a generating set of W1 and S 2 is a generating set of W2 then S1  S2 is a generating set of

W1  W2 . Also, W1  W2  W1  W2  L W1  W2   span W1  W2 

8. If B1 is a basis of W1 and B2 is a basis of W2 then B1  B2 is a generating set of W1  W2 , but not

necessarily a basis.
9. Suppose W1 ,W2 ,....,Wr are subspaces of a vector space V, then

(i) span W1,W2 ,...,Wr  W1  W2  ....  Wr .

(ii) If Si spans Wi for i 1,...., r , then S1  S 2  ....  S r spans W1  W2  ....  Wr .

10. If W1,W2 and W3 are the subspaces of a vector space V, then

(i) W1  (W2  W3 )  (W1  W2 )  (W1  W3 ) .

Proof : Let z  x  y  W1  W2   W1  W3 

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 x W1  W2 , y W1  W3

 x W1 and x  W2 , y  W1 and y  W3

Now, x, y W1  x  y  W1  z  W1

and x W2 , y W3  x  y  W2  W3  z  W2  W3

 z  W1  W2  W3 

 W1  W2   W1  W3   W1  W2  W3 

(ii) W1  (W2  W3 )  (W1  W2 )  (W1  W3 ) .

Proof : Let z  x  y  W1  W2  W3 

 x W1 , y  W2  W3

 x W1 , y W2 and y  W3

 x  y  W1  W2 and x  y  W1  W3

 z  W1  W2 and z  W1  W3

 z  W1  W2   W1  W3 

 W1  W2  W3   W1  W2   W1  W3 

Example 1 : If W1 and W2 are subspaces of the vector space R4 (R) spanned by the sets

S1 = {(1 , 1 , 0 , 1) , (1 , 2 , 3 , 0) , (2 , 3 , 3 , 1)} and

S2 = {(1 , 2 , 2 , 2) , (2 , 3 , 2 , 0) , (3 , 5 , 4 , 2)} respectively .Then find
(i) dim W1 (ii) dim W2 (iii) dim ( W1  W2 ) (iv) dim ( W1  W2 ).

Solution : (i) To find a basis of W1 , we consider a matrix whose rows are the vectors of S1 .
1 1 0 1 
i.e. A =  1 2 3 0 
 2 3 3 1 

1 1 0 1 
~  0 1 3 1 (Operating R 2  R 2  R 1 , R 3  R 3  2R 1 )
 0 1 3 1

1 1 0 1 
~  0 1 3 1 (Operating R 3  R 3  R 2 ) which is in row echelon form.
 0 0 0 0 

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Thus the non – zero rows {(1 , 1 , 0 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 3 ,  1)} form the basis of W1 and so dim W1 = 2
(ii) To find a basis of W2 , we consider a matrix whose rows are the vectors of S2 .
1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 
i.e. B =  2 3 2 0  ~  0 1 2 4 (Operating R 2  R 2  2R1 , R 3  R 3  3R 1 )
 
 3 5 4 2   0 1 2 4

1 2 2 2 
~  0 1 2 4 (Operating R 3  R 3  R 2 )
 0 0 0 0 

which is in row echelon form.

Thus the non – zero rows {(1 , 2 , 2 , 2) , (0 ,  1 ,  2 ,  4)} form the basis of W2 and
so dim W2 = 2.
(iii) We know that W1  W2 = < W1  W2 > . Therefore W1  W2 is generated by vectors of

S1  S2 = {(1 , 1 , 0 , 1) , (1 , 2 , 3 , 0) , (2 , 3 , 3 , 1) (1 , 2 , 2 ,2) , (2 , 3 , 2 ,0) , (3 , 5 , 4 , 2)}

Now we consider a matrix C formed by writing the vectors of S1  S2 in rows i.e.

1 1 0 1
1 2 3 0 

2 3 3 1
C=  
1 2 2 2
2 3 2 0
 
3 5 4 2

Operating R 2  R 2  R 1 , R 3  R 3  2R 1 , R 4  R 4  R1 , R 5  R 5  2R1 , R 6  R 6  3R1 , we get

1 1 0 1
0 1 3 1

0 1 3 1
C~  
0 1 2 1
0 1 2 2 
 
0 2 4 1

Operating R 3  R 3  R 2 , R 4  R 4  R 2 , R 5  R 5  R 2 , R 6  R 6  2R 2 , we get

1 1 0 1
0 1 3 1

0 0 0 0
C ~ 
0 0 1 2 
0 0 1 1
 
0 0 2 1 

Operating R 5  R 5  R 4 , R 6  R 6  2R 4 , we get
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1 1 0 1
0 1 3 1

0 0 0 0
C ~  
0 0 1 2 
0 0 0  3
 
0 0 0  3

Operating R 6  R 6  R 5 and taking zero rows in the bottom , we get

1 1 0 1
0 1 3 1

0 0 1 2
C~  
0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0
which is in row echelon form.
Thus the non – zero rows (1 , 1 , 0 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 3 ,  1) , (0 , 0 ,  1 ,  2) , (0 , 0 , 0 ,  3) form a basis
of W1  W2 and so dim ( W1  W2 ) = 4.

Now we know that dim ( W1  W2 ) = dim W1 + dim W2  dim( W1  W2 )

 4 = 2 + 2  dim ( W1  W2 )

Hence dim ( W1  W2 ) = 0.

Exercise 6.2
1. If W1 and W2 are two-dimensional subspaces of  3 , then show that W1  W2  0 .

2. Suppose W1 and W2 are subspaces of V such that dim W1  4 , dim W2  5 , and dimV=7. Find the

possible dimensions of W1  W2 .

3. Let W1 and W2 be subspaces of 3 for which dim W1  1 , dim W2  2 , and W1 / W2 . Show

that  3  W1  W2 .

4. Consider the following subspaces of 5 :

W1  span[(1, –1, –1, –2, 0), (1, –2, –2, 0, –3), (1, –1, –2, –2, 1)]

W2  span[(1, –2, –3, 0, –2), (1, –1, –3, 2, –4), (1, –1, –2, 2, –5)]

(a) Find two homogeneous system whose solution spaces are W1 and W2 , respectively.

(b) Find a basis and the dimension of W1  W2 .

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5. Let W1 ,W2 ,W3 be the following subspaces of 3 :

W1  a, b, c  : a  c, W2   a, b, c  : a  b  c  0 , W3  0,0, c 

Show that : (a)  3  W1  W2 , (b) 3  W2  W3 , (c) 3  W1  W3 . When is the sum direct ?

6. Consider the subspaces U   a, b, c, d : b  2c  d  0 and W  a, b, c, d  : a  d , b  2c of  4 .

Find a basis and the dimension of : (a) U, (b) W, (c) U  W

7. Suppose W1 ,W2 ,W3 are subspaces of a vector space V. Show that

W1  W2   W1  W3   W1  W2  W3  . Find subspaces of  2 for which equality does not hold.

8. Let V be the vector space of n-square matrices. Let W1 be the subspace of upper triangular

matrices, and let W2 be the subspace of lower triangular matrices. Find (a) W1  W2 (b) W1  W2 .
9. Give an example to show that the linear sum of two subspaces need not be always the direct sum .
10. Let V be the vector space of all n  n real matrices. Let W1 and W2 be the set of all n  n real

symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices respectively, then show that V  W1  W2 .

11. Let V be the vector space of all functions from  to  . Let W1 and W2 denotes the subspaces of

all even and odd functions respectively, then show that V  W1  W2 .

Answers
2. dim W1  W2   2,3 or 4

4. (a) (i) 3x  4 y  z  t  0 (ii) 4 x  2 y  s  0

4x  2 y  s  0 9x  2 y  z  t  0

(b) Basis : {(1, –2, –5, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1, 0, –1)}; dim U  W   2

5. The sum is direct in (b) and (c)

6. (a) dim U = 3, (b) dim W  2 , (c) dim U  W  1

7. In  2 , let W1 ,W2 ,W3 be, respectively, the line y  x , the x–axis, the y–axis.

8. (a) Diagonal matrices, (b) V

9. W1  {( x, y, z )   3 : x  y}, W2  {( x, y, z )   3 : x  y  z  0}
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6.3 Coordinates

Def. Co ordinate Vector : If the set B  {v1 , v2 ,......., vn } is a basis of a vector space V(F) , then a

vector v  V can be expressed uniquely as v  a1v1  a2 v2  .........  anvn for some scalars

a1 , a2 ,......, an . The coefficients a1 , a2 ,......, an in the linear combination of v are called co – ordinates of
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v relative to the basis B. The vector  a1 , a2 ,......, an  is called the coordinate vector of v relative to the

basis of B.
Example 1 : Find the coordinates of the vector ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4) relative to the ordered basis
B = {(0 , 1 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 0 , 0 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 0 , 0)} for V4.
Solution : Consider
(1, 2,3, 4)  a1 (0,1,1,0)  a2 (0,0,1,1)  a3 (1,0,0,1)  a4 (0,1,0,0)

= (a3 , a1  a4 , a1  a2 , a2  a3 )

 a3  1 , a1  a4  2 , a1  a2  3 , a2  a3  4

On solving , we have a2  5 , a1  2 , a4  4 , a3  1

Hence , the coordinates of (1, 2,3, 4) relative to the basis of B are 2,5, 1, 4 .

Exercise 6.3
1. In 3    , find the coordinates of vector u w.r.t. a basis (u1 , u2 , u3 ) where

(i) u = (4 , 5 , 6) ; u1  (1 , 1 , 1) , u2  (1, 1 , 0) , u3  (1, 0 ,  1)

(ii) u  (1 , 0 ,  1) ; u1  (0 , 1 ,  1) , u2  (1 , 1 , 0) , u3  (1 , 0 , 2) .

2. In 3    , find the coordinates of (2i, 3  4i, 5) w.r.t. the basis {(1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)}.

3. The vectors u1  1,  2  and u2   4,  7  form a basis S of  2 . Find the coordinates vector [v] of v

relative to S where : (a) v   5,3 , (b) v   a, b  .

4. The vectors u1  1, 2, 0  , u2  1,3, 2  , u3   0,1,3 form a basis S of 3 . Find the coordinates vector

[v] of v relative to S where (a) v   2,7,  4  , (b) v   a, b, c  .

5. S  t 3  t 2 , t 2  t , t  1, 1 is a basis of P3    . Find the coordinates vector [v] of v relative to S

where (a) v  2t 3  t 3  4t  2 (b) v  at 3  bt 2  ct  d .

6. Let V  M 2.2 . Find the coordinates vector [A] of A relative to S where :

1 1  1 1 1 1  1 0   3 5 a b 

S   ,  , 0 0  ,  0 0   and (a) A   , (b) A   .
1 1  1 0      6 7  c d 

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Answers
1. (i) ( 15 ,  10 , 9 ) (ii) (  3 , 3 ,  2)
2. 3  2i ,  2  4i , 5 3. (a) [–47, 13], (b) [–7a –4b, 2a + b]

4. (a) [–11, 13, –10], (b)  c  3b  7 a,  c  3b  6a, c  2b  4a 

5. (a) [2, –1, –3, 5] (b) [ a, b  c, c  b  a, d  c  b  a ]

6. (a)  7, 1,  13,10 (b)  d , c  d , b  c  2d , a  b  2c  2d 

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6.4 Extension to basis

Extension theorem : If V is a finitely generated vector space , then any set of linearly independent
vectors can be extended to a basis of V.
Method I : To extend a given linearly independent set of V to form a basis.
Input : A linearly independent set S = {v1,v2 ,....,vm } of a vector space V is given where dim V = n.

Output : A basis B of V such that S  B.

Working Steps :
(i) Let S = {e1 , e2 ,..........., en } denotes the standard basis of V.

(ii) As dim V = n and S already contains m elements , so we have to choose n  m vectors out of
S = {e1 , e2 ,..........., en } .

(iii) Select the vector e1 out of S and check the linear independence of the vectors v1 , v2 ,...., vm , e1 .
If these are linearly dependent then remove e1 and if linearly independent then take e1.
(iv) Now select the vector e2 and check the linear independence of e2 together with the set obtained in
step (iii). If these are linearly dependent then remove e2 and if linearly independent then take e2.
(v) Repeat the above process for e3 , e4 ,…. until n  m vectors out of S are selected. These
n  m vectors together with S form a basis B of V.
Method II : To extend a given linearly independent set of V to form a basis.
Input : A linearly independent set S = {v1,v2 ,....,vm } of a vector space V is given where dim V = n.

Output : A basis B of V such that S  B.

Working Steps :
(i) Let S = {e1 , e2 ,..........., en } denotes the standard basis of V.

(ii) As dim V = n and S already contains m elements , so we have to choose n  m vectors out of
S = {e1 , e2 ,..........., en } .
(iii) Construct a matrix A by writing the given vectors in the row.

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(iv) Reduce the matrix A into row echelon form by using elementary row operations.
(v) Select the n  m standard basis ei corresponding to the column Ci which do not contain the pivot.

These n  m vectors together with S form a basis B of V.

Remark : This is not the only way to extend a basis.
Example 1 : Extend the set of vectors {(1 , 2 , 3) , (2 , 2 , 3)} to form a basis of R3.
Solution : Method I :
Let v1 = (1 , 2 , 3) and v2 = (2 , 2 , 3)
Now we know that standard basis of R3 is e1  (1 , 0 , 0) , e2  (0 , 1 , 0) , e3  (0 , 0 , 1)

Consider the set S = {v1 , v2 , e1 , e2 , e3}

Any basis of R3 has three vectors , so only one vector out of {e1 , e2 , e3} is required to form a basis

together with v1 and v2 .

First we check v1 , v2 , e1 for linear independence.

Construct a matrix whose rows are v1 , v2 and e1

 1 2 3  1 2 3 
i.e. A =  2 2 3 ~  0 2 3 (Operating R 2  R 2  2R1 , R 3  R 3  R1 )
 1 0 0  0 2 3

1 2 3 
~  0 2 3 (Operating R 3  R 3  R 2 )
 0 0 0 

which is in row echelon form.

Thus  (A) = 2 < number of vectors.
Hence first three vectors of S are L.D.
Now we check the vectors v1 , v2 , e2 for linear independence.

Construct a matrix whose rows are v1 , v2 , e2

 1 2 3  1 2 3 
B =  2 2 3 ~  0 2 3 (Operating R 2  R 2  2R 1 )
 0 1 0  0 1 0 

1 2 3 
1
~  0 2 3  (Operating R 3  R 3  R 2 )
2
 0 0  3 2 

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which is in row echelon form. Thus  (B) = 3 = number of vectors.

Thus the three vectors v1 , v2 , e2 i.e. (1 , 2 , 3) , (2 , 2 , 3) , (0 , 1 , 0) are linear independent and

hence form a basis of R3.

Method II :
Construct a matrix A whose rows are v1 and v2

 1 2 3  1 2 3 
A=  ~  (Operating R 2  R 2  2R 1 )
 2 2 3  0 2 3
which is in row echelon form and the third column does not contain the pivot .Therefore, the three
vectors v1 , v2 , e3 i.e. (1 , 2 , 3) , (2 , 2 , 3) , (0 , 0 , 1) are linear independent and hence form a basis

of R3.
Exercise 6.4
1. Extend the following sets of vectors to form a basis of  3 .
(i) {(1 , 2 , 3) , (2 ,  2 , 0)} (ii) {(0 , 1 , 2) , (2 , 1 , 4)} (iii) {(1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 0 , 0)}

2. Extend the set {(0 , 0 , 0 , 3) , (1 , 1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 ,  1 , 0)} to form a basis of  4 .

3. Extend the set S = {(1 , 1 , 0)} to form two different bases of 3    .

4. Extend the set {(1, 2, 3, 4,5) , (2, 3, 6, 1, 2)} to form a basis of  5 .

Answers
1. The answer is not unique , however one answer of each part is given
(i) {(1 , 2 , 3) , (2 ,  2 , 0) , (1 , 0 , 0)}
(ii) {(0 , 1 , 2) , (2 ,  1 , 4) , (1 , 0 , 0)}
(iii) {(1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0)}
2. The answer is not unique , however one answer is given
{(0, 0, 0, 3) ,(1, 1, 0, 0) ,(0, 1,  1, 0),(0, 1, 0, 0)} .
3. {(1 , 1 , 0) , (1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 1)} , {(1 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1)}
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6.5 Complementary subspace

Def. Complementary Subspace : Let W be a subspace of a finite dimensional vector space V(F). If
there exist a subspace W of V such that V is direct sum of W and W i.e. V = W  W , then W
is called complementary subspace (or simply complement) of W .
Results :
1. Every subspace W of a finite dimensional vector space V(F) has a complementary subspace W
and dim W = dim V  dim W.
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Chapter 6 More topics on vector space 183

2. Complement of a subspace need not be unique.

3. Method : To determine a complement of a subspace.
Input : A subspace W is given.
Output : Complementary subspace W .
Working Steps :
(i) First find a basis of W.
(ii) Extend this basis to form a basis of V.
(iii) Generate a subspace W by the additional vectors used to extend the basis.
(iv) This W is a complement of W.
Example 1 : Give an example to show that complement of a subspace need not be unique.
Solution : Consider the vector space V = R2 (R) and its subspaces
W1 = {(x , 0) : x R}
W2 = {(0 , y) : y R}
W3 = {(z , z) : z R}
Let (x , y) V be any arbitrary element , then we can write
( x , y )  ( x , 0)  (0 , y )  W1 +W2

 V = W1 + W2 ......(1)
Now , let ( x , y )  W1  W2 be any element , then

(x , y )  W1 and (x , y )  W2

 y = 0 and x = 0 [ By definition of W1 and W2 ]

 (x , y) = (0 , 0) = 0
Thus , W1  W2 = {0} ......(2)
By (1) and (2) , V = W1  W2 and therefore by definition of complementary subspace , W2 is a
complementary subspace of W1.
Again any ( x , y )  V can be expressed as
( x , y )  ( x  y , 0)  ( y , y )  W1 +W3

 V = W1 + W3 ......(3)
If (x , y)  W1  W3 be any arbitrary element , then
( x , y )  W1 and ( x , y )  W3

 y = 0 and x = y [ By definition of W1 and W3 ]

 x=y =0
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184 Linear Algebra

 (x , y) = (0 , 0) = 0
Thus W1  W3 = {0} ......(4)
By (3) and (4) , V = W1  W3 and therefore W3 is also a complementary subspace of W1.
Example 2 : Find a complement of a subspace W generated by (1 , 0 , 1) and (1 , 2 , 3) in V = R3(R).
Solution : Here W = < (1 , 0 , 1) , (1 , 2 , 3) >
Clearly (1 , 0 , 1) and (1 , 2 , 3) are linearly independent as neither of them is a multiple of other.
So , the set {(1 , 0 , 1) , (1 , 2 , 3)} is a basis of W.
Now we extend this to form a basis of R3. For this we have to choose one vector out of standard basis
{ (1 , 0 , 0 ) , ( 0 , 1 , 0 ) , ( 0 , 0 , 1 ) } . Let us choose (0 , 0 , 1) for this purpose .
To check the independence of these three vectors , we see that
1 0 1
1 2 3 20
0 0 1

and so { (1 , 0 , 1 ) , ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) , ( 0 , 0 , 1 ) } is a L.I. set and hence it is a basis of R3.

Now we know that complement of a subspace W is generated by additional vectors which are used to
extend the basis of W to a basis of V. Here the additional vector used for extension of basis is (0 ,0,1) .
So , complement of W = W = < ( 0 , 0 , 1 ) > .

Exercise 6.5
1. Find a complement of a subspace W generated by (1, 2 , 5,  3) , (2, 3, 1,  4) and (3, 8,  3,  5)
in  4    .

Answers
1. W = < (0 , 0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 0 , 1) >
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.6 Quotient spaces

Def . Coset : Let V(F) be a vector space and W be a subspace of V , then for any v  V , the set
v  W={v  w : w  W} is called left coset of W formed with v or generated by v and the set

W  v  w  v : w  W is called right coset of W formed with v or generated by v. Since the vector

space V(F) is commutative w.r.t addition , so W  v  v  W and so it is known as simply coset of W

formed with v.

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Chapter 6 More topics on vector space 185

Results :
1. Let W be a subspace of a vector space V(F) and let V W be the set of all cosets of W in V i.e.

V W  {v  W : v  V} then V W is a vector space under the operations defined by

(u  W)  (v  W)  (u  v )  W and a(u  W)  au  W
and V W is called quotient space of V w.r.t. W.
2. Let W be a sub space of a finite dimensional vector space V(F) , then
dim(V W)  dim V  dim W .
Remark : To find the basis of V W we first extend the basis of W to form a basis of V and then take
the cosets of W formed with additional vectors which are used for extension of basis. These cosets
form a basis of V W .
Example 1 : If V is the vector space of all square matrices of order 2 over R and
 a b  
W =   : a, b, c  R  . Find a basis of V W .
 0 c  
a b
Solution : First we find a basis of W. We see that any matrix   of W can be expressed as
0 c 
a b 1 0 0 1  0 0
 0 c  = a  0 0   b  0 0   c 0 1  .
       
1 0 0 1 0 0
Also the matrices   ,   ,   are clearly linearly independent.
0 0 0 0 0 1
 1 0 0 1 0 0 
Thus the basis for W is    ,   ,    . Now we extend this basis to the basis of V ,
 0 0 0 0 0 1  
namely
 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
   ,   ,   ,   
 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 
We know that the basis of V W consists of the cosets formed with the additional vectors which are
used for the extension of basis of W to a basis of V. Here the additional vector used for the extension
0 0
of the basis is   .
1 0
 0 0  
Thus , the basis of V W is W    .
  1 0 
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186 Linear Algebra

Exercise 6.6
1. Determine dim V W , where V       , W      .

2. Determine dim V W where V    2    , W   2   

3. Let A = {( x , y , 0) , x , y  R} and B = {(0 , y , z ) : y , z  R} be two subspaces of 3    .

Verify that dim  (A + B) A   dim  B A  B  .

4. If W is a subspace of R3(R) generated by {(1 , 0 , 0) , (1 , 1 , 0)} , find basis and dimension of

V W.
5. If V is a vector space of all 2  2 matrices over R and W is the set of all 2  2 diagonal matrices
over R , then show that W is a subspace of V. Also find dim ( V W ).

  a a  
6. Let V be the vector space of all 2  2 matrices over C. Let W1     : a , b , c  C ,
b c  
 a b 
W2     : a , b , c  C  be two subsets of V. Verify that W1 and W2 are subspaces of V
 a c  
 W +W2   W1 
and dim  1   dim  .
 W2   W1  W2 

Answers
1. 1 2. 2 4. Basis = {W + (0 , 0 , 1)} , dim  1 5. 2

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Chapter 6 More topics on vector space 187

True-false exercise 1 1 3
matrix  .
T
 2 1 4
1. The vector x   7, 6, 5 is in the kernel of
1 3 5  12. If Ker  A   Ker  B  , then A ~ B .
the matrix  
 2 1 4 
13. If the system Ax  0 has a free variable,
then the system has many solutions. In this
 3 7 6
case, the kernel (or null space) of A has
2. The kernel of  2 1 0 consists solely of dimension 1or greater.
 3 0 0
the vector 0. 14. If two matrices are row equivalent to each
other, then their column spaces are the
3. If Ax  b and Ay  b , then x  y is in the same.
kernel of A.
 3 4 
4. If Ax  b and Ay  b , then y  x is in the 15. The column space of  6 1  contains the
kernel of A.  2 5 
T
5. If two matrices A and B are row equivalent, vector 1, 20, 16 .
then their kernels are the same.
3 3 
6. Column space of a matrix A is the set of all
16. The column space of  7 4 contains the
vectors that can be expressed as linear
combinations of the columns of A.  1 2 
T
vector  3, 29, 3 .
7. Every solution of the equation Ax  b is
the sum of two vectors in the kernel of A.
17. The vector 16,13,  21 is in the row space
8. If the columns of a matrix form a linearly  3 4 2 
dependent set of vectors, then the kernel of of the matrix  .
that matrix contains nonzero vectors. 1 3 7 

1 2 3 T 18. The vector  3,  17,  10  is in the row

9. Let A    and x  1, 5,3 .
 2 1 1  3 4 2 
space of the matrix  .
Then x is in the kernel of A. 1 3 7 

10. If the columns of a matrix form a linearly 19. The row space of a matrix A is not changed if
independent set of vectors, then the kernel an elementary row operation is applied to A.
of that matrix contains only the zero vector.
20. A vector u is in the column space of a
1 matrix A if and only if u  Ax for some
11. The vector  2  is in the kernel of the vector x.
 1
21. If A is row equivalent to B, then A and B
may have different column spaces.
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188 Linear Algebra
22. If two matrices are row equivalent to each 1  2
other, then they have the same row space. 34. If b1    and b2    then the
3  1
23. If a vector v is in the column space of a  6 
coordinates of the vector   relative to
matrix A, then the equation Ax  v has 17 
more than one solution. the basis b1, b2  are 4 and –5.
24. If a vector v is in the row space of a matrix
A, then the equation Ax  v is consistent.
Assignment
25. The row space of a matrix A is the same as
the column space of AT . ----------------------- S C Q --------------------

26. For some matrix, its row space and its 1. Let M mn    be the set of all m  n
column space are the same. matrices with real entries. Which of the
following statements is correct ?
27. The coordinate vector of x   15,35, 2  1. There exists A  M 25    such that the
with respect to the basis having elements dimension of the null space of A is 2.
u1  1,3, 2  , u2   2, 4, 1 and 2. There exists A  M 25    such that the
u3   2, 2,0  is  3, 4, 5  . dimension of the null space of A is 0.
3. There exist A  M 25    and
28. The coordinate vector of x  1,5,1 with B  M 52    such that AB is the 2  2
respect to the basis having elements identity matrix.
u1  1,3, 2  , u2   2, 4, 1 and 4. There exist A  M 25    whose null
u3   2, 2,0  is 1,1,1 . space is
 x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5   5 : x1  x2 , x3  x4  x5
29. If A is a 7  13 matrix and if its reduced (CSIR NET June 2014)
echelon form has exactly five nonzero
rows, then the row space of A has 2. Which of the following matrices has the
dimension five.
 4 8 4
30. Let A be a 7  13 matrix. Let its reduced same row space as the matrix  3 6 1  ?
echelon form have five nonzero rows at the 2 4 0
 
top and two zero rows at the bottom. It 1 2 0 1 1 0
follows that the first five rows of A provide 1.  2. 
a basis for the row space of A. 0 0 1  0 0 1 
0 1 0 1 0 0
3.  4. 
31. Let E be the reduced row echelon form of
0 0 1  0 1 0 
A. The pivot columns of E form a basis for
the column space of A.
3. The row space of a 20  50 matrix A has
dimension 13. What is the dimension of the
32. Let x1   3,6, 2  , x2   1,0,1 and space of solutions of Ax  0 ?
u   3,12,7  . The coordinate vector of u 1. 7 2. 13
3. 33 4. 37
with respect to the basis  x1, x2 is  2,3 .
(CSIR NET June 2015)
33. Let  2 have a basis, B containing the two
vectors u1  1, 2  and u2   2,3 . Let
x   3,5  . Then  x B  1, 1 .
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 6 More topics on vector space 189

4. Let A be an m  n matrix whose columns  2  3 

form a linearly dependent set of vectors in 8. Consider v       where  and 
 m . Which conclusion is correct ?  3   
1. The kernel of A is not simply {0}.
2. n  m are arbitrary real numbers. A matrix whose
3. The kernel of A contains only the zero column space consists of all vectors of this
vector. form is
4. The reduced row echelon form of A has 3 2 
3 1 2 
a zero row. 1. 1 1 2.  
3 1  1 1 3 
5. Let v1  (1,0,3), v2  (0, 2, 4). For what
value of h will the vector y  (3, 4, h) be in 3 4   3 4
the subspace spanned by v1 and v2 ? 3. 1 2  4.  1 2 
1. 0 2. 7 1 6   1 6 
3. 17 4. 0
 6a  b 
6. Which vector is not in the column space of
9. Consider v   a  b 
 1 0 2
 2 3 1 ?  6a 
  A matrix whose column space consists of
 3 5 1  all vectors having this form is :
 4  3  6 1 1 6
1.  5  2.  3  
1.  0 1  2.  1 1 
 6   4   6 0   0 6 
0  11  1 5 1 6 
3.  3  4.  1  3.  1 1  4.  0 1
 5   2   0 6   1 6 

 1 3 7 3 6 3
7. Consider A   2 1 4  10. Consider A   2 4 3 
 1 2 3   3 6 4 
Which set spans the column space of A ? What set spans the column space of the
 1   3    1   0   matrix A ?
      
1.  2  , 1   2.  0  ,  1   3   1   0  
    
 1  2    0   0   1.   2   2.  0  ,  1  
          3   0   0  
  1  0  1    7          
   
3.  0  , 1  ,  2   4.   4    1   0     3   3 
      
  0  0   0   3  3.  2  ,  3  4.  2  ,  3 
            3   4    3   4 
         

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190 Linear Algebra

3 3 6 15. Let A be the 1 3 matrix 1 2 3 . What

11. Consider A   2 3 5  pair of vectors spans the null space of A ?
 3 4 7   0   0    2   3  
      
What set spans the column space of A ? 1.  2  ,  0   2.  1  ,  0  
  1  0  0    1   0    0   3     0  1  
         
        
1.  0  , 1  , 0   2.  0  ,  1    1   1    2   3  
  0  0  1    0   0         
            3.  2  ,  0   4.  1 ,  0  
  3   3   3   3   6    0   3   0   1 
         
      
3.  2  ,  3  4.  2  ,  3  ,  5  
  3   4   3   4   7    1 3 7
           
16. Consider A   2 1 4 
 1 3 9 7   1 2 3 
12. Consider A   0 1 4 3  Which set spans the null space of A ?
 2 1 2 1   1    3   7  
    
What set spans the column space of this 1.   2   2.  1  ,  4 
matrix ?   1    2   3 
       
 1   0    1   9  
        1    3   7  
1.  0  ,  1   2.  0  ,  4       
 0   0    0   0   3.   2   4.  1  ,  2  
          0   0   0  
       
 1  3   9   7  
      
3.  0  , 1  4.  4 ,  3  17. Let A be an n  n matrix whose null space
 2  1   0   0   is spanned by a single nonzero vector.
         
Which conclusion is not justified ?
1. The equation Ax  b is inconsistent for
13. Assume that these two matrices are row
equivalent to each other : some vector b in  n .
2. A is not invertible.
2 3 5 2 4 
3. A2 is invertible.
A   4 6 15 7 15 
  4. The set of rows in A is linearly dependent.
 6 9 20 10 25
2 3 5 2 4 18. Assume that these two matrices are row
equivalent to each other
B  0 0 5 3 7 
  2 3 5 2 4 
 0 0 0 1 6 
A   4 6 15 7 15 
Which set of columns in A spans the  
column space of A ?  6 9 20 10 25
1. 1,4,5 2. 1,3,4 2 3 5 2 4
3. 1,2,3 4. 1,2,4 B  0 0 5 3 7 
 
 0 0 0 1 6 
1 2 1  1
The number of vectors needed to span the
14. Suppose A   2 0 2  w0 
  null space of A is :
 3 2 3   1  1. 1 2. 2
Determine the right statement : 3. 3 4. 4
1. w  Col( A) 2. w  Null( AT )
3. w  Row( A) 4. w  Null( A)
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 6 More topics on vector space 191

3 6 3 22. Let V be the column space of an m  n

matrix, A. Which conclusion is not
19. Consider A   2 4 3 
justified ?
 3 6 4  1. V is spanned by a single vector.
A basis for the null space of A is 2. V is a subspace of  m .
 1    1   0   3. For every x in  n , Ax is in V.
    
1.  0   2.  0  ,  1   4. V is spanned by a set of m vectors.
 0    0   0  
       
23. Let p1 ( x)  5 x 3  2 x 2  4 x  3
 2   0 
  
3.   1 
 
4.   3   p2 ( x)   x 2  3 x  7,
 0   4  p3 ( x)  2 x3  4 x 2  8 x  5,
     
p4 ( x )  x 3  2 x  5 .
 1 2 0 4 0  What is the rank of the matrix
20. Consider A  0 0 1 9 0  corresponding to these polynomials as
rows ?
0 0 0 0 1 
1. 0 2. 1
A set of vectors that spans the null space of 3. 2 4. 3
this matrix is
 1   0    2  4   1 3 2 7 
          2 1 1 1 
 2   0    1   0   24. Consider  
1.  0  ,  1   2.  0  ,  9    7 6 5 10 
 4   9    0   1    
           1 0 2 5 
   
 0   0    0   0   What is the least number of vectors that
span the column space of this matrix ?
 2   4    2  
    1. 0 2. 1
3.  0  ,  9   4.  4   3. 2 4. 3
 0   0    9  
       
25. Which set spans 3 ?
1 3 0 2    1  1  
21. Consider A    
 0 0 1 5
 1. Span  2  ,  0  
A spanned set for the null space of this   0  1  
    
matrix is
 0  
  0  0    1   0    
          2. Span  0  
  3  0    3 0 
 0  
1.  ,  2.   ,      
  0  0    0   1  
   
 2  5    2   5   3  1  4  
 
 3   2   3. Span  0  , 1 ,  1  
      1  1  2  
 1 0   3  2         
3.   ,    4.   ,   
 0   5    0   5  
 0   1  

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192 Linear Algebra

  0   1  0   4. largest possible value of dim ( S  T )

 
4. Span  2  ,  0  , 1   is 22
  3   0  0   (GATE 2004)
      
31. Let V and W be subspaces of  n . Then,
26. Let A be an m  n matrix, b   m , then the 1. dim (V  W ) must be dim V +dim W
system of equations Ax  b has a solution 2. dim (V  W )  dim V  dim W
if and only if 3. dim(V  W )  min(dimV , dimW )
1. b  column space of A 4. dim(V  W )  max{dimV ,dim W }
2. b  row space of A
3. b  0 32. Let U and W be the following subspaces of
4. rank[A, b ] > rank A  4 : U  {(a, b, c, d ) : b  c  d  0}
W  {(a, b, c, d ) : a  b  0, c  2d }
27. If W1   0, x2 , x3 , x4 , x5  : x2 , x3 , x4 , x5   Then, dim of U ,W and U  W are
and respectively
W2   x1 ,0, x3 , x4 , x5  : x1 , x3 , x4 , x5   be 1. 2,3,1 2. 3,2,1
3. 2,2,2 4. 1,2,3
subspace of  5 , then dim W1  W2  is
equal to 33. Let V be the vector space of polynomials of
1. 5 2. 4 degree  3;W1  V be the subspace of
3. 3 4. 2
polynomials of degree  2; W2  V is the
28. Let M 22 ( ) be the vector space of 2  2 subspace of polynomials vanishing at 0.
Then, which of the following is not true?
matrices over  and
1. Span of W1 and W2 is V
 x y  
W1    : x, y    and 2. W1 is isomorphic to W2
 0 x  
3. Dim (W1  W2 )  2
 x y  
W2     : x, y, z    , then 4. Dim W1  dim W2
 z 0  
dim (W1  W2 ) is equal to 34. If W1   0, x, y  : x, y  F  and
1. 0 2. 1
W2   x,0, y  : x, y  F  are two subspace
3. 2 4. 3
of F 3 , where F n is a vector space of
29. If W be a subspace of a finite dimensional dimension n. Then, the subspace W1  W2 is
vector space V ( F ), then dim V / W is equal
isomorphic to the vector space.
to 1. F 1 2. F 2 3. F 3 4. 2F 4
1. dim V  dim W 2. dim V  dim W
dim V 35. W is a 3-dimendsional subspace of a finite
3. 4. None of these
dimW dimensional vector space V . If the quotient
space V / W has dimension 8, the dimension
30. Let S and T be two subspaces of  24 such of V is
that dim ( S )  19 and dim (T )  17 , then the 1. 3 2. 8
1. smallest possible value of dim  S  T  3. 11 4. 5
is 2
2. largest possible value of dim ( S  T ) 36. Let W1 ,W2 ,W3 be subspace of a vector
is 18 space V such that W3  W1 . Then, which
3. smallest possible value of dim ( S  T ) one of the following is correct ?
is 19 1. W1  (W2  W3 )  W2  W1  W3
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 6 More topics on vector space 193

2. W1  (W2  W3 )  W3  W1  W2 --------------------- M C Q --------------------------

3. W1  (W2  W3 )  W2  W1  W3
4. None of the above  
1. Let V   aij  : aij   be the real vector
nn
37. Let A be a 4  4 matrix. Suppose that the
null space N  A  of A is
 
space and W1   aij  : aij  a ji and
nn

 x, y, z, w  4 : x  y  z  0, x  y  w  0 .  
W2   aij  : aij   a ji then
nn

Then 1. V W1  W2 2. V  W1  W2
1. dim ( column space ( A) ) = 1 3. W1  W2  0 4. V  W1  W2
2. dim ( column space ( A) ) = 2
3. rank  A   1 2. If V is the real vector space of all mapping
from  to  , W1  { f  V : f ( x )  f ( x)}
4. S  1,1,1, 0  , 1,1, 0,1 is a basis of
and W2  { f V : f ( x)   f ( x)}, then
N  A .
1. V W1  W2 2. V  W1  W2
(CSIR NET June 2017)
3. W1  W2  0 4. V  W1  W2
38. Let W1   u , v, w, x    4 | u  v  w  0,
3. Let V1 ,V2 be subspaces of a vector space V.
2v  x  0, 2u  2 w  x  0 and Which of the following is necessarily a
subspace of V ?
W2   u , v, w, x    4 | u  w  x  0, 1. V1  V2
2. V1  V2
u  w  2 x  0, v  x  0 . Then which
3. V1  V2   x  y : x  V1 , y  V2 .
among the following is true ? 4. V1 \ V2   x  V1 and x V2 
1. dim W1   1 (CSIR NET June 2012)
4. For arbitrary subspaces U, V and W of a
2. dim W2   2 finite dimensional vector space, which of
the following hold
3. dim W1  W2   1 1. U  V  W   U  V  U  W
4. dim W1  W2   3 2. U  V  W   U  V  U  W

(CSIR NET Dec 2018)

3. U  V   W  U  W   V  W 
39. Let V denote the vector space of real valued
4. U  V   W  U  W   V  W 
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
continuous functions on the closed interval 5. Let W1 ,W2 ,W3 be three distinct subspaces
 0,1 . Let W be the subspace of V spanned of 10 such that each Wi has dimension 9.
Let W  W1  W2  W3 . Then we can
by sin  x  ,cos  x  , tan  x  . Then the
conclude that
dimension of W over  is : 1. W may not be a subspace of 10
2. dim W  8
1. 1 2. 2
3. dim W  7
3. 3 4. Infinite 4. dim W  3
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
(CSIR NET June 2019)
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194 Linear Algebra

6. Let A be an m  n matrix with rank r. If the True false key

linear system AX  b has a solution for
1. F 2. T 3. T 4. F
each b   m , then
1. m  r 5. T 6. T 7. F 8. T
2. the column space of A is a proper 9. T 10. T 11. T 12. F
subspace of  m
13. T 14. F 15. T 16. F
3. the null space of A is a non-trivial
subspace of  n whenever m  n 17. F 18. F 19. T 20. T
4. m  n implies m  n 21. T 22. T 23. F 24. F
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
25. T 26. T 27. T 28. T
7. Let p  x   a0  a1 x  ...  an x n be a non-
29. T 30. F 31. F 32. T
constant polynomial of degree n  1 .
33. F 34. T
x
Consider the polynomial q  x    p  t  dt ,
0
Assignment key
d
r  x  p  x  . Let V denote the real SCQ
dx
1. 3 2. 1 3. 4 4. 1
vector space of all polynomials in x. Then
5. 3 6. 1 7. 1 8. 4
which of the following are true ?
9. 2 10. 4 11. 3 12. 3
1. q and r are linearly independent in V
13. 2 14. 4 15. 4 16. 1
2. q and r are linearly dependent in V
17. 3 18. 2 19. 3 20. 2
3. x n belongs to the linear span of q and r
21. 3 22. 1 23. 4 24. 4
4. x n1 belongs to the linear span of q and r
25. 4 26. 1 27. 3 28. 2
(CSIR NET June 2019)
29. 1 30. 3 31. 4 32. 2
33. 4 34. 1 35. 3 36. 2
37. 2 38. 3 39. 3

MCQ
1. 1,2,3 2. 1,2,3 3. 1,3
4. 2,3 5. 2,3 6. 1,4
7. 1

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Chapter 7
Linear
transformations
Out of difficulties grow miracles.
– Jean De La Bruyee

7.1 Definitions and examples

Def. Linear Transformation : Let U and V be two vector spaces over a same field F , then a function
T : U  V is called a linear transformation or vector space homomorphism if
(i) T(u  v) = T(u )  T(v ) for all u, v  U
(ii) T(au ) = a T(u ) for all a  F , u  U
Remark : The above two properties in the definition of L.T. can be combined into a single property ,
namely , T(au  bv)  aT(u )  bT(v) for all a, b  F and u , v  U
Def. Linear Operator : A linear transformation is called a linear operator if the vector space on both
sides is same.
Def. Linear Functional : A linear transformation is called a linear functional if the vector space on
the right hand side is the field of scalars.
Example 1 : Show that the function T :  3   3 defined by T(x , y , z) = ( x , y , 0) is a linear
transformation . Such a mapping in which one coordinate on R. H. S. is 0 is called a Projection
mapping .
Solution : Let u  ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v  ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) be any two vectors of  3 , then

T(u  v) = T( x1  x2 , y1  y2 , z1  z 2 )
196 Linear Algebra

= ( x1  x2 , y1  y2 , 0)

= ( x1 , y1 , 0)  ( x2 , y2 , 0)

= T( x1 , y1 , z1 )  T( x2 , y2 , z2 )

= T(u )  T(v)
Also , for any scalar a , we have
T(au ) = T(ax1 , ay1 , az1 )

= (ax1 , ay1 , 0)

= a( x1 , y1 , 0)

= aT( x1 , y1 , z1 )
= aT(u) . So T is a linear transformation.
Example 2 : Show that the function T :  3   2 defined by T(x , y , z ) = (x  y  2 z , x  z  1)
is not a linear transformation.
Solution : Let u  ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v  ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) be any two vector of R3 , then

T(u  v) = T( x1  x2 , y1  y2 , z1  z 2 )

= ( x1  x2  y1  y2  2 z1  2 z2 , x1  x2  z1  z2  1) ......(1)

Also , T(u )  T(v ) = T( x1 , y1 , z1 )  T( x2 , y2 , z2 )

= ( x1  y1  2 z1 , x1  z1  1)  ( x2  y2  2 z2 , x2  z2  1)

= ( x1  y1  2 z1  x2  y2  2 z2 , x1  z1  1  x2  z2  1)

= ( x1  x2  y1  y2  2 z1  2 z2 , x1  x2  z1  z2  2) ......(2)

By (1) and (2) , we have T(u  v)  T(u )  T(v)

Hence T is not a linear transformation.

Exercise 7.1
1. Determine which of the following mappings are linear transformation. .
(i) T :  3   2 defined by T(x , y , z ) = (z , 2 x  y )

(ii) T :  2   2 defined by T(x , y ) = (x 2 , y )

(iii) T :  3   4 defined by T(x , y , z ) = (2 x  y , z , x , y  1)

(iv) T :  3  3 defined by T( x , y , z)  (| x | , y , z )

(v) T :  2   defined by T(x , y ) = x 2  y 2

(vi) T :  2   2 defined by T(x , y ) = (x cos   y sin  ,  x sin   y cos  )

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Chapter 7 Linear transformations 197

(vii) T :  3  3 defined by T(x , y , z ) = (x  y , y  z , z  x)

(viii) T : ( )  ( ) defined by T(x  iy ) = x  iy
(ix) T : ( )  ( ) defined by T(x  iy ) = x

(x) T :  2   defined by T(x , y ) = 2 x  3 y

(xi) T :  2   defined by T(x , y ) = xy

(xii) T :  3  3 defined by T(x , y , z ) = (x  y , 3 z , 0)

(xiii) T :  3  3 defined by T(x, y, z )=( x, ay, z) , a is a non-zero real number.

2. Zero mapping : Let U and V be any vector spaces then the mapping O:U  V defined by
O(u )  0 for all u  U is called zero mapping. Prove that zero mapping is a linear transformation.
3. Identity mapping : Let V be any vector space then the mapping I:V  V defined by I(v)  v for all
v  V is called identity mapping. Prove that identity mapping is a linear transformation.
4. Projection mapping : The mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x, y ,0) is called projection
of space onto the xy -plane. Prove that T is a linear transformation.
5. Define the following projection mappings and prove that they are linear :
(i) Projection mapping of space onto the yz –plane.
(ii) Projection mapping of space onto the xz –plane.
(iii)Projection mapping of space onto x -axis.
(iv)Projection mapping of space onto y -axis.
(v) Projection mapping of space onto z -axis.
6. Translation mapping : The mapping T :  3   3 defined by T ( x, y , z )  ( x  a, y  b, z  c ) is called
translation mapping, where a, b, c (atleast one non-zero)are real constants. Prove that T is not a
linear transformation.

7. Rotation mapping : The mapping T :  3  3 defined by z

T ( x, y, z )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin   y cos  , z )
θ T(v)
rotates a vector v about the z –axis through
v
an angle  in anti clockwise sense. 0 y
(as shown in the adjoining figure.)
x
Prove that T is a linear transformation.

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198 Linear Algebra

8. Reflection mapping : The mapping T :  2   2

y
defined by T ( x, y )  ( x cos 2  y sin 2 , x sin 2  y cos 2 ) T(v)

reflects a vector v about the line passing through origin

v
and making an angle  with positive x –axis. θ
x
(as shown in the adjoining figure.)
Prove that T is a linear transformation.
9. Matrix mapping : Let A be a m  n matrix over a field F. The mapping T : F n  F m defined by

T (v )  Av for all v  F n is called matrix mapping. Prove that T is a linear transformation.

10. Derivative mapping : Let P(  ) denotes the vector space of all real polynomials. A mapping
D : P(  )  P(  ) defined by D( f ( x))  f ( x) for all f ( x)  P() is called derivative mapping.
Show that D is a linear operator on P(  ). Further tell whether D is one – one or onto or neither or
both.
11. Integral mapping : Let V be the vector space of all integrable functions on  . The mapping T :
b
V   defined by T(f ) =  f ( x)dx for all f  V and a , b   is called integral mapping.
a

Show that T is a linear functional.

12. Let V be the vector space of all polynomials over  and g (t ) is a fixed polynomial in V.
b
A mapping T : V   is defined by T(f ) =  f (t ).g (t ) dt where a, b   and f  V
a

Show that T is linear functional.

13. Let Mn(F) be the vector space of all n  n matrices over a field F. Let M be a fixed non-zero n  n
matrix. Which of the following mappings T : Mn(F)  Mn(F) are linear :
(i) T(A) = AM for all A  M n (F)

(ii) T(A) = MA for all A  M n (F)

(iii) T(A) = AM + MA for all A  M n (F)

(iv) T(A) = MA+AM for all A  M n (F)

(v) T(A) = AM  MA for all A  M n (F)

(vi) T(A) = A+M for all A  M n (F)

(vii) T(A) = M+A for all A  M n (F)

14. Let M2 (  ) be the vector space of all 2  2 real matrices and P2 ( ) be a vector space of

all polynomial of degree at most 2 with real coefficients. A mapping T : M 2 ( )  P2 () is

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Chapter 7 Linear transformations 199

 a b   2
defined by T      a  (b  c ) x  dx . Show that T is linear transformation.
 c d 
15. Consider the linear map T :  2   2 defined by T ( x, y )  (3x  5 y , 2 x  3 y ) and the

unit circle S {( x, y ): x 2  y 2  1} in  2 , then find (i) T ( S ) (ii) T 1 ( S ) .

16. Consider the linear map T : 3   3 defined by T ( x, y , z )  ( x  y  z, y  2 z , y  3 z ) and

the unit sphere S {( x, y , z ): x 2  y 2  z 2 1} in  3 , then find (i) T ( S ) (ii) T 1 ( S ) .

17. Let H be the plane x  2 y  3z  4 in  3 and let T ( x, y , z )  ( x  y  z, y  2 z , y  3 z ) , then find

(i) T ( H ) (ii) T 1 ( H ) .

Answers
1. (i) Yes (ii) No (iii) No (iv) No (v) No.
(vi) Yes (vii) Yes (viii) Yes (ix) Yes (x) No
(xi) No (xii) Yes (xiii) Yes
13. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
15. (i) 13 x 2  42 xy  34 y 2  1 , (ii) 13 x 2  42 xy  34 y 2 1

16. (i) x 2  8 xy  26 y 2  6 xz  38 yz  14 z 2  1, (ii) x 2  2 xy  3 y 2  2 xz  8 yz  14 z 2 1

17. (i) x  y  2 z  4 , (ii) x  6 z  4
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.2 Properties and construction of linear transformations

Results :
1. Let T : U  V be a liner transformation, then
(i) T(0)  0 , where 0 on L.H.S. is of U and 0 on R.H.S. is of V.
(ii) T(u )   Tu  for all u  U
(iii) T(u1  u2 )  T(u1 )  T(u2 ) for all u1 , u2  U

(iv) T(a1u1  a2u2  .........  anun ) = a1T(u1 )  a2T(u2 )  .........  an T(un ) where ui  U

and ai ’s are scalars.

2. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation and vectors u1 , u2 ,........., un  U are

linearly dependent , then T(u1 ) ,T(u2 ) ,.........,T(un ) are also linearly dependent.
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200 Linear Algebra
OR
A linear transformation T : U  V carries L.D. vectors of U into L.D. vectors of V and the
dependency relation remains same.
3. Images of L.I. vectors under a linear transformation need not be L.I.
4. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation, then T is one-one iff it carries linearly independent
vectors to linearly independent vectors.
5. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation and T(u1 ) ,T(u2 ) ,....,T(un ) are L.I. , then

u1 , u2 ,..., un are also L.I.

6. Pre-images of L.D. vectors under a linear transformation need not to be L.D.

7. Let T : U  V be an onto linear transformation. Show that T is one-one iff pre-images of L.D.
vectors under T are L.D. vectors.
Def. Equality of two linear transformations : Let T1 , T2 : U  V be two linear transformation. Then
T1 and T2 are said to be equal if T1 (u )=T2 (u ) for all u  U and then we write T1 = T2

8. Let T1 , T2 : U  V be two linear transformations and u1 , u2 ,...., un be a basis of U. If

T1 (ui ) = T2 (ui ) for all i , then T1 = T2

OR
If two linear transformations agree on a basis of their domain , then they are equal.
9. Let U and V be two vector spaces , where dim U is finite. Let { u1 , u2 ,..., un } be a basis of U and

v1 , v2 ,...., vn be any n vectors in V. Then there is a unique linear transformation T : U  V

such that T(ui )  vi , i  1 , 2 ,..., n .

METHOD 7.2.1 : To find T when image of a basis set is given.

Input : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation. A basis { u1 , u2 ,...., un } of U is given and

T(u1 ) = v1 , T(u2 ) = v2 .... and T(un ) = vn are given.

Output : Defining formula for T.

Working Steps :
(i) Take any arbitrary vector u of U and let u  a1u1  a2u2  .....  anun ......(1)

(ii) Solving (1), find the values of a1 , a2 ,....., an .

(iii) Substitute the values of a1 , a2 ,...., an , in (1) itself and then apply T on both sides to obtain the

relation T(u )  a1T(u1 )  a2 T(u2 )  ....  an T(un )

(iv) Now use the given values of T(u1 ),T(u2 ),....,T(un ) to get T(u ) = a1v1  a2 v2  ....  anvn and thus T
is found.

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Chapter 7 Linear transformations 201

10. Two finite dimensional vector spaces over the same field are isomorphic if and only if they have
the same dimension.
11. Every n-dimensional vector space V(F) is isomorphic to Fn.
12. For any field F , Fn  Fm iff n = m.
13. There is no one – one onto linear transformation from  m to  n where m  n .

METHOD 7.2.2 : To find T when image of a subset of a basis is given

Input : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation and dim U = n. A L.I. set {u1 , u2 ,...., um } , where

m < n is given and T(u1 ) = v1 , T(u2 ) = v2 ,...,T(um ) = vm are given.

Output : Defining formula for T.

Working Steps :
(i) First extend the set {u1 , u2 ,...., um } to a basis of U and let the basis obtained be

{u1 , u2 ,..., um , um1 ,..., un }

(ii) There is no condition on T(um1 ) ,...,T(un ) so for our simplicity we assume that

T(um1 )  ...  T(un )=0

(iii) Now find T by using Method 7.2.1.

Remark : T(um1 ),...,T(un ) in above method can be taken any vectors of V. So the answer of this
problem is not unique but there are infinitely many linear transformations satisfying the conditions
given in the example. However , in case images of vectors of a whole basis are given , then T is
unique.
Example 1 : Let u1  (1, 1,  1), u2  (4, 1, 1), u3  (1, 1, 2) be a basis of  3 .

Let T :  3   2 be a linear transformation such that T(u1 )  (1,0), T(u2 )  (0,1), T(u3 )  (1,1) .

Find T.
Solution : Let u  ( x, y , z )   3 be any vector since u1 , u2 , u3 is a basis of  3 , so there exist scalars

a, b, c such that
u  au1  bu2  cu3 ......(1)

( x , y , z)  a (1 , 1 ,  1)  b(4 , 1 , 1)  c(1 ,  1 , 2)
 a  4b  c  x ……(i)

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202 Linear Algebra

abc  y ……(ii)
 a  b  2c  z ……(iii)
Adding (i) and (iii) , 5b + 3c = x + z
Adding (ii) and (iii) , 2b + c = y + z
From these two , b   x  3 y  2 z , c  2 x  5 y  3z
and then using (ii) , a  3x  7 y  5 z
Now , by (1)
T(u ) = T(au1  bu2  cu3 )

= aT(u1 )  bT(u2 )  cT(u3 )

= (3 x  7 y  5 z )(1, 0)  ( x  3 y  2 z )(0, 1)  (2 x  5 y  3z )(1, 1)

 T( x, y , z )  (5 x  12 y  8 z, x  2 y  z )

Example 2 : Find a linear transformation T :  3   2 such that

T(1 , 1 , 0)  (1 , 0) and T(1 , 1 , 0)  (1 , 1) and then verify your result.
Solution : We know that to determine a linear transformation T we need a basis of domain and the
images of all vectors of basis under T.
Here T(1 , 1 , 0)  (1 , 0) and T(1,  1,0) = (1,1)
But (1 , 1 , 0) and (1 ,  1 , 0) does not form a basis of R3. However they are L.I. Let us extend this
basis by adjoining a vector (0 , 0 , 1) with it. Let us check that {(1 , 1 , 0),(1 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1)} is a
L.I. set. Consider a matrix
1 1 0 1 1 0
A =  1 1 0  ~  0 2 0  [Operating R 2  R 2  R 1 ]
 0 0 1   0 0 1 

which is row echelon form.

Clearly ,  (A) = 3 = number of vectors , hence the given vectors are L.I.
Now , we need image of (0 , 0 , 1) i.e., T(0 , 0 , 1). A particular image of this vector (0 , 0 , 1) is not
asked in the question so any arbitrary vector of R2 can be taken as its image. For the sake of
simplicity , we take T(0 , 0 , 1) = (0 , 0).
Now , we are ready with
T(1 , 1 , 0) = (1 , 0) 
T(1,  1,0) = (1 , 1)  ......(1)

and T(0 , 0 , 1) = (0 , 0) 

Now this example has reduced to the examples of above type.

Let ( x, y, z )   3 be any vector and let

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Chapter 7 Linear transformations 203

( x, y , z )  a (1,1,0)  b(1, 1,0)  c (0,0,1) ......(2)

 ab  x ; ab  y ; cz
x y x y
Solving , a , b , cz
2 2
Using these values in (2)
x y x y
( x , y , z)  (1 , 1 , 0)  (1,  1 , 0)  z (0 , 0 , 1)
2 2
Applying T on both sides
x y x y
T ( x , y , z)  T (1 , 1 , 0)  T (1 , 1 , 0)  zT (0 , 0 , 1)
2 2
x y x y
= (1 , 0)  (1 , 1)  z (0 , 0) [By (1)]
2 2
 x y
= x ,  ......(3)
 2 
which is the required linear transformation.
Verification : From (3) , we see that
T(1 , 1 , 0) = (1 , 0) and T (1 , 1 , 0) = (1,1) which are same as asked in the example.

Exercise 7.2
1. Give an example of a linear transformation to show that a linear transformation not necessarily
carries a L.I. set to a L.I. set.
2. What is the necessary and sufficient condition for a linear transformation to carry a L.I. set to a L.I.
set.
3. Which of the following vector spaces are isomorphic to each other :
(i) P5 () (ii) M 2,3 ( ) (iii)  6 ( ) (iv) 3 ( ) (v) M 2,4 ()

(vi) P7 () (vii) P8 ( ) (viii)  4 ( ) (ix) 8 () (x) M 4,2 ()

4. Find a linear transformation in each of the following cases and verify your answer.
(i) T :  2   2 such that T(2,3) = (4 , 5) and T(1 , 0) = (0 , 0)
(ii) T :  2   3 such that T(2 , 5)  (1, 2 , 3) and T(3 , 4) = (0 , 1 , 5)

(iii) T :  3   2 such that T(1 , 1 , 1) = (2, 1), T(1 , 1 , 0)=(2, 1) , T(1 , 0 , 0) =(2, 1)
(iv) T : P2 ()  P2 () such that T(1  x )  1  x , T(2  x ) = x  3x 2 and T( x 2 )  0

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204 Linear Algebra
5. Find a linear transformation in the following cases , which maps
(i) (1 , 1 , 1) and (1 , 1 , 2) in  3 to (1 , 0) and (1 , 1) in R2 respectively.

(ii) (1 , 2 , 3) and (0 , 1 , 2) in  3 to (1 , 1) and (1 , 2) in R2 respectively.

Also verify your answer in both (i) and (ii).
6. Show that there exists no linear transformation T :  2   2 such that T (1 , 1)=(1 , 2) ,
T (1 , 2) = (1 , 3) , T (2 , 3) = (2 , 4).
7. Does there exist a linear transformation T :  2   2 such that T (1 , 1) = (1 , 2) , T (1 , 2) = (1 , 3),
T (2 , 3) = (2 , 5). If yes, find it.

Answers
1. T ( x, y , z )  (2 x,3 y ) 2. T must be one-one 3. (i) , (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v), (vi), (viii), (ix), (x)

 4y 5y   4 x  3 y 13 x  4 y 37 x  y 
4. (i) T(x , y) =  ,  (ii) T( x , y )   , , 
 3 3   23 23 23 

(iii) T( x , y , z )  (2 x , x) (iv) T(a  bx  cx 2 ) = ( a  2b)  bx  3(a  b) x 2 .

5. The answer is not unique, but by taking image of third vector as (0, 0), the answers are
(i) T(x, y, z) = (x, x  z) (ii) T(x, y, z) = ( x + y,  3x + 2y)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.3 Matrix of a linear transformation

Def. Ordered basis : A basis of a vector space is called an ordered basis if its vectors are written in a
certain specific order. e.g. Let B = {v1 , v2 , v3} is a basis of a vectors space V. Let us change

the order of its vectors and let B = {v2 , v1 , v3} , then B and B are same basis but different ordered
basis since order of three vectors in B and B is different.
Note : It may be difficult for a curious reader to digest above definition , because he or she may think
that if we change the order of vectors in a basis , then how this can affect our subject. The answer to
this curiosity is : As far as our previous work of linear transformation is concerned , the order of
vectors is a useless thing , but in the associated matrix of a linear transformation (which we are going
to study now) , the order of vectors certainly has an effect. We will see it soon.
Def. Matrix of a Linear Transformation relative to ordered basis :
Let B = {u1 , u2 ,..........., un } and B' = {v1 , v2 ,..........., vm } be ordered basis for the finite

dimensional vector spaces U and V respectively and let T : U  V be a linear transformation.

Since T(u1 ) , T(u2 ) ,..........., T(un )  V and {v1 , v2 ,..........., vm } is a basis of V, each T(ui ) can be

expressed uniquely as a linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 ,..........., vm .

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 7 Linear transformations 205

Let T(u1 )  a11v1  a12v2  ............  a1mvm

T(u2 )  a21v1  a22 v2  ............  a2 mvm

……………………………………..
T(un )  an1v1  an 2v2  ............  anm vm where aij  F.

 a11 a12 ... a1m 

a a22 ... a2 m 
The coefficient matrix of the above system is a n  m matrix given by  21 
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 an1 an 2 ... anm 

The transpose of this matrix is a m  n matrix called the matrix of T w.r.t. ordered basis B and B' ,

 a11 a21 ... an1 

a a22 ... an 2 
denoted by [T : B , B'] and is given by [T : B , B'] =  12 
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 a1m a2 m ... amn 

Remarks : (1) It should be noted that the order of matrix of a linear transformation
T : U  V is m  n i.e. dimV  dimU.
(2) Whenever basis B and B' are not mentioned in any problem , they are understood to be taken as
standard basis.
(3) If U = V and B is the basis used on both sides , then the matrix of T is denoted by [T : B]
instead of [T : B , B] .
(4) Sometimes matrix of T is denoted by [T ] or m(T ) , when the bases are understood.
(5) The matrix [T : B , B'] depends very sensitively on the ordered basis B and B' of U and V. The
order (arrangement) of the vectors of B determines the order (arrangement) of the columns of
matrix [T : B , B] . Similarly , order of the vectors of B determines the order of the rows of
matrix [T : B , B] .

Short cut method 1 : To find the matrix of a linear transformation T :  m   n in standard basis on
both sides , there is a simple technique : Pick up the first coordinate in the defining formula of T. The
coefficients of x , y , z etc. in this coordinate are written in the first row of the matrix. Similarly ,
pick up the second coordinate in the defining formula of T. The coefficients of x , y , z etc. in this
coordinate are written in the second row of the matrix, and so on.

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Warning : This method is only applicable when the basis used on both sides are standard.
Shortcut method 2 : If T :  m   n is a linear transformation and e1 , e2 ,...., em  is the standard basis

of  m and T  e1   v1 , T  e2   v2 , ….., T  em   vm then the matrix of T with respect to standard basis

is  v1 , v2 ,...., vm  where vi 's are written in the columns.

METHOD : To find T when matrix is given

Input : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation where dim U = n and dim V = m.
Two ordered basis B = {u1 , u2 ,.........., un } and B = {v1 , v2 ,.........., vm } of U and V respectively are

given and the matrix [T : B , B] is given.

Output : The defining formula of T.
Working Steps :
(i) T(u1 ) is equal to linear combination of v1 , v2 ,..., vm by using scalars of first column of [T : B , B] .

Similarly , T(u2 ) is equal to linear combination of v1 , v2 ,.........., vm by using scalars of second

column of [T : B , B] and so on

(ii) We are ready with T – images of a basis of U. Now find T by using Method 7.2.1.
Shortcut method 3 : If we are given the matrix [T : B , B] and we are required to find defining
formula for T , then follow these steps :
Multiply the scalars in the first row by x, y , z etc. and add. This gives the first coordinate of
defining formula. Similarly , the second , third and other co-ordinates can be found.
Example 1 : Find the matrix [T : B , B] of the linear transformation T : R 3  R 2 defined by
T( x, y , z )  ( x  y , y  z ) in the following cases B = {(1 , 1 , 1) , (1, 0 , 0) , (1 , 1 , 0)}
and B = {(1 , 2) , (0 , 1)}
Solution : To find the matrix [T : B , B] we shall find the images of vectors in B and express them as
linear combinations of vectors of B . We have
T(1 ,1 , 1) = (2 , 2) 
T(1 , 0 , 0) = (1 , 0)  ......(1)

T(1 , 1 , 0) = (2 , 1) 

Let ( x , y )  R 2 be any vector and let

( x , y )  a(1, 2)  b(0 , 1)
 a  x , 2a  b  y i.e. a  x , b  y  2x
Thus , ( x, y )  x(1, 2)  ( y  2 x)(0,1)
Using this for vectors in (1) , we get

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Chapter 7 Linear transformations 207

T(1 , 1 , 1) = (2 , 2) = 2(1 , 2)+(  2)(0 , 1) 

T(1 , 0 , 0) = (1 , 0) = 1(1 , 2)+(  2)(0 , 1)  ......(2)

T(1 , 1 , 0) = (2 , 1) = 2(1 , 2)+(  3)(0 , 1) 

Matrix of T relative to B and B is transpose of matrix of coefficients in above system (2) , so

2 1 2
[T : B , B] =  .
 2 2 3
1 1 2 
Example 2 : Find the linear transformation T :  3   2 whose matrix [T : B , B] is  
3 1 0 
where B = {(1,1,1),(1, 2,3),(1, 0,0)} and B = {(1,1),(1, 1)} .
Solution : T(1,1,1) = linear combination of vectors of B using scalars of first column of [T : B , B]
i.e., T(1,1,1) = 1(1,1) + 3(1,  1) = (4, 2 )
Similarly ,
T(1, 2,3)  1(1.1)  1(1, 1)  (0, 2)
T(1,0,0)  2(1,1)  0(1, 1)  (2, 2)

Now , let ( x, y, z )  R 3 be any vector and

( x, y, z) = a(1,1,1)  b(1, 2,3)  c(1,0, 0) ......(1)
 abc  x ….(i)
a  2b  y ….(ii)
a  3b  z ….(iii)
Solving these equations
(iii)  (ii) gives bzy
By (iii) , we get a  z  3b  3 y  2 z
By (i) , we get c  x  a  b  x  2 y  z
Using these values in (1) and then applying T on both sides
T( x, y , z )  (3 y  2 z )T(1,1,1)  ( z  y )T(1, 2,3)  ( x  2 y  z )T(1,0,0)
= (3 y  2 z )(4, 2)  ( z  y )(0, 2)  ( x  2 y  z )(2, 2)
= (12 y  8 z  2 x  4 y  2 z, 6 y  4 z  2 z  2 y  2 x  4 y  2 z )
So , T( x, y , z )  (2 x  8 y  6 z, 2 x  8 y  4 z) which is the required linear transformation.

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208 Linear Algebra

Exercise 7.3
1. Find the matrix [T : B , B] for the linear transformation T :  2   2 defined by
T(x, y ) = ( x,  y ) where
(i) B = (e1 , e2 ) , B = {(1,1),(1, 1)}

(ii) B = {(1,1),(1,0)} , B = {(2,3),(4,5)}

2. Find the matrix representing the linear transformation T :  3   4 defined by

T(x, y, z) = ( x  y  z, 2 x  z, 2 y  z,6 y ) relative to the standard basis of  3 and  4 .
3. Let ( ) denotes the vector space of complex numbers over real numbers and T be a linear
operator on ( ) defined by T(x  iy ) = x  iy for all x, y   . Determine the matrix of T
relative to the basis B = {1  i,1  2i}
4. Write the matrix of linear transformation T : P3 ( )  P2 () defined by

T(a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x3 ) = a3  (a2  a3 ) x  (a0  a1 ) x 2 relative to the bases

B = {1, x  1,( x  1) 2 ,( x  1)3} and B = {1 , x , x 2 } respectively.

5. Let V be a vector space of some particular real functions and B = {1, t , et , tet } is a basis for V.
df
Let D : V  V be the differential operator on V i.e. D(f ) = . Find the matrix [D : B].
dt
a b 
6. Let M 2 ( ) be the vector space of all 2  2 real matrices and M =   be a fixed matrix.
 c d 
Find the matrix [T] of each of the following linear operators T relative to the standard basis B of
 1 0   0 1  0 0   0 0  
M 2 ( ) given by B    , , ,   .Also find trace and determinant of [T].
  0 0   0 0  1 0   0 1  
(i) T(A) = MA (ii) T(A) = AM (iii) T(A) = MA + AM
(iv) T(A)=MA – AM (v) T(A)=AM – MA
7. Find the matrix in standard basis of the linear transformations :
(i) Zero linear transformation from  4 to  3 .
(ii) Identity operator on  3 .
(iii) Projection mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x, y ,0)

(iv) Rotation mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin   y cos  , z )

(v) Reflection mapping T :  2   2 defined by T ( x, y )  ( x cos 2  y sin 2 , x sin 2  y cos 2 )

1 2 3 4 
(vi) Matrix mapping T :  4  3 defined by T (u )  A(u ) where A   0 1 2 1
 2 5 8 7 
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Chapter 7 Linear transformations 209

(vii) T : P3 ( )   4 defined by T  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3    a0  a1 , a1  2a2 , 2a2  3a3 ,3a3 

 a b  
(viii) T : M 2 ()  P3 () defined by T   
2
  a  (b  c  d ) x  (a  d ) x  cx
3

 c d  
8. For each linear transformation L on  2 , find the matrix A representing L (relative to the usual basis
of  2 ) :
(i) L is the rotation in  2 counterclockwise by 45 .
(ii) L is reflection in  2 about the line y  x .

(iii) L is defined by L 1,0    3,5  and L  0,1   7, 2  .

(iv) L is defined by L 1,1   3,7  and L 1, 2    5, 4  .

9. Let  denote the differential operator ; that is,   f  t    df / dt . Each of the following sets is a

basis of a vector space V of functions. Find the matrix representing  in each basis :
(i) e , e
t 2t
, te2t  . (ii) 1, t ,sin 3t , cos3t (iii) e 5t
, te5t , t 2e5t  .

 1 2
10. Find the linear transformation T :    whose matrix is  0 1  relative to ordered basis :
2 3

 1 3 

B = {(1 , 1) , ( 1 , 1)} and B = {(1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 1 , 1) , (0 , 0 , 1)}.

1 
 1
11. Describe the linear operator T on  2 determined by the matrix  2  , relative to the ordered
2 4
 3 
basis B = {(1 , 0) , (1 , 1)}.
 1 1
12. Describe the linear map T :  2   3 determined by the matrix A =  2 3  , relative to the
 0 1 

ordered basis B = {(1 , 1) , (0 , 2)} and B = {(0 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 0 , 1) , (1 , 1 , 0)} .

13. If the matrix of a linear transformation T on  3 relative to the ordered basis

 0 1 1

B = {(1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1)} is  1 0 1 ;

 1 1 0 

Find the matrix relative to the basis B = {(0 , 1 , 1 ) , ( 1 , 1 , 0) , (1 , 1 , 1)}.

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210 Linear Algebra

Answers

1 1  9 5 1 1 1
     
 2 (ii)  2 2 2.  2 0 1  3 4
1. (i)  2    3. [T : B] =  
1 1   5 3  0 2 1  2 3
 2  
2   2 2  0 6 0

0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1  0 0 0 0 
4.  0 0 1 2 5. [D : B] =  .
0 0 1 1
 1 0 1 2   
0 0 0 1

a 0 b 0
0 a 0 b 
6. (i) [T ]   , trace of [T] = 2(a  d )  2 trace(M) , det[T]  (ad  bc)2  (det M) 2
c 0 d 0
 
0 c 0 d

a c 0 0
b d 0 0 
(ii) [T ]   , trace of [T] = 2(a  d )  2 trace(M) , det[T]  (ad  bc)2  (det M) 2
0 0 a c 
 
0 0 b d

 2a c b 0
 b ad 0 b  trace of [T] = 4(a  d )  4 trace(M)
(iii) [T ]   ,
c 0 ad c det[T]  4(ad  bc )(a  d )2  4(det M)(trace M)2
 
0 c b 2d 

0 c b 0
 b a  d 0 b 
(iv) [T] =  , trace of [T] = 0, det[T] = 0
c 0 d  a c 
 
0 c b 0

0 c b 0
 b d a 0 b 
(v) [T ]   , trace of [T] = 0, det[T] = 0
 c 0 ad c
 
0 c b 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0  cos   sin  0
7. (i)  0 0 0 0  (ii)  0 1 0  (iii)  0 1 0  (iv)  sin  cos  0

 0 0 0 0   0 0 1   0 0 0   0 0 1 

1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 2 3 4  0
 cos 2 sin 2    1 2 0  0 1 1 1 
(v)  (vi)  0 1 2 1 (vii)  (viii) 
 sin 2  cos 2  0 0 2 3 1 0 0 1
 2 5 8 7     
0 0 0 3 0 0 1 0

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Chapter 7 Linear transformations 211

 1 1 
 2 2 0 1 3 7  1 2 
8. (i)   (ii)   (iii)   (iv)  
 1 1  1 0  5 2  18 11
 2 2 

0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 5 1 0 
0 0 0 
9. (i)  0 2 1  (ii)  (iii)  0 5 2 
0 0 0 3
 0 0 2    0 0 5 
0 0 3 0
10. T( x, y )  (2 y  x, y ,3 y  3 x)

 7 x  23 y 2 x  10 y 
11. T(x, y )   ,  12. T( x, y )  (2 y  4 x, x, y  2 x )
 6 3 

1 0 0
13.  0 1 0 
 0 0 0 

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Chapter 7 Linear transformations 213

True false exercise  n , then a valid conclusion is that

T  S  x    x for all x in  n .
1. If T is a linear transformation from  m to
 n , then there is an m  n matrix A such 10. Let A be an m  n matrix. If the columns of
that T  x   Ax for all x   m . A form a linearly independent set, then the
linear transformation x  Ax maps  n
2. The linear transformation that maps (1, 0) onto  m .
to (3, –2) and maps (0, 1) to (–3, 2) is one
to one from  2 to  2 . 11. The standard matrix for the transformation
that rotates every vector in  2 clockwise
3. This mapping is linear : T  x1, x2 , x3   
through an angle of (or 90 ) is
 x1  x2  3,3 x2  x1,3x3  . 2
 1 0 
 0 1
4. The mapping f defined by  
f  x   x1  2, 4,7 x1   x2  3, x2 , 4  is linear.
(Here x   x1, x2  and f  x  is in 3 .) 12. A linear transformation L from 3 to 3
is completely defined by the three formulas
L 1,3, 2    7,5,5  , L  2, 4,1   6, 4, 4  and
5. If A is a p  q matrix, then the mapping T
defined by T  x   Ax is a linear map from L  3,1,2   1,1,1 .

 q to  p .
13. Let T be a transformation from  n to  m .
If T  0   0 , then T is linear.
6. Every linear mapping T from  q to  p is
of the form T  x   Ax for some matrix A.
14. Let T  x   (2 x1  x3 , x2  x1, x3  3x2 ) .
7. Let the transformation T be defined by The matrix for this linear transformation is
T  x   Ax , where A is a 5  3 matrix. The  2 0 1
1 1 0
domain of T is then 5 .  
 0 3 1 
5
1
8. If a linear transformation maps   to  0  15. When two linear transformation are
3 performed one after the other, the
1  combined effect may fail to be a linear
6  11 transformation.
3  4
and   to  2  then it maps   to  2 
 
1  2   4  3  16. A linear transformation L from  2 to 3
is completely defined by the formulas
L  3,5    2, 2,3 , L  2,7   1, 1, 4  and
9. If S and T are linear transformation from
 n to  n and if S  T  x    x for all x in L  4,3   3,0, 2  .

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214 Linear Algebra
17. There exists a linear transformation from 26. Let T be a linear mapping from  n to  m .
3 to  4 such that L 1,3, 2   1,0,0, 0  , Let A be an m  n matrix such that
L  2,1,3   0,1, 0,0  and T  x   Ax . If T is surjective, then n  m .

L  1,12,1   0,0,1,0  .
27. If  x1, x2 ,...., xn  is linearly dependent and
18. Let A be an n  n matrix. If the map T is a linear transformation, then
x  Ax is surjective from  n to  n , then T  x1  , T  x2  ,...., T  xn  is also linearly
it is one to one. dependent.

1 2 7  28. If  x1, x2 ,...., xn  is linearly independent

19. Let A   3 4 29  and T is a linear transformation, then

 2 1 11  T  x1  , T  x2  ,...., T  xn  is also linearly
The mapping x  Ax is one to one. independent.

3 1 5  29. A linear transformation T from an n–

dimensional vector space V to another
20. Let A   2 5 1
space is completely and uniquely
 1 2 0  determined by the images
The mapping x  Ax is one to one. T (u1), T (u2 ),...., T (un ) , where
u1, u2 ,...., un  is any basis for V.
21. There exists a linear transformation from
3 to  4 such that 30. There is one and only one linear
L  1,12,1   0,0,1,0  transformation that maps (1,3,2) to (3,7,7),
L 1,3, 2   1,0,0,0  (0,2, 9) to (4,2,–5) and (0,0,6) to (17, 1,3).

L  2, 4,6    0,0, 0,1

L  2,1,3   0,1, 0,0  Assignment

22. Let A be a square matrix. If the mapping -------------------- S C Q ---------------------

x  Ax is one to one, then it is surjective.
1. Let V and W be vector spaces over  .
23. The linear mapping defined by the equation T : V  W be a map. Then T is a linear
f  x1, x2    7 x1  2 x2 , 2 x1  5 x2 , x1  4 x2  transformation if and only if
1. T ( x  y )  T ( x)  T ( y ), x, y  V
is the same as the mapping T  x   Ax , 2. T ( x)  T ( x ), x  V ,  
 7 2  3. T ( x  y )   T ( x )  T ( y ), x, y  V ,   
where A   2 5  4. T ( x  y )  T ( x )  T ( y ), x, y V
 1 4 
2. Consider the mapping
n (I) T :  3   2 , T ( x, y , z )  ( x  1, y  z )
24. If the rows of an m  n matrix A span  ,
then the map x  Ax is one to one. (II) T :  3  , T ( x, y )  xy
(III) T : 3   2 , T ( x, y , z )  ( x ,0)
25. Let A be an m  n matrix whose rows form Which of the above are linear
a linearly dependent set. Then the linear transformation?
m
transformation x  Ax is onto  . 1. (I),(II) and (III)
2. (I) and (II) only
3. (II) and (III) only
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 7 Linear transformations 215

4. None of these x
D  f ( x)   f '( x), T  f ( x)    f (t )dt ,
0

3. Which among the following is not linear? then

1. F :  2   2 such that 1. D is linear where T is not linear
F ( x, y )  (2 x  y, x ) transformation
2. D is not linear while T is linear
2. F :  3   2 such that F ( x, y, z )  ( z, x  y ) transformation
3. F :    2 such that F ( x )  (2 x,3x ) 3. D and T both are not linear
4. F :  3   2 such that F ( x, y, z )  ( x  1, y  z ) transformation
4. D and T both are linear transformation
4. The two transformation T : 3   2 and
8. If T :  2   3 is a linear transformation
S :  3   2 defined as
T (1,0)  (2,3,1) and T (1,1)  (3, 0, 2), then
T ( x, y , z )  ( x  1, y  z )
which one of the following statement is
and S ( x, y, z )  ( x , 0), then correct?
1. T and S both are linear 1. T ( x, y )  ( x  y , 2 x  y ,3 x  3 y )
2. T and S both are not linear 2. T ( x, y )  (2 x  y,3x  3 y, x  y )
3. T is linear but S is not linear 3. T ( x, y )  (2 x  y ,3 x  3 y, x  y )
4. T is not linear and S is linear
4. T ( x, y )  ( x  y , 2 x  y,3x  3 y )
5. Consider the vector space  3 and the maps
9. The unique linear transformation
f , g :  3   3 defined by
T :  2   2 such that T (1, 2)  (2,3) and
f ( x, y , z )  ( x, y , z ) and T (0,1)  (1, 4). Then, the rule for T is
g ( x, y , z )  ( x  1, y  1, z). 1. T ( x, y )  ( y, 5 x  4 y )
Then, 2. T ( x, y )  (5 x  4 y, y )
1. Both f and g are linear 3. T ( x, y )  ( x, 5 x  4 y )
2. Neither f nor g is linear 4. T ( x, y )  (4 x  5 y , y )
3. g is linear but not f
4. f is linear but not g 10. A linear transformation T :  2   2 such
(GATE 2005) that T (3,1)  (2, 4) and T (1,1)  (0, 2).
Then, the T (7,8) is
6. Let C be the vector space of all complex
numbers over complex field C and 1. (1,3) 2. (–1,19)
T : C  C be defined by T ( z )  z . Then, 3. (2,3) 4. (3,2)
1. T is a linear mapping
11. Consider the basis S  {v1 , v2 , v3 } for
2. T is not linear mapping but a well
defined map  3 where v1  (1,1,1), v2  (1,1,0) ,
3. T is not well defined v3  (1, 0,0) and let T : 3   2 be a linear
4. None of the above
transformation such that
T (v1 )  (1,0),T (v2 )  (2, 1), T (v3 )  (4,3) .
7. D : Pn ()  Pn 1 ( ) and
Then, T (2, 3,5) is
T : Pn1 ( )  Pn () defined by
1. (1, 5) 2. (3, 4)
differentiation and integration
3. (0, 0) 4. (9, 23)

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216 Linear Algebra

12. Consider the following T :  2   2 such 17. Which of the following mapping
that T (2, 2)  (8, 6), T (5,5)  (3, 2), then  2   2 is not a linear mapping?
1. T is linear map and is unique 1. ( x1 , x2 )  ( x2 , x1 )
2. T is a linear map and they are infinite in 2. ( x1 , x2 )  ( x1  x2 , x2 )
number
3. ( x1 , x2 )  ( x1  1, x2 )
3. T is a linear map and they are finitely
many in number 4. ( x1 , x2 )  (0,0)
4. T cannot be linear
18. R is set of real number. In  2 , let f1 and
13. Let F be any field and let T be a linear
f 2 be the two transformations defined by
operation on F 2 defined by
f1 ( x, y )  (0, y ) , f 2 ( x, y )  ( y , x ) . Then,
T (a, b)  (a  b, a ), then T 1 (a, b) is equal
to the product of the mapping
1. (b, a  b) 2. (a  b, b) ( f 2 of1 )( x, y ) gives the projection of the
3. (a, a  b) 4. None of these x  y plane on the
1. y  axis 2. x  axis
14. Let T :  2   2 be a linear transformation 3. line y = x 4. line y = x
1 1 0  2
such that T      and T      19. Which of the following is a linear
0  2 1 1 transformation from  3 to  2 ?
1   x
What is the value of T   ?
 4 
1  a. f  y    
1  2  z  x y
1.   2.    
 2 1  x
 3  2    xy 
3.   4.   b. g  y  
 3  2  z  x  y
 
15. Let T be linear transformation on  2 into  x
   z x
itself such that T (1,0)  (1, 2) and c. h y   
T (1,1)  (0, 2). Then, T (a, b) is equal to  z   x y
 
1. (a, 2b) 2. (2a, b) 1. only f
3. (a  b, 2a) 4. (a  b, 2b) 2. only g
3. only h
16. If T : 3   3 is given by 4. all the transformations f, g and h.
T ( x, y , z )  ( x  y, y  3 z, x  2 y ), then (CSIR NET June 2015)
T 1 is
20. Let T : 3   2 be the linear transformation
1 x z given by T ( x, y , z )  ( x, y ) with respect to
1.  2 x  z ,  x  z ,  y  
3 3 3
standard basis of  3 and the basis
1 1 1  {(1,0),(1,1)} of  2 . What is the matrix
2.  2 x  y,  x  y , x   z
3 3 3y  representation of T ?
1 1 1   1 0
3.  x  2 y, x  y,  x  y  z   0 1 1
3 3 3  1.  1 1  2. 
1 x y  0 0 1
  0 0 
4.  x  2 y , x  y,   z 
3 3 3 

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 7 Linear transformations 217

0 0 24. Let T : V2 ( )  V2 () where T be the

 1 1 0 
3.   4.  1 0  reflection of the points through the line
0 1 0  1 1  y   x, then the matrix of T with respect to
standard basis is
1 0   1 0 
21. Let T :  2   2 be defined by 1.   2.  
T ( x, y )  ( x  y, x  y ) . Which one of the  0 1  0 1
following is the matrix of T for (0,1) and 0 1  0 1
3.   4.  
(1,0) as a basis for both domain and range 1 0  1 0 
of T ?
1 1   1 1 25. Consider the two linear maps T1 and T2 on
1.   2.  
 1 1  1 1 V3 defined as T1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (0, x2 , x3 ) and
 1 1  1 1 T2 ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  ( x1 ,0, 0),
3.   4.  
1 1   1 1 1. T is idempotent but T2 is not idempotent
2. T2 is idempotent but T1 is not idempotent
22. Define T on  2 into itself by
3. Both T1 and T2 are idempotent
T ( x1 , x2 )  ( x1  x2 , x1  x2 ). Then, matrix
4. Neither T1 nor T2 are idempotent
of T 1 relative to the standard basis for  2
is
26. If the complex field C is the given vector
1 1   1 1
1.   2.   space over the real field R and operator
1 1  1 1  T on C is defined on T ( z )  z , then the
1 1  1 1 matrix of T w.r.t. the basis 1  i,1  2i is
 2  2  
3.  2 2
 4.   3 4  3 2 
1 1   1 1  1.  2. 
 2 3 4 3 

 2 2   2 2 
3 4
3.  4. None of these
23. Let P2  x  be the vector space of all 2 3 
polynomials over  of degree less than or
equal to 2. Let D be the differential 27. The matrix of the linear transformation
operator on P2  x  . Then, matrix of T on 3 () defined as
T ( x, y , z )  (2 y  z, x  4 y,3x ) w.r.t the
D relative to the basis  x 2 ,1, x is equal to
basis B  {(1,1,1), (1,1,0),(1,0,0)} is
0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 3  3 6 6 
1.  0 0 1 2.  2 0 0 1.  6 6 2 
 2. 3 6 5 
 
 2 0 0   0 0 1   6 5 1 3 2 1
0 0 2 0 0 0  3 6 6 
3.  0 0 0 4.  0 0 2 3.  6 5 2  4. None of these
 
 0 1 0   0 1 0   1 3 3 

28. Let T be a linear transformation on the

vector space V2 ( F ) defined by
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218 Linear Algebra

T (a, b)  (a, 0), the matrix of T relative to 1, x, x , x  and 1, x, x  of P [0,1] and
2 3 2
3
the ordered basis {(1,0), (0,1)} of V2 ( F ) is P2 [0,1] respectively is
1 0 0 1
0 0 0
1.  2. 
0 0  0 0  1 0 0
0 1 2 0
0 0 0 0 1.  2.  0 0 2 6 
3.  4.  2 2 0
1 0  0 1     0 0 0 3 
0 6 3
0 0 0
29. Let V be the vector space of 2  2 matrices 0 2 1 0 0 0 1
over  and let M  
1 2  3.  6 2 0 0  4.  
 . Let T be the  0 2 2
3 4   3 0 0 0   
linear operator on V defined by 3 6 0
T ( A)  MA, then the trace of T is (GATE 2010)
1. 5 2. 10
3. 0 4. None of these 33. Let P2 () be the polynomial space with
basis {1, x, x 2 }, then matrix representation of
30. Let T be a linear transformation from
p( x)  p (0)
3   2 defined by T : p ( x)  is
x
T ( x, y, z )  ( x  y, y  z ) . Then, the matrix
1 1 0 0 1 0
of T with respect to the ordered bases  
{(1,1,1),(1, 1, 0),(0,1,0)} and {(1,1),(1,0)} is 1.  0 0 1  2.  0 0 1 
 2 0 1   0 1 1   0 0 0   0 0 0 
1.   2.  
 1 1 1  2 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
2 1   0 2 3.  0 0 0  4.  0 0 0 
3.  0 1 4.  1 1   0 0 0   0 0 0 
 1 1   1 0 
(GATE 2003) 34. Let W be the vector space of all real
polynomials of degree atmost 3. Defined
31. Let T : 3   3 be a linear transformation T : W  W by T  p( x)   p( x ) where
defined by T ( x, y , z )  ( x  y  z , x  y  z , y  z ) p  x  is the derivative of P . The matrix of
then the matrix of the linear transformation T in the basis {1, x, x 2 , x 3} considered as
T with respect to the ordered basis
column vectors, is given by
B  (0,1,0),(0,0,1),(1,0, 0) of  3 is
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0  0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
  2.  
1.  1 1 1 2. 1 1 1  1.
0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0

 0 1 1 1 0 1    
 0 0 0 3 0 0 3 0
1 1 1 1 1 1  0 1 0 0  0 1 2 3
3. 1 1 0  4. 1 1 1  0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0
  
1 1 1  1 1 0  3. 4.  
 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0
(GATE 2007)    
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(CSIR NET June 2011)
32. Let T : P3[0,1]  P2  0,1 be defined by
T  p( x)   p "( x )  p '  x  . Then the matrix 35. For the standard basis
representation of T with respect to the {(1,0, 0),(0,1,0),(0,0,1)} of  3 a linear
bases
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 7 Linear transformations 219

transformation T from  3 to  3 has the 1 1 1   1 1 0 

 2 1 1 1. 1 1 0  2.  0 1 1
matrix representation  1 1 1  . 1 0 0   0 0 1 
 3 1 2   1 1 1 1 0 0
Then the image of (2,1,2) under T is 3.  0 1 1 4.  1 1 0 
1. (11,0,1) 2. (3,3,3)
 0 0 1  0 1 1 
3. (7,3,5) 4. (7,3,1)
(GATE 2005)
36. Let T : P3  P3 be the map given by
x
38. A linear transformation T rotates each
T  p  x    p  t  dt. If the matrix of T vector in  2 clockwise through 90 . The
1
relative to the standard basis matrix T relative to standard ordered basis
B1  B2  1, x, x 2 , x3  is M and M  denotes  1   0  
      is
the transpose of the matrix M, then M+ M   0   1  
is 0 1  0 1
1.  2. 
 0 1 1 1  1 0  
 1 0 
 1 2 0 0 
1.   0 1  0 1
3.  4. 
 1 0 2 0 
1 0  1 0 

 
 1 0 0 2  (CSIR NET June 2013)
 1 0 0 2 
 0 1 1 0  39. Let N be the vector space of all real
2.   polynomials of degree at most 3. Define
 0 1 1 0  S : N  N by ( Sp)( x)  p  x  1 , p  N .
 
 2 0 2 1 Then the matrix of S in the basis
 2 0 0 1 1, x, x2 , x3 , considered as column vectors,
0 2 1 0
3.   is given by
 0 1 2 1 1 0 0 0  1 1 1 1
  0 2 0
 1 0 1 0  0   0 1 2 3
1.  2.  
0 2 2 2  0 0 3 0  0 0 1 3
 2 1 0 0     
4.   0 0 0 4  0 0 0 1
 2 0 1 0  1 1 2 3 0 0 0 0
  1 1 2
 2 0 0 1 3 1 0 0 0
3.  4.  
(GATE 2012) 2 2 2 3 0 1 0 0
   
37. Let V be vector space of real polynomials 3 3 3 3 0 0 1 0
of degree atmost 2. Define a linear operator (CSIR NET June 2012)
i
T : V  V by T  xi    x j , i  0,1, 2 . 40. For a positive integer n, let Pn denote the
j0
space of all polynomials p  x  with
The matrix of T 1 with respect to the basis
1, x, x 2 is coefficients in  such that deg p  x   n ,

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220 Linear Algebra

and let Bn denote the standard basis of Pn matrix representation of T with respect to
given by Bn  1, x, x ,...., x
2 n
 . If the bases 1, x, x 2 and 1, x, x 2 , x 3  is
T : P3  P4 is the linear transformation
x   0 1 0
1 0
defined by T  p  x    x p '  x    p  t  dt 0 1 0 2 
2
0
  
0
1
2.  0 1 
and A   aij  is the 5  4 matrix of T with 1.  1 0 0 0
 2  2
  
respect to standard bases B3 and B4 , then 1  1
0 2 0  0 0 
3 7  3  3
1. a32  and a33 
2 3
3 0 1 0 
2. a32  and a33  0    
2 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 
 
4. 
7 2
3. a32  0 and a33  3.  1 0 2 0
3  0 2 0
1 1  
4. a32  0 and a33  0 0 0   1
 2 3 0 0 
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)  3
 1   2   (CSIR NET June 2019)
41. Let C    ,    be a basis of  2 and
 2   1  
T :  2   2 be defined by --------------------- M C Q -------------------------

 x  x y  1. Let a, b, c, d  and let T :  2   2 be

T   . If T  C  represents the
 y   x  2y  the linear transformation defined by
matrix of T with respect to the basis C then   x    ax  by   x 
 for  y   ,
2
T   
which among the following is true ? y
   cx  dy   
Let S :    be the corresponding map
 3 2  defined by S  x  iy    ax  by   i  cx  dy 
1. T  C    
3 1 for x, y  . Then
 3 2  1. S is always  linear, that is
2. T  C     S  z1  z2   S  z1   S  z2  for all
 3 1 
z1 , z2  and S  z    S  z 
 3 1
3. T  C     for all    and z  .
3 2 2. S is  linear, if b=c and d=a.
 3 1 3. S is  linear, only if b=c and d=a.
4. T  C     4. S is  linear, if and only if T is the
 3 2  identity transformation.
(CSIR NET Dec 2018) (CSIR NET Dec 2012)
42. Consider the vector space n of real
polynomials in x of degree less than or
equal to n. Define T : 2  3 by
x

Tf  x    f  t  dt  f '  x  . Then the

0

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 7 Linear transformations 221

True false key

1. F 2. F 3. F 4. F
5. T 6. T 7. F 8. T
9. T 10. F 11. F 12. T
13. F 14. T 15. F 16. F
17. F 18. T 19. F 20. F
21. F 22. T 23. T 24. T
25. F 26. T 27. T 28. F
29. T 30. T

Assignment key
SCQ
1. 3 2. 4 3. 4 4. 2
5. 2 6. 2 7. 4 8. 2
9. 1 10. 2 11. 4 12. 4
13. 1 14. 3 15. 3 16. 1
17. 3 18. 2 19. 3 20. 3
21. 2 22. 3 23. 1 24. 4
25. 3 26. 1 27. 1 28. 1
29. 2 30. 2 31. 3 32. 2
33. 2 34. 3 35. 2 36. 1
37. 2 38. 2 39. 2 40. 2
41. 3 42. 2

MCQ
1. 2,3

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Chapter 8
Linear transformations
(continued)
Believe you will be successful and you will.
– Dale Carnegie

8.1 Range space and Null space

Def. Null Space or Kernel of a Linear Transformation : Let T : U  V be a linear

transformation. The null space (kernel) of T is denoted by N(T) or Ker(T) and is defined as
N(T) = ker T = {u  U : T(u )=0} . In words, the null space is the subset of U consisting of all vectors
whose image under T is 0.
Def. Range or image of a Linear Transformation Let T : U  V be a linear transformation ,
then range of T or image of T is denoted by R(T) or T(U) and is defined as R(T)={T(u ) : u  U} .
In words range of T is the set of all those vectors of V which are images of vectors of U under T.
Results :
1. If T : U  V is a linear transformation , then N(T) , the null space of T , is a subspace of U.
2. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation ,then T is one– one if and only if N(T) = {0}.
3. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation , then range of T is a subspace of V.
Def . Rank and Nullity of a Linear Transformation : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation. The
rank of T is denoted by  (T) and is defined as the dimension of R (T) . The nullity of T is denoted
by  (T) and is defined as the dimension of N(T).
4. Sylvester’s law : If T : U  V is a linear transformation , then Rank T+Nullity T = dim U
i.e.,  (T)   (T) = dim U .
224 Linear Algebra
5. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation where U and V are finite dimensional vector spaces of
same dimension, then T is one - one iff T is onto.
6. If T : V  V is a linear operator on V, then R(T)  N(T) = {0} iff T(T(v)) = 0  T(v) = 0 .
7. Fundamental theorem of vector space homomorphism : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation,
then U Ker T  T(U) .

8. If T : U  V is a onto linear transformation , then U Ker T  V.

W1 +W2 W2
9. If W1 and W2 are two subspaces of a vector space then  .
W1 W1  W2
Method 8.1 : To find range space of a Linear Transformation
Input : A linear transformation T : U  V is given.
Output : Range space R(T) and rank of T i.e.  (T)

Working Steps :
(i) To find range space R(T) , we need a basis of U and for the sake of simplicity we consider the
standard basis e1 , e2 ,........., en .

(ii) Range space is generated by T-images of vectors of basis i.e., R(T )  T(e1 ) , T(e2 ) ,.....,T(en ) 

(iii) Now we have a generating set of R(T) so find a basis of R (T) by techniques of vector spaces
i.e., either by selecting a maximal L.I. set out of {T(e1 ) ,T(e2 ) ,........., T(en )} or by

row echelon method.

(iv) The number of elements in the basis gives the rank of T i.e.  (T).
Alternative Method 8.1 : Range space of a linear transformation is the column space of its matrix.
Method 8.2 : To find null space of a linear transformation
Input : A linear transformation T : U  V is given.
Output : Null space N(T) and nullity of T i.e.  (T).
Working Steps :
(i) Take any arbitrary vector u  U and substitute T(u) = 0. Here a system of equations is obtained.
(ii) Solve the system of equations obtained in step (i) . There are two possible cases.
Case (a) : If u = 0 is only solution of above system then N(T) = {0} and so  (T) = 0.
Case (b) : If system has non – trivial solutions , then number of free variables , say r , gives the
dimension of N(T) and so  (T) = nullity of T = r. Further , let u1 , u2 ,........., ur be the solutions

by setting one of the free variable equal to 1 (or any non – zero constant) and the remaining free
variables equal to 0 , then { u1 , u2 ,........., ur } is a basis of N(T).

Alternative Method 8.2 : Null space of a linear transformation is the null space of its matrix.

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 225

Method 8.3 : To find a linear transformation when a generating set of range space is given.
Input : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation and dim U = n. A generating set
{v1 , v2 ,..........., vk } where k  n of R(T) is given.

Output : Defining formula of T.

Working Steps :
(i) Take any basis of U , for simplicity , we can take the standard basis {e1 , e2 ,........., en } .

(ii) Two possibilities are there

Case (a) : If k = n then take T(e1 ) = v1 , T(e2 ) = v2 ,……., T(ek ) = vk and find T by Method 7.2.1

Case (b) : If k < n then take T(e1 ) = v1 , T(e2 ) = v2 ,……., T(ek ) = vk and T(ek 1 ) = ..........=T(en ) =

0 and find T by Method 7.2.1.

Remark : In above method , T does not exist if k > n.
Method 8.4 : To find a L.T. when a generating set of null space is given.
Input : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation and dim (U) = n.
A generating set {u1 , u2 ,..........., uk } of N(T) is given.

Output : Defining formula of T.

Working Steps :
(i) First check that the set {u1 , u2 ,..., uk } is L.I. or not. If yes , its okay. If no , then reduce it to a
maximal L.I. set .
(ii) Let the L.I. set obtained in step(i) be S = {u1 , u2 ,..., ur } where r  n . Clearly,S is a basis of N(T).

(iii) Now extend the set S to a basis B of U and let B = {u1 , u2 ,...., ur , ur 1 ,...., un } Out of the vectors

of B only u1 , u2 ,..., ur belong to null space and others do not belong to N(T), so we assume

T(u1) = 0
T(u2) = 0
.……….
T(ur) = 0
and T(ur+1) = any non – zero vector, say vr 1

T(ur+2) = any non – zero vector, say vr 2 such that {v r 1 , vr 2 } is a L.I. set.

……………………………...
T(un) = any non – zero vector say vn such that {vr 1 , vr 2 ,...., vn } is a L.I. set.

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226 Linear Algebra
(iv) Now find T by Method 7.2.1
Example 1 : Find range , rank , null – space and nullity for the linear transformation T : R4  R3
defined by
T(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = ( x1  x2  x3  x4 , x1  2 x3  x4 , x1  x2  3 x3  3 x4 )

Solution : To find R(T)

We know that e1  (1 , 0 , 0 , 0), e2  (0 , 1 , 0 , 0), e3  (0 , 0 , 1 , 0) and e4  (0 , 0 , 0 , 1) is a

basis of R4 and so the range space R(T) is generated by their images i.e.,
R(T) =  T(e1 ) , T(e2 ) , T(e3 ) , T(e4 ) 

Now , by definition of T , we compute

T(e1 ) = (1 , 1 , 1) , T(e2 ) = (  1 , 0 , 1) , T(e3 ) = (1 , 2 , 3) , T(e4 ) = (1 ,  1 ,  3)

Thus , R(T) =  (1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 0 , 1 ) , (1 , 2 , 3) , (1 , 1 , 3) 

To find a basis of R(T) , we consider the matrix whose rows are these four vectors

 1 1 1  1 1 1 
 1 0 1   0 1 2 
  ~   (Operating R 2  R 2  R 1 , R 3  R 3  R 1 , R 4  R 4  R 1 )
 1 2 3  0 1 2 
   
 1 1 3  0 2 4 
1 1 1
0 1 2 
~  (Operating R 3  R 3  R 2 , R 4  R 4  2R 3 )
0 0 0
 
0 0 0
which is row echelon form.
Thus the set of non – zero rows in above matrix {(1 , 1 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 2)} is a basis of R(T) and so
dim R(T) =  (T) = 2.
To find N(T) : If any vector u  ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )  N(T)

Then T(u) = 0
i.e. T ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (0 , 0 , 0)

i.e. ( x1  x2  x3  x4 , x1  2 x3  x4 , x1  x2  3x3  3x4 ) = (0 , 0 , 0)

x1  x2  x3  x4  0 

i.e. x1  2 x3  x4  0 ......(1)
x1  x2  3 x3  3 x4  0 

To solve the system of equations (1) , we consider the coefficient matrix

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 227

1 1 1 1   1 1 1 1 
1 0 2 1 ~  0 1 1 2  (Operating R 2  R 2  R 1 , R 3  R 3  R 1 )
   
1 1 3 3  0 2 2 4 

 1 1 1 1 
~  0 1 1 2 (Operating R 3  R 3  2R 2 )
 0 0 0 0 
which is row echelon form.
Thus the system (1) is reduced to
x1  x2  x3  x4  0 
 ......(2)
x2  x3  2 x4  0 

Here , x3 and x4 are free variables and so dim N(T) = nullity of T = number of free variables = 2

To find a basis of N(T) , we take x3  1 , x4  0 and then x1  2 , x2  1

So one vector of basis of N(T) is (2, 1,1,0) .

Again taking x3  0 , x4  1 , we obtain x1 = 1 , x2 = 2

So second vector of basis of N(T) is (1 , 2 , 0 , 1).

Hence the set {(2 , 1 , 1 , 0),(1 , 2 , 0 , 1)} is a basis of N(T).
EXAMPLE 2 : Find a linear transformation T : R3  R4 whose range space is generated by
(1 , 2 , 0 ,  4) and (2 , 0 ,  1 ,  3).
Solution : We consider the standard basis e1 , e2 , e3 of R3 , where
e1 = (1 , 0 , 0) , e2 = (0 , 1 , 0) , e3 = (0 , 0 , 1).
Let us take
T(1 , 0 , 0) = (1 , 2 , 0 ,  4) 

T(0 , 1 , 0) = (2 , 0 ,  1 ,  3)  ......(1)
T(0 , 0 , 1) = (0 , 0 , 0 , 0) 

Now , let (x , y , z) R3 be any vector then clearly

( x , y , z)  x(1 , 0 , 0)  y(0 , 1 , 0)  z (0 , 0 ,1)
Applying T on both sides
T ( x , y , z)  xT (1 , 0 , 0)  yT (0 , 1 , 0)  zT (0 , 0 , 1)
= x(1 , 2 , 0 ,  4)  y(2 , 0 ,  1 ,  3)  z (0 , 0 , 0 , 0)
= ( x  2 y , 2 x ,  y ,  4 x  3 y) , which is the required L.T.

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228 Linear Algebra
Example 3 : Find a linear transformation T : R4  R3 whose null space is generated by
(1 , 2 , 3 , 4) and (0 , 1 , 1 , 1).
Solution : Let u1 = (1 , 2 , 3 , 4) and u2 = (0 , 1 , 1 , 1). We see that u1 is not a scalar multiple of u2 so
{u1 , u2} is a L.I. set.
Now we shall extend this set to form a basis of R4. For this we have to select two vectors of standard
basis
{(1 , 0 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 0 , 1)} of R4.
Let us take u3 = (0 , 0 , 1 , 0)
and u4 = (0 , 0 , 0 , 1)
Then the matrix formed by taking u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 as rows is

1 2 3 4
0 1 1 1 

0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1

which is clearly in row echelon form and hence { u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 } is a L.I. set and therefore a basis of R4.

As u1 , u2 belongs to null space and u3 , u4 does not belong to null space, so we take
T(u1 )  T(1 , 2 , 3 , 4) = (0 , 0 , 0)

T(u2 )  T(0 , 1 , 1 , 1) = (0 , 0 , 0)

T(u3 )  T (0 , 0 , 1 , 0)  (1 , 0 , 0)

T(u4 )  T(0 , 0 , 0 , 1) = (0 , 1 , 0)

Here T(u3 ) and T(u4 ) are to be taken equal to any non-zero vector and for our simplicity we have

chosen (1 , 0 , 0) and (0 , 1 , 0).

Now , we are ready to find defining formula of T .
Let ( x, y , z , t )  R 4 be any vector and let
( x , y , z , t )  a(1 , 2 , 3 , 4)  b(0 , 1 , 1 , 1)  c(0 , 0 , 1 , 0)  d (0 , 0 , 0 , 1) ......(1)
 a=x ; 2a + b = y ; 3a + b + c = z ; 4a + b + d = 0
Solving these we obtain
a  x , b  y  2x , c  z  y  x , d  t  x  z
Using these in (1) and applying T on both sides , we get
T ( x , y , z , t )  x T (1, 2, 3, 4)  ( y  2 x) T (0, 1, 1, 1)  ( z  y  x) T (0, 0, 1, 0)
(t  x  z ) T (0, 0, 0, 1)
 x ( 0 , 0 , 0)  ( y  2 x) (0 , 0 , 0)  ( z  y  x) (1 , 0 , 0)  (t  x  z ) (0 , 1 , 0)
= ( z  y  x , t  x  z , 0) which is the defining formula of T.
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 229

Exercise 8.1
1. Find R(T) , rank (T) , N(T) and nullity (T) for the following linear transformations and
Verify the Sylvester law.
(i) T : 3   2 defined by T( x , y , z)  ( x  y , y  z)

(ii) T :  2   3 defined by T( x , y )  ( x  y , x  y, y)

2. A linear transformation T :  2   3 is as T(1, 2)=(3 ,  1, 5) and T(0, 1) = (2, 1 ,  1).

Find the defining formula for T and then find range space , rank , null space and nullity.
3. Find range space , rank , null space and nullity for zero operator O : V  V defined by
O(x) = 0 for all x and identity operator I : V  V defined by I(x) = x for all x , where
V is a finite dimensional vector space.
 1 1
4. Let V be the vector space of all 2  2 real matrices and let M =   be a fixed
 2 2 
matrix. Let T : V  V be a function defined by T(A) = MA for all A  V . Then
(i) Prove that T is a linear transformation.
(ii) Find range space and rank of T.
(iii) Find null space and nullity of T.
(iv) Verify the Sylvester law.
5. Let T :  2   2 be a linear transformation defined by T(x, y)=(y , 0) . Prove that R(T)=N(T).

1 2
6. Let V be the vector space of all 2  2 real matrices and let M =   be a fixed matrix.
 0 3
Let T : V  V be the linear map defined by T(A) = AM  MA. Find R(T) , rank , N(T) and
nullity. Then verify the Sylvester Law.
7. Find range space, null space, rank and nullity of the following linear transformations :
(i) Zero linear transformation from  4 to  3 .
(ii) Identity operator on  3 .
(iii) Projection mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x, y ,0)

(iv) Rotation mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin   y cos  , z )

(v) Reflection mapping T :  2   2 defined by T ( x, y )  ( x cos 2  y sin 2 , x sin 2  y cos 2 )

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1 2 3 4 
(vi) Matrix mapping T :    defined by T (u )  A(u ) where  0 1 2 1
4 3

 2 5 8 7 

(vii) T : P3 ( )   4 defined by T  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3    a0  a1 , a1  2a2 , 2a2  3a3 ,3a3 

 a b  
(viii) T : M 2 ()  P3 () defined by T   
2
  a  (b  c  d ) x  (a  d ) x  cx
3

 c d  
8. Each of the following matrices determines a linear map from  4 into  3 :

1 2 0 1 1 0 2 1
(i) A   2 1 2 1 , (ii) B   2 3 1 1  .
 
 1 3 2 2   2 0 5 3 

Find a basis as well as the dimension of the kernel and the image of each linear map.
9. Let V  10 ( ) , the vector space of polynomials of degree  10 . Consider the linear map

 4 :V  V , where  4 denotes the fourth derivative d 4  f  / dt 4 . Find a basis and the dimension of

(i) the image of  4 (ii) the kernel of  4

10. (i) Find a linear transformation T : 3   3 whose range space is generated by (1,0,  1)
and (1 , 2 , 2).
(ii) Find a linear transformation T : 3   3 whose range space is generated by (1, 2 , 3)
and (4 , 5 , 6).

11. (i) Find a linear transformation T :  4   3 whose null space is spanned by (2, 3 , 4 , 1)
and (1 , 0 , 1 , 1).
(ii) Find a linear transformation T : 3   4 whose null space is generated by (0, 1,  3)
and (0 ,  3 , 4).
12. Let T : V  V be a linear map such that R(T) = N(T) , where V is finite dimensional.
Prove that dim V is even.
13. Let T : 5  3 is a linear transformation such that  (T) = 2 , then find dim R(T).

14. Is there a linear transformation T :  4   2 such that  (T) = 3 and  (T) = 2.

Answers
1. (i) R(T) = R2 ,  (T) = 2 and N(T) = < (1 ,  1 , 1) > and  (T) = 1
Basis of N(T) is not unique , it can be multiple of (1 ,  1 , 1) as well.
(ii) R(T) = < (1 , 1 , 0) , (1 ,  1 , 1) > ,  (T) = 2 and N(T) = {0} ,  (T) = 0.
Basis of R(T) is not unique.
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Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 231

2. T( x , y )  (2 y  x , y  3 x , 7 x  y) , R(T) = < (1 , 3 ,  7) , (2 , 1 ,  1) > ,

 (T) = 2 and N(T) = {0} ,  (T) = 0.
3. R(O) = {0} ,  (O) = 0 and N(O) = V,  (O) = dim V; R(I) = V,  (I) =dim V and
N(I) = {0} ,  (I) = 0

 1 0  0 1  1 0  0 1
4. (ii) R(T) =    ,   > and  (T) = 2 (iii) N(T) =   ,  > and  (T) = 2.
 2 0   0 2  1 0  0 1
0 2   2 0   1 1  1 0 
6. R(T) =    ,  > and  (T) = 2 , N(T) =   ,  > and  (T) = 2.
0 0   2 2   0 0  0 1 
7. (i) R(T) = {0} and  (T)  0, N(T) =  4 and  (T)  4

(ii) R(T) = 3 and  (T)  3, N(T)  {0} and  (T)  0

(iii) R(T) = (1,0,0),(0,1,0) and  (T)  2, N(T)= (0,0,1) and  (T)  1

(iv) R(T) = 3 and  (T)  3, N(T)  {0} and  (T)  0

(v) R(T) =  2 and  (T)  2, N(T)  {0} and  (T)  0

(vi) R(T) = (1,0, 2),(2,1,5) and  (T)  2, N(T)= (1, 2,1,0),(6,1,0,1) and  (T)  2

(vii) R(T) =  4 and  (T)  4, N(T)  {0} and  (T)  0

(viii) R(T) = (1,0,1,0),(0,1,0, 0),(0,1, 0,1),(0,1, 1,0) and  (T)  4, N(T)={0} and  (T)  0

8. (i) dim(Ker A) = 2, {(4, –2, –5, 0), (1, –3, 0, 5)}; dim(Im A) = 2, {(1, 2, 1), (0, 1, 1)}
2
(ii) dim(Ker B) = 1, {(–1, , 1, 1)}; Im B =  3 .
3
9. (i) 1, t , t 2 ,..., t 6  , (ii) 1, t , t 2 , t 3

10. (i) T( x , y , z)  ( x  y , 2 y,  x  2 y) (ii) T( x , y , z )  ( x  4 y , 2 x  5 y , 3 x  6 y )

11. (i) Answer is not unique. It depends upon the vectors used to extend the basis and their
images. However , if we take T(0 ,0 , 1 , 0) = (1,0, 0) and T(0 , 0 , 0 , 1) , (0 , 1 , 0), then
2y y
answer is T( x , y , z)  ( z  x  , t  x  ,0)
3 3
(ii) Answer is not unique. However, with T 1, 0, 0   1, 0, 0, 0  the answer is T( x, y , z )  ( x, 0,0,0)

13. 3 14. No.

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232 Linear Algebra

8.2 Singular and non-singular transformation

Def. Singular Linear Transformation : A linear transformation T : U  V is said to be singular if

there exists a vector u  0 in U such that T(u) = 0.
In words , image of at least one non – zero vector of U under T is the zero vector.
Def. Non Singular Linear Transformation : A linear transformation T : U  V is said to be non –
singular if it is not singular. OR
A linear transformation T : U  V is said to be non – singular if T(u) = 0  u = 0.
OR
A linear transformation T : U  V is said to be non – singular if 0  U is the only vector whose
image under T is 0.
Results :
1. A linear transformation T : U  V is non – singular iff T is one – one.
2. A linear transformation T : U  V is non – singular iff N(T) = {0}.
3. A linear transformation T : U  V is non – singular iff T carries linearly independent vectors of U
into linearly independent vectors of V.
4. Let U(F) is a finite dimensional vector space and let T : U  V be a linear transformation. Then
U and R(T) have the same dimensions iff T is non-singular.

5. Let T : U  V be a linear transformation , then the following conditions are equivalent :

(i) T is non-singular.
(ii) T is one-one.
(iii) N(T) = {0}
(iv) T carries linearly independent vectors to linearly independent vectors.
(v) dim U = dim R(T).
Remark : If dim U = dim V = finite then , we can add condition (vi) to above theorem, namely,
(vi) T is onto
Def. Full rank matrix : A matrix is said to be of full rank if its rank is as large as possible. In other
words a m  n matrix A is said to be of full rank if rank (A)  min{m, n} .
Results :
1. Let T :U  V be a linear transformation where dimU  dim V and A be the matrix of T.
Then T cannot be onto and T is one-one if and only if the matrix A is of full rank.
2. Let T :U  V be a linear transformation where dimU  dim V and A be the matrix of T.
Then T cannot be one-one and T is onto if and only if the matrix A is of full rank.

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Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 233

3. Let T :U  V be a linear transformation where dimU  dim V and A be the matrix of T.

Then T is either both one-one and onto or neither one-one nor onto. Further T is one-one
and onto if and only if the matrix A is of full rank.
Remark : In above results U and V are finite dimensional.
4. Let T :  n   m be a linear transformation and A be the matrix of T, then

(i) T is one-one iff columns of A are L.I. (ii) T is onto iff columns of A span  m
Proof : (i) T is one-one iff N T   0

iff N  A   0

iff dim  N  A    0

iff dim  R  A    n ( Using Sylvester law )

iff   A   n

iff columns of A are L.I.

(ii) T is onto iff R  T    m

iff column space of A   m

iff columns of A span  m .
Example 1 : Show that linear transformation T :  3   2 defined by
T( x , y , z)  ( x  y , y  z) is singular.
Solution : Suppose T( x , y , z )  (0 , 0)
 ( x  y , y  z )  (0 , 0)
 x  y  0 and y  z  0
We obtain x=y=z
Let us take x  y  z  1 , then clearly T(1 , 1 , 1) = (0 , 0). Thus we have obtained a non-zero
vector (1 , 1 , 1) whose image is (0 , 0). So , by definition , T is singular.
Example 2 : Show that the linear transformation T :  3   3 defined by
T( x , y , z ) = (x , 2y , z) is non-singular.
Solution : Suppose T( x , y , z)  (0 , 0 , 0)
 ( x , 2 y , z )  (0 , 0 , 0)
 x 0 , y 0, z 0

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234 Linear Algebra
Thus , (0, 0, 0) is the only vector whose image is (0 , 0 , 0). Thus , by definition , T is non-singular.

Exercise 8.2
1. Which of the following linear transformations are singular or non-singular. In case of a singular
linear transformation, find a non zero vector u such that T (u )  0 . Also check which of them are onto.

(i) T : 3   3 defined by T( x , y , z ) = (x  z , x  z , y )

(ii) T :  2   3 defined by T( x , y ) = (x  y , x  y , y )

(iii) T :  4   4 defined by T( x , y , z , t ) = (2x , y , z  t , 0)

(iv) Zero linear transformation from  4 to  3 .

(v) Identity operator on  3 .
(vi) Projection mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x, y ,0)

(vii) Rotation mapping T :  3  3 defined by T ( x, y, z )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin   y cos  , z )

(viii) Reflection mapping T :  2   2 defined by T ( x, y )  ( x cos 2  y sin 2 , x sin 2  y cos 2 )

1 2 3 4 
(ix) Matrix mapping T :    defined by T (u )  A(u ) where  0 1 2 1
4 3

 2 5 8 7 

(x) T : P3 ( )   4 defined by T  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3    a0  a1 , a1  2a2 , 2a2  3a3 ,3a3 

 a b  
(xi) T : M 2 ()  P3 () defined by T   
2
  a  (b  c  d ) x  (a  d ) x  cx
3

 c d  

 1 1 0
2. Given the linear transformation Y =  2 3 1  X , show that
 2 3 5 

(i) it is singular
(ii) the images of linearly independent vectors X1=(1, 1, 1), X2=(2, 1, 2) and X3=(1, 2, 3)
are linearly dependent.
3. Set up linear transformation 3   3 which carries e1 into (1, 2, 3), e2 into (3, 1, 2) , e3

into (2,  1,  1) . Show that the linear transformation is singular.

4. Let T :  2   2 be a linear transformation defined by
T( x , y ) = (ax  by , cx  dy) , where a , b , c , d  R . Prove that T is non – singular iff
a b
0.
c d

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Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 235

Answers
1. (i) Non-singular (ii) Non-singular (iii) Singular ; u   0,0,1, 1

(iv) Singular ; u   x, y , z , t  (v) Non-singular (vi) Singular ; u   0,0, z 

(vii) Non-singular (viii) Non-singular (ix) Singular ; u  1, 2,1,0 

(x) Non-singular (xi) Non-singular

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8.3 Algebra of linear transformations

Def. Sum of Linear Transformations : Let U and V be two vector spaces over the field F. Let T1 :
U  V and T2 : U  V be two linear transformations We define the sum of T1 and T2 by T1 + T2 :
U  V by setting (T1 + T2) u = T1(u) + T2 (u) for all u  U .
Def. Scalar multiplication of linear transformation : Let T : U  V be a linear transformation and
a  F be any scalar then scalar multiplication of T with a is denoted by aT : U  V and is defined as
(a T) u = a (T (u)) for all u  U .
Results :
1. Sum of two linear transformations from a vector space U(F) to a vector V(F) is also a linear
transformation.
2. Scalar multiplication of a linear transformation from a vector space U(F) to a vector V(F) is also a
linear transformation.
Def. Composition (Product) of two Linear Transformations : Let U , V , W be three vector spaces
over a field F. Let T1 : U  V and T2 : V  W be two linear transformations. We define
T2 T1 : U  W, called product (composition) of T2 and T1 by setting (T2T1 )(u )  T2 (T1 (u )) for all u  U.

3. Composition of two linear transformations is again a linear transformation.

Remark : (1) T1 and T2 be two linear transformations , then T2T1 is defined under the condition that
range of T1  domain of T2.
Similarly , T1T2 is defined under the condition that range of T2  domain of T1.These two conditions
can be remembered by the technique that composition of two linear transformations is defined when
range of post factor transformation  domain of pre-factor transformation.
Def. Invertible Linear Transformation : A linear transformation T : U  V is called invertible if T
is one – one and onto and inverse of T is written as T 1 : V  U such that T(u) = v iff u = T 1 (v).

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236 Linear Algebra
4. Suppose a linear transformation T : U  V is one-one and onto. Then the inverse mapping
T 1 : V  U is also a linear transformation.
5. Let T : U  V be a invertible linear transformation. Then
1
(i) T 1 is also invertible and  T 1  = T

(ii) aT is also invertible for any scalar a  0 and (aT) 1 = a 1 T 1 .

6. If T1 and T2 are two invertible linear operators on a vector space V(F) , then T1 T2 is also
invertible and (T1 T2 ) 1 = T21 T11 .

7. Let U and V be two vector spaces over the field F. Let T1 : U  V and T2 : U  V be two linear
transformations then  (T1 +T2 )   (T1 )   (T2 ).
8. Let T1 : U  V and T2 : V  W be two linear transformations. Then
(i) if T2T1 is one – one , then T1 is one – one
(ii) if T2T1 is onto , then T2 is onto.
9. Let T1 : U  V and T2 : V  W be two linear transformations. Then
(i)  (T2 T1 )   (T2 )

(ii)  (T2 T1 )   (T2 ), if T1 is invertible (non- singular).

10. Let T1 and T2 be two linear operators on a vector space V(F) and [T1] and [T2] denote the matrices
of T1 and T2 relative to a ordered basis B = {v1 , v2 ,..........., vn } . Then the matrices of the

operator T1 + T2 , kT1 and T1T2 with respect to the basis B are given by
(i) [T1 + T2] = [T1] + [T2] (ii) [kT1] = k[T1] (iii) [T1T2] = [T1][T2].
Remark : Some times, the matrix of a linear operator T is denoted by m(T). In view of this notation
the above theorem can be given as :
(i) mT1  T2   m T1   m T2  (ii) m kT1   km T1  (iii) mT1 T2   m T1  m T2 

11. Let T : V  V be a linear operator and A be any matrix of T w.r.t. some ordered basis
and f(x) be any polynomial. Then f(A) is the matrix of f (T) w.r.t. the same ordered basis.
Example 1 : Let T1 and T2 be two linear transformations from R 3  R 2 defined by
T1 ( x , y , z ) = (2x  3y , 7 y  2 z ) and T2 ( x , y , z ) = (x  z , y ) . Find the defining formula for

linear transformations 3T1  5T2 and 2T1  3T2 .

Solution : (i) (3T1 +5T2 )( x , y , z ) = 3T1 ( x , y , z )  5T2 ( x , y , z )

= 3(2 x  3 y , 7 y  2 z )  5( x  z , y )
= (6 x  9 y , 21y  6 z )  (5 x  5 z , 5 y )
= (11x  9 y  5 z , 26 y  6 z)

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 237

(ii) (2T1  3T2 )( x , y , z ) = 2T1 ( x , y , z )  3T2 (x , y , z )

= 2(2 x  3 y , 7 y  2 z )  3( x  z , y )
= (4 x  6 y , 14 y  4 z )  (3x  3z , 3 y )
= ( x  6 y  3 z , 11 y  4 z )
Example 2 : Let T be a linear operator on R3 defined by
T( x , y , z ) = (2 x , 4 x  y , 2 x  3 y  z ) . Show that T is invertible and find T 1 .
Solution : We know that T is invertible iff T is one – one and onto.
Let u  ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v  ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) be two vectors in R3 s.t.

T(u) = T(v)
 T( x1 , y1 , z1 ) = T( x2 , y2 , z2 )

 (2 x1 , 4 x1  y1 , 2 x1  3 y1  z1 ) = (2 x2 , 4 x2  y2 , 2 x2  3 y2  z 2 )

 2 x1  2 x2 , 4 x1  y1 = 4 x2  y2 , 2 x1  3 y1  z1  2 x2  3 y2  z 2

 x1  x2 , y1 = y2 , z1  z 2

 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) = ( x2 , y2 , z2 )

 u  v . So T is one – one.
Let ( x, y, z )  R 3 be any vector and let (a , b , c) be an vector s.t.
T(a , b , c) = (x , y , z )
 (2a , 4a  b , 2a  3b  c) = (x , y , z )
 2a  x , 4a  b  y , 2a  3b  c  z
x
 a , b  2x  y , c  7 x  3 y  z
2
Since x , y , z  R , so a , b , c  R and so (a , b , c)  R 3 .
Thus T is onto.
Hence T is invertible. Now T(a , b , c) = ( x , y , z )

x 
 T 1 ( x , y , z ) = (a , b , c ) =  , 2x  y , 7 x  3 y  z  .
2 

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Exercise 8.3
1. T1 : 3   2 , T2 :  3   2 and T3 :  2   2 be the linear transformations defined

by T1 ( x , y , z ) = (y , x  z ) , T2 ( x , y , z ) = (2 z , x  y ) and T3 ( x, y ) = ( y, 2x ) .

Find the defining formulae, if exist , for the following linear transformations.
(i) T1 T3 (ii) T2 T3 (iii) T3 T1 (iv) T3 T2 (v) T3 T1 + T3 T2.
2. Let T1 : 3   2 be defined as T1 ( x , y , z ) = (3x , 4 y  2 z ) and T2 :  2   2 be

defined as T2 ( x , y ) = (  x , y ) . Compute T1 T2 and T2 T1.

3. Let T1 and T2 be linear operators on  2 defined by T1 ( x , y ) = (0 , x) and

T2 ( x , y ) = (y , x ) . Compute T1 + T2 , 2T2  3T1 , T2 T1 , T1 T2 , T22 , T12 .

4. Let T and S be linear operators on  3 defined by T( x , y , z ) = (x  3 y , 2 z , y  4 z ) ,

S ( x , y , z ) = (2x , 4 x  y , 2 x  3 y) . Show that ST  TS.

5. Let T : 3   3 is defined by T(x , y , z) = (0 , x , y). Show that T  O , T 2  O but T3 = O .

6. Show that each of the following operators T on  3 is invertible and find T 1

(i) T( x , y , z) = (3x , x  y , 2 x  y  z )
(ii) T( x , y , z) = ( x  3 y  2 z , y  4 z , z )
(iii) T( x , y , z) = ( x  z , x  z , y)

7. Let T : 3   3 is linear operator defined by T( x, y, z )  (0,0, x) . Show that T  O but T2 = O.

8. Give an example of two linear transformations T1 and T2 such that T1 T2 = O but T2 T1  O.
9. Let P( ) be the vector space of all real polynomials. Consider the derivative mapping D and
x
integral mapping T defined as D  f ( x)   f '( x ) and T  f ( x)    f ( x) dx . Show that TD  I but DT  I
1

10. Let T : V  V be a linear operator, then prove that

(i) N(T)  N(T 2 ) (ii) R(T 2 )  R(T)

11. Let T : V  V be a linear operator such that rank (T2) = rank (T) , where V is finite
dimensional. Prove that

(i) N(T)  N(T 2 ) (ii) R(T)  R(T 2 )

(iii) R(T)  N(T) = {0} (iv) R(T2)  N(T2) = {0}

Answers
1. (i) not defined (ii) not defined (iii) T3 T1 ( x , y , z )  ( x  z , 2 y )

(iv) T3 T2 ( x , y , z ) = (x  y , 4 z ) (v) (T3T1  T3T2 ) (x, y , z )=(2 x  y  z , 2 y  4 z )

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 239

2. (T2 T1 ) ( x , y , z ) = (  3 x , 4 y  2 z ) and T1 T2 is not defined.

3. (T1 + T2) (x , y) = (y , 2x) (2T2  3T1 ) (x , y ) = (2y ,  x ) ; T2 T1 ( x , y ) = (x , 0)

T1 T2 ( x , y )  (0 , y ) ; T22 ( x , y )  ( x , y ) T12 ( x , y )  (0 , 0) .

x x 
6. (i) T 1 ( x , y , z ) =  ,  y , z  x  y 
3 3 
(ii) T 1 ( x , y , z ) = ( x  3 y  14 z , y  4 z , z )

x y x y 
(iii) T 1 ( x , y , z ) =   ,z,  
2 2 2 2 
8. T1 ( x, y )  (0, y ), T2 ( x, y )  ( y ,0)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8.4 Coordinate vectors

Def . Coordinate Vector : If B = {u1 , u2 ,......, un } is a basis for a vector space U(F) , then a vector

u  U can be expressed as u  a1u1  a2u2  ..........  anun . The coordinate vector (a1 , a2 ,..........., an ) is

 a1 
a 
expressed as a column vector  2  is denoted by [u , B] and is called coordinate vector of u relative

 
 an 
to the basis B .
Results :
1. Let U and V be finite dimensional vector spaces and let B = {u1 , u2 ,....., un } and B = {v1 , v2 ,...., vm }

be ordered basis for U and V respectively. If T : U  V be a linear transformation , then for any
u  U , [T(u ) , B]  [T : B , B] [u , B]
Remark : If U = V and B = B , then above theorem takes the form [T(u ) , B]  [T : B][u , B] .

Example 1 : Let T : R 3  R 2 be a linear transformation defined by T( x, y , z )  (2 x  y , 2 y  x) .

Find the matrix of T relative to the ordered basis B1  {(1,1,0), (1,0,1),(0,1,1)} and B2  {(1,1),(1, 1)}

of R3 and R2 respectively. Also verify that [T : B1 ,B 2 ][u, B1 ]  [T(u ), B2 ] .

Solution : To find the matrix [T : B1,B2] , we need to find the images of vectors in B1 and express
them as a linear combination of vectors of B2. We have

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T(1,1, 0)  (3,1) 
T(1,0,1)  (2, 1)  ......(1)

T(0,1,1)  (1, 2) 

Now let ( x, y )   2 be any vector and let

( x, y )  a (1,1)  b(1, 1)
 ab  x and ab  y
x y x y
Solving a , b
2 2
x y xy
Thus , ( x, y )  (1,1)  (1, 1)
2 2
Using this for vectors in (1) , we get
T(1,1, 0)  (3,1)  2(1,1)  1(1, 1)
1 3
T(1,0,1)  (2, 1)  (1,1)  (1, 1)
2 2
3 1
T(0,1,1)  (1, 2)  (1, 1)  (1, 1)
2 2
The matrix [T : B1 , B2] is transpose of matrix of coefficients in above system , so
 1 3 
2 2 2 
[T : B1, B2] =   ......(2)
1 3 1
 
 2 2 
Verification : Let u  ( x, y , z )  R 3 be any vector and let
u  ( x, y , z )  a (1,1,0)  b(1,0,1)  c (0,1,1)
 ab  x
ac  y
bc  z
On solving we get
1 1 1
a  ( x  y  z ), b  ( x  y  z ) , c  ( y  z  x )
2 2 2
[u , B1] is column matrix of these coefficients a, b, c so

 x  y  z
1
[u , B1 ]  x  y  z  ......(3)
2 
 y  z  x 

Now , T(u )  T( x, y, z)  (2 x  y, 2 y  x)
Let T(u )  (2 x  y, 2 y  x)   (1,1)   (1, 1)

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Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 241

     2x  y
    2y  x
1 1
Solving ,   ( x  3 y ) ,   (3x  y )
2 2
[T(u ), B2 ] is the column matrix of these coefficients  and 

1 x  3y
So , [T(u ), B2 ] = ......(4)
2 3x  y 
Now ,
 1 3  x  y  z
2 2 2 . 1 x  y  z
[T : B1 , B2 ][u , B1 ] =   [By (2) and (3)]
1 3 1 2  
  y  z  x 
 2 2 

 1 3 
 2( x  y  z )  ( x  y  z )  ( y  z  x) 
1 2 2
=  
2 3 1
( x  y  z )  ( x  y  z )  ( y  z  x) 
 2 2 

1 x  3y
=  [T(u ), B2 ] [By(4)]
2 3x  y 

Thus , [T : B1 , B2 ] [u , B1 ]  [T(u ), B2 ] is verified.

Example 2 : Let T : R 3  R 2 be a linear transformation whose matrix relative to the ordered bases
1 1 2 
B = {(1,1,1),(1, 2,3),(1,0, 0)} and B = {(1,1),(1, 1)} is  .
3 1 0 
Without determining the defining formula for T , find the image of the vector (1,0, 4) under T.
Solution : We are given
1 1 2 
[T : B , B]   
3 1 0 
Let u  (1,0, 4) and let
u  (1, 0, 4)  a (1,1,1)  b(1, 2,3)  c(1,0,0)
 a  b  c  1 ; a  2b  0 ; a  3b  4
Solving , b  4 , a  8 , c =  3
[u , B] is column matrix of these coefficients , so
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a   8 
[u , B]   b    4 
   
 c   3

Now , we know the formula

8
1 1 2    6 
[T(u ), B]  [T : B , B][u , B] =    4  =  
3 1 0     20 
 3
Tu   61 1  201  1   26 14 

Exercise 8.4
1. Let T : 3   3 be a linear operator defined as T( x1 , x2 , x3 )=(2 x2  x3 , x1  4x2 , 3x1 ) .

Find the matrix of T relative to the basis {(1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 1 , 0) , (1 , 0 , 0)} and then verify that
[T , B] [u , B] = [T(u) , B] for all u   3 .
2. Let T : 3   2 be a linear transformation defined by T( x, y , z )=(2 x  y  z, 3x  2 y  4 z ) .
Find the matrix of T relative to ordered basis B1 = {(1 , 1 , 1) , (1 , 1 , 0) , (1 , 0 , 0)} of R3 and
B2 = {(1 , 3) , (1 , 4)} of  2 . Also verify that : [T : B1 , B2] [u , B1] = [T(u) , B2]
3. Let T be a linear operator on R2 whose matrix relative to the basis B={(1,1) , ( 1 , 0)} is
 3 2 
1 2  .Without finding the defining formula for T,find the image of the vector (0, 2) under T.
 

Answers
3 3 3
 3 11 5 
1.  6 6 2 
 2.   3. (4 , 2)
 6 5 1  1 8 3

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8.5 Change - of - basis

Def . Change - of - basis or Transition matrix : Let V be a vector space of dimension n and
B1  {u1 , u2 ,..........., un } and B2  {v1 , v2 ,..........., vn } be its two bases. Then each vectors in B2

can be written uniquely as a linear combination of the vectors in B1 , so let

v1  a11u1  a12u2  .........  a1nun
v2  a21u1  a22u2  .........  a2 nun

vn  an1u1  an 2u2  .........  annun
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Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 243

Let P denotes the transpose of the matrix of coefficients in above system

 a11 a21  an1 
a a22  an2 
P= 
12
i.e.
     
 
 a1n a2 n  ann 

This matrix P is called the change -of - basis matrix or transition matrix from the basis B1 to B2. Since
the vectors v1 , v2 ,..........., vn are linearly independent , the matrix P is invertible and its inverse P 1

is called change – of – basis matrix from B2 to B1.

Results :
1. Let V be a vector space of dimension n and B1  {u1 , u2 ,...., un } and B2  {v1 , v2 ,....., vn } be its two
bases. Let P be the change-of-basis matrix from B1 to B2. Then for any vector v V , we have
P[v, B2 ]  [v, B1 ] and [v, B2 ]  P 1[v, B1 ] .

Remark : The above theorem can be easily remembered, if written in words, as follows.
 Co - ordinate vector   Transition matrix  Co - ordinate vector 
   
 of u in B1   from B1 to B2  of u in B2 
and
 Co - ordinate vector   Inverse of transition  Co - ordinate vector 
   
 of v in B2   matrix from B1 to B2  of u in B1 
2. Let P be the transition matrix from the basis B1 = {ui } to the basis B2 = vi  in a vector space V.

Then for any linear operator T on V , [T , B2] = P 1 [T , B1] P.

OR
Let T : V  V be a linear operator. Then matrices of T relative to any two ordered basis of V are
always similar.
Def. Determinant of a linear operator : Let V be a finite dimensional vector space and T : V  V
be a linear operator. Then det [T] is defined to be determinant of matrix of T relative to any ordered
basis of V.
Def. Similar linear operators : Two linear operators T1 and T2 on a vector space V(F) are said to
be similar if there exists a invertible linear operator P s.t. T2 = P 1 T1 P
3. If T1 , T2 are similar linear operators on a finite dimensional vector space V(F) , then

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244 Linear Algebra
det [T1] = det [T2].
Example 1 : Let B1 denotes the standard basis of R3 and B2 = {(1, 1, 2) ,(2, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2)}
be another basis of R3. Then
(i) Find the change – of – basis matrix from B1 to B2.
(ii) Find the change – of – basis matrix from B2 to B1.
(iii) Find the co – ordinates vector of (1 , 1 , 1) relative to the basis B2 , using change – of
– basis matrix .
Solution : (i) We have B1  {(1 , 0 , 0) , (0 , 1 , 0) , (0 , 0 , 1)} and B2 = {(1, 1,2) , (2,2,1) , (1,2, 2)}.

We express the vector of B2 as the linear combination of vectors of B1. Clearly

(1 , 1 , 2)  1(1 , 0 , 0)  1(0 , 1 , 0)  2(0 , 0 , 1)
(2 , 2 , 1)  2(1 , 0 , 0)  2(0 , 1 , 0)  1(0 , 0 , 1)
(1 , 2 , 2)  1(1 , 0 , 0)  2(0 , 1 , 0)  2(0 , 0 , 1)

Change – of – basis matrix P from B1 to B2 is the transpose of the matrix of coefficients in above

1 2 1
system i.e. P =  1 2 2 
 2 1 2 

(ii) Change – of – basis matrix from B2 to B1 is just P 1 so let us find it.

P  243 3

 2 2 3  2 3 2 
adj P =  3 0 3    2 0 1
   
 2 1 0   3 3 0 

 2 3 2 
adj P 1 
So , 1
P   2 0 1
P 3 
 3 3 0 
which is the required change – of – basis matrix from B2 to B1.
(iii) Let u  (1 , 1 , 1) then clearly
u  (1 , 1 , 1)  1(1 , 0 , 0)  1(0 , 1 , 0)  1(0 , 0 , 1)

1
i.e. coordinate vector of u in the basis B1 is [u , B1] = 1
1

To find [u , B2] we know that

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Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 245

 2 3 2  1 1  1 3
1    1 
1
[u , B2 ]  P [u , B1 ] = 2 0 1 1 = 1 = 1 3
3   3 
 3 3 0  1 0   0 

Exercise 8.5
3
1. Let B1 denotes the standard basis of R and B2 = {(1 , 0 , 1) , (2 , 1 , 2) , (1 , 2 , 2)}
be another basis of  3 . Then
(i) Find the change-of-basis matrix from B1 to B2
(ii) Find the change-of-basis matrix from B2 to B1
(iii)Find the coordinate vector of (1, 0, 3) relative to the basis B2 , using change of basis matrix.
2. Let B1 = {(1 ,  2) , (3 ,  4)} and B2 = {(1 , 3) , (3 , 8)} be two bases of R2. Then
(i) Find the change-of-basis matrix P from B1 to B2.
(ii) Find the change-of-basis matrix Q from B2 to B1
(iii) Find the coordinate vector [v , B1] of v  ( x , y ) relative to B1
(iv) Find the coordinate vector [v , B2] of v  ( x , y ) by using change-of-basis matrix.
(v) Directly find the coordinate vector [v , B2] of v  ( x , y ) .
(vi) Compare the answers of (iv) and (v). Are they equal ?
3. Let T :  2   2 be a linear operator defined by T(x, y )=(5 x  y,3x  2 y ) and let B1 = {(1,2),(2,3)}
and B2 = {(1 , 3) , (1 , 4)} be two ordered basis of T
(i) Find the matrix of T relative to basis B1.
(ii) Find the change – of – basis matrix from B1 to B2.
(iii) Find the matrix of T relative to basis B2 , using part (i) and (ii).
(iv) Directly find the matrix of T relative to the basis B2.
(v) Compare the answers of part (iii) and part (iv). Are they same ?
1 1  1 2 
4. Let A    and P   .
 2 3 3 5 
(i) Find B  P 1 AP (ii) Verify that tr  B   tr  A  (iii) Verify that det  B   det  A  .

5. Find the trace and determinant of each of the following linear maps on  3 :
(i) F  x, y , z    x  3 y, 3 x  2 z , x  4 y  3 z 

(ii) G  x, y, z    y  3z , 2 x  4 z , 5 x  7 y 

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6. Suppose S  u1 , u2  is a basis of V and T : V  V is defined by T  u1   3u1  2u2 and

T  u2   u1  4u2 . Suppose S '  w1 , w2  is a basis of V for which w1  u1  u2 and

w2  2u1  3u2 .

(i) Find the matrices A and B representing T relative to the bases S and S ' respectively.
(ii) Find the matrix P such that B  P 1 AP .

Answers
1 2 1  2 2 3  7
1. (i)  0 1 2 (ii)  2 1 2  (iii)  4 
 1 2 2  1 0 1   2 

 13   3 
  2 18  14 36   2 x  2 y 
2. (i) P =   (ii) Q =  (iii)  
 5  5 13   x y 
7 
 2   2 

 8 x  3 y   8 x  3 y 
(iv)   (v)   (vi) yes.
 3x  y   3x  y 
 23 39  3 5  35 41 
3. (i)  (ii)  (iii) 
 15 26  
 1 2 

 27 32 
 35 41 
(iv)   (v) yes.
 27 32 
4. (i) [–34, 57; –19, 32] (ii) tr(B)=tr(A)= –2 (iii) det  B   det  A   5

5. (i) tr  F   2, det  F   13 (ii) tr(G) = 0, det  G   22

6. (i) A  [3, 1; –2, 4], B  [8, 11; –2, –1] (ii) P  [1, 2; 1,3]

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 247

True false exercise  3

The image of the vector   by the
 2
1. The kernel of the linear map
8
T  x   2 x1  3x2 consists of all scalar transformation T is  
5
multiples of the vector (3,2). (T maps  2
into  .) 8. Define a linear transformation L from  2
1 2 
x 
2. A linear transformation is one to one (or to  by L  x    1 1  1 
3
x
injective) if and only if its kernel is  2 0   2 
different from {0}.
The range of L can be described as the set
3. Let T be the transformation defined by  a  2b 
 1 3 of vectors having the form  a  b 
T  x   Ax, where A   2 2   2a 
 
 1 4  (Here a and b are free parameters.)
1
The image of the vector w    under the 9. If L is a linear transformation from  n into
3
 m , then the range of L is  m .
10 
transformation T is  8  10. A linear transformation is onto (or
11 surjective)if and only if its kernel is 0 .

1 3 7  11. If the rows of a matrix form a linearly

independent set, then the kernel (or null
4. Let T  x   Ax , where A  0 5 9 
space) of that matrix consists of 0 only.
0 0 23
The 0-vector in 3 is the image of one and 12. If the columns of a matrix form a linearly
independent set, then the kernel (or null
only one vector in 3 . space) of that matrix consists of 0 only.
5. If a linear transformation x  Ax is 13. If L :U  V is a linear transformation
injective, then the kernel of A (null space of
defined on a vector space U and taking
A) contains some nonzero vectors.
values in a vector space V, then the set of
6. The kernel of a linear map is never the all images L  x  : x  U  is a subspace
empty set. of V.

7. Define a transformation T by the equation 14. If T is a linear transformation from one

2 1  vector space V into another vector space W,
x  then the range of T is a subspace of V.
T  x    3 2   1 
  x
 1 4   2 
15. Every subspace in  n is the kernel of
some matrix.

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248 Linear Algebra
T Assignment
16. The vector 1, 3, 2, 1 is in the null
1 2 1 9  ------------------------ S C Q ------------------------
space of the matrix  .
 4 3 1 16 
1. Let T : 3   3 be defined by
2 T ( x, y, z )  ( x, y ,0) and S :  2   2 be
17. The point  3  is in the null space of the defined by S ( x, y )  (2 x,3 y ) be linear
 1 transformations on the real vector spaces
 3 and  2 respectively. Then, which of
1 2 8  the following is correct?
matrix  3 4 18 . 1. T and S are both singular.
 0 1 3  2. T and S are both non-singular.
3. T is singular and S is non-singular.
18. The rank of a matrix A is the dimension of 4. S is singular and T is non-singular.
the null space of A.
2. Consider the vector space C over  and let
19. If a matrix A has m rows, then the rank of A T : C  C be a linear transformation given
is m minus the dimension of the null space by T ( z )  z . Then which one of the
of A. following is correct?
1. T is one-one, but not onto.
20. The null space of a matrix A is the range of 2. T is onto, but not one-one.
the linear transformation x  Ax . 3. T is one-one as well as onto.
4. T is neither one-one nor onto.
21. The vector (3, 7, –2) is in the null space of
the matrix  3,  1,1 . 3. Let T be a linear transformation from a 3
dimensional vector space V into a
2-dimensional vector space W . Then, T
1 3 5 3 1. can be both injective and surjective
22. Let A    . A basis for the
 2 1 3 1  2. can neither injective nor surjective
null space of A is this set of vectors : 3. can be surjective but cannot be injective
  2   0  4. can be injective but cannot be surjective
    
  1  1   4. The transformation
 , 
  1   0  ( x, y , z )  ( x  y, y  z ) :  3   2 is
 0  1   1. linear and has zero kernel
2. linear and has proper subspace as kernel
23. There exists a linear transformation whose 3. neither linear nor one-one
kernel (null space) has dimension seven, 4. neither linear nor onto
whose range has dimension nine, and
whose domain has dimension sixteen. 5. Let T :  n   m be a linear transformation
and let A be the standard matrix for T ,
24. If the kernel of an m  n matrix A contains then select the correct statement
only the vector 0, then the rank of A is m. (I) T maps  n onto  m if and only if the
columns of A span  m .
 x1  (II) T is one-one iff the columns of A are
1 3 0  
25. Define T  x      x2  linearly dependent.
2 1 4   (III) T is one-one iff the equation
 x3  T ( x)  0 has only the trivial solution.
10  1. Only(I) and (II)
Then   is in the range of T.
13 2. Only (I) and (III)
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 249

3. Only (II) and (III) 3. T is one-one 4. None of these

4. (I), (II) and (III)
11. Let T : V  V be a non-singular linear
6. Let T1 and T2 be two linear operators on  3
transformation, then
defined by T1 ( x, y, z )  ( x, x  y , x  y  z ), 1. dimV  dim(Im T )
2. dimV  dim(Im T )
T2 ( x, y , z )  ( x  2 z , y  z , x  y  z ) . Then,
3. dimV  dim(Im T )
1. T1 is invertible but not T2
4. None of these
2. T2 is invertible but not T1
3. both T1 and T2 are invertible 12. Let T : V  U be the linear transformation
4. neither T1 nor T2 is invertible such that maps independent sets into
independent sets, then
(GATE 2005) 1. T is singular 2. T is non-singular
3. det T  0 4. None of these
7. Let T :  n   m be a linear transformation
and Amn be its matrix representation. Then, 13. Let V ,W and X be three finite dimensional
choose the incorrect statement vector spaces such that dim V  dim X .
1. columns of A are LI  T is onto Suppose, S : V  W and T : W  X are
2. columns of A span R m  T is onto two linear maps such that T  S : V  X is
3. columns of A are LI  T is one-one injective, then
4. T is one-one  columns of A are LI 1. S and T are surjective
2. S is surjective and T is injective
8. If T is a linear transformation from a vector 3. S and T are injective
space V into a vector space W , then the 4. S is injective and T is surjective
condition for T 1 to be a linear (GATE 2005)
transformation from W to V is
1. T should be one-one 14. Let the linear transformations S and
2. T should not onto T : 3   3 be defined by
3. T should be one-one and onto S ( x, y, z )  (2 x, 4 x  y , 2 x  3 y  z )
4. None of the above T ( x, y, z )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin   y cos  , z )
9. Let T : V  V be the linear transformation 
where 0    , then
and V is the vector space of all 2
polynomials such as T [ f (t )]  tf (t ), where 1. S is one to one but not T .
f (t ) is a polynomial. Then, 2. T is one to one but not S .
3. both S and T are one to one.
1. T is singular
4. neither S nor T is one to one.
2. T is non-singular
(GATE 2006)
3. T is onto
4. None of these
15. Let T be a linear transformation such that
T (1,1)  (1,0) and T (5,5)  (0,1). Then,
10. Let T : V  V be the linear transformation
and V is the vector space of all 1. T is one-one
2. T is isomorphism and rank of T =2
dn f
polynomials such as T [ f (t )]  n (where 3. T is not one-one and rank of T is 1
dt 4. Not a linear transformation
n  0 ), then
1. T is singular 2. T is non-singular
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250 Linear Algebra

16. Let T and S be two linear transformation T ( x, y, z, u )  ( x, y,0,0) .

Then, which one of
such that the following is correct?
1. Rankof T  Nullity of T
1 0 0 .... 0  2. Nullity of T  Rank of T
0 2 0 .... 0  3. Rank of T  Nullity of T  3
  4. Rank of T  Nullity of T  2
 
T   0 0 3 .... 0  and
 
      21. Let V be the vector space of all 2  2 matrix
0 0 0  n  over the field R of real numbers
nn

0 0 0 .... 0  1 2 
and B    . If T : V  V is a linear
0 1 0 .... 0  0 3 
  transformation defined by
 S   0 0 2 .... 0  T ( A)  AB  BA, then what is the
 
      dimension of the kernel of T ?
0 0 0 .... n  1 1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
nn
Then
1. T and S both are invertible 22. What is the rank of the linear
2. T and S both are not invertible transformation T : 3   3 defined by
3. T is invertible but S is not invertible T ( x, y, z )  ( y ,0, z) ?
4. S is invertible but T is not invertible 1. 3 2. 2 3. 1 4. 0

17. Let T :  n   n and T (v)  0 for some 23. Let T : 3   3 be a linear transformation
v  0, v   n , then there exist a matrix A of given by T ( x, y , z )  ( x, y, 0). Then the
order n such that null space is generated by which one of the
1. Tx  Ax and A is non-singular following?
2. Tx  Ax and A is singular 1. (0,0,1) 2. (0,1,0)
3. ker (T )  {0} 3. (1,0,0) 4. None of these
4. None of the above
24. Let T : 3   3 be a linear transformation
18. Let A :    and B :    be two
6 5 5 7
x y 
linear transformations. Then, which of the given by T ( x, y, z )   , ,0  . What is
2 2 
following can be true? the rank of T ?
1. A and B are one-one 1. 4 2. 3 3. 2 4. 1
2. A is one-one and B is not one-one
3. A is onto and B is one-one
25. Let T :  2   2 be a map defined by
4. A and B both are onto
T ( x, y )  ( x  y, x  y ) .Which of the
19. Consider the linear following statement is correct?
map D : C (  ) (a, b), where 1. T is linear an its kernel has infinite
number of element of  2 .
C ( ) (a, b), is the set of all real-valued 2. T is not linear.
continuously differential functions, defined 3. The kernel of T consists of only two
by D ( f )  f , then element of  2 .
1. D is one-one and onto 4. Nullity of T is zero.
2. D is one-one but not onto
3. D is onto but not one-one 26. Define T on  4 into  3 by
4. D is neither one-one nor onto T ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )  ( x1  x2  x3 ,
20. Consider, the linear transformation x2  x3  x4 , x3  x4  x2 )
T :  4   4 is given by Then, rank of T is equal to
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 251

1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4 33. Let T :  7   7 be a linear transformation

such that T 2  0. Then, the rank of T is
27. Consider the following linear 1.  3 2.  3
transformation from the vector space 3.  5 4.  6
 2 into the vector space  3
T ( x, y )  ( x  y,3x  8 y,9 x  11 y ) 34. Let a matrix Amn represents a linear
Then, the rank and nullity of T are
mapping T : Vn  Vm . Then range of T is
respectively
1. 2 and 0 2. 1 and 0 generated by
3. 1 and 1 4. None of these 1. Rows of A
2. Columns of A
28. Let V be a vector space of 2  2 matrices 3. Both 1 and 2
over  . Let T be the linear mapping 4. None of these
T : V  V , such that
35. For a linear transformation T : 12   6 ,
 2 1
T ( A)  AB  BA, B    , then the the kernel is having dimension 7. Then the
 0 3 dimension of the range of T is
nullity of T is 1. 5 2. 6 3. 4 4. 2
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
36. Let T be a linear transformation from a
29. For a linear transformation T : 10   6 , vector space U(F) into a vector space
the kernel is having dimension 5. Then, the V ( F ) with U as finite dimensional. The
dimension of the range of T is rank of T is the dimension of the
1. 5 2. 6 3. 4 4. 2 1. range of T
2. null space of T
30. If T : V2 ( )  V3 () defined as 3. vector space U
T (a, b)  (a  b, a  b, b) is a linear 4. vector space V
transformation, then nullity of T is
1. 0 2. 1 37. Let T : 3   3 be the linear
3. 2 4. None of these transformation which rotates a vector space
about the z-axis through an angle  ,
1 2  T ( x, y , z )  ( x cos   y sin  , x sin 
31. Let M    and T : V  V be the  y cos , z ). Then, the kernel of T is
0 0
1. {0} 2. {( x,0,0) : x  }
linear map defined by T ( A)  AM where
3. {(0, y ,0) : y  R} 4. {(0, 0, z ) : z  }
V be the vector space of all 2  2 real
matrices. Then, rank and nullity of T
respectively 38. Let T : 3   3 be the linear
1. 1,3 2. 3,1 transformation defined by
3. 2,2 4. 4,0 T ( x, y, z )  ( x  2 y  z , y  z , x  2 z ). Then, the
dimension of the image U of T is
1. 0 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3
32. T is non-singular iff 39. Let T :    be the linear
3 3

1. nullity T  0 2. nullity (T )  0 transformation defined by

3. nullity T = rank T 4. rank T = 0 T ( x, y, z )  ( x  2 y  z , y  z , x  2 z ) . Then, the
dimension of the kernel of T is
1. 0 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3
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252 Linear Algebra
40. Choose the correct matching from a, b, c n2
and d for the transformation T1 ,T2 and 1. 2n 2.
2
T3 (mappings from  2 to  3 ) as defined in n(n  1) n(n  1)
3. 4.
group I with the statements given in group 2 2
II.
45. Let T be an arbitrary linear transformation
Group I Group II from  n to  n which is not one-one.
P. T1 ( x, y )  ( x, x, 0) 1. L.T. of Then,
Q. T2 ( x, y )  ( x, x  y , y ) rank 2 1. rank T  0 2. rank T  n
2. Not a L.T. 3. rank T  n 4. rank
R. T3 ( x, y )  ( x, x  1, y ) 3. L.T. rank T  n 1
1 (GATE 2003)

1. P  3, Q  1, R  2 46. If T :  4   3 be the linear transformation

2. P  1, Q  2, R3 defined by T ( x, y , z, w) 
3. P  3, Q  2, R1 ( x  y  z  w, x  2 z  w, x  y  3 z  3w)
4. P  1, Q  3, R2 then, the dimension of its range is
(GATE 2003) 1. 3 2. 2 3. 1 4. 0
41. Let V be the real vector space of all 2  2 47. Let V be the l2 space of infinite sequences
 1 2 
real matrices. For Q    , define a v  (a1 , a2 ,...) of real number ai such that
 2 4  2
linear transformation T on V as a i is convergent, if T be a map defined
T ( P)  QP . Then the rank of T is as T (a1 , a2 ,...)  (0, a1 , a2 ,...). Then, select
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4 the correct statement/statements.
(GATE 2004) I. T is linear
II. T is one-one
42. Let T : 3   3 be the linear III. T is onto
transformation defined by 1. (I) and (II) only
T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  ( x1  3 x2  2 x3 , 2. (I) and (III) only
3. Only (I)
3 x1  4 x2  x3 , 2 x1  x2  x3 ) . 4. (I), (II) and (III)
The dimension of the null space of T 2 is
1. 0 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3 48. Let the linear transformation T : F 2  F 3
(GATE 2009) be defined by T  x1 , x2    x1 , x1  x2 , x2  .
Then, the nullity of T is
43. Let V be the space of all n  n matrices
1. 0 2. 1
and T : V  V be a linear operator defined
3. 2 4. 3
A  AT (GATE 2012)
by T ( A)  , then nullity of T is
2
n2 49. Let T : 3   3 be the linear
1. 2n 2.
2 transformation defined by
n(n  1) n(n  1) T  x1 , x2 , x3   ( x1  3 x2  2 x3 ,
3. 4.
2 2 3 x1  4 x2  x3 , 2 x1  x2  x3 ) .
44. Let V be the space of all n  n matrices and
The dimension of the null space of T 3 is
T : V  V be a linear operator defined by
1. 0 2. 1
A  AT 3. 2 4. 3
T ( A)  , then nullity of T is
2 (GATE 2009)

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 253

50. Let T :  4   4 be the linear map 3. Rank(T)+Nullity(T)=n

satisfying T  e1   e2 , T  e2   e3 , T  e3   0, 4. Rank(T)–Nullity(T)=n
(CSIR NET June 2013)
T  e4   e3 , where e1 , e2 , e3 , e4  is the
standard basis of  4 . Then, 55. Given a 4  4 real matrix A, let T :  4   4
1. T is idempotent 2. T is invertible be the linear transformation defined by
3. Rank T = 3 4. T is nilpotent Tv  Av , where we think of  4 as the set
(GATE 2008) of real 4  1 matrices. For which choices of
A given below, do Image(T) and
51. For any n  , let n  , Pn denotes the
Image(T 2 ) have respective dimensions 2
vector space of all polynomials with real and 1 ? (* denotes a nonzero entry)
coefficients and of degree atmost n. Define
0 0 * *
T : Pn  Pn1 by 0 0 * *
x
1. A   
T  p  x   p  x    p (t ) dt . Then, the 0 0 0 *
0  
dimension of the null space of T is 0 0 0 0
1. 0 2. 1 0 0 * 0
3. n 4. n+1 0 0 * 0
(GATE 2008) 2. A   
0 0 0 *
 
52. Let n be a positive integer and let M n    0 0 0 *
denote the space of all n  n real matrices. 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
If T : M n     M n    is a linear 3. A   
0 0 0 *
transformation such that T  A   0  
0 0 * 0
whenever A  M n    is symmetric or
0 0 0 0
skewsymmetric, then the rank of T is 0 0 0 0
n  n  1 n  n  1 4. A   
1. 2. 0 0 * *
2 2  
3. n 4. 0 0 0 * *
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) (CSIR NET June 2015)
53. Let S :    and T :  4   3 be linear
3 4

transformations such that T  S is the 56. Let T be a 4  4 real matrix such that
identity map of  3 . Then T 4  0 . Let ki :  dim KerT i for 1  i  4 .
1. S  T is the identity map of  4 Which of the following is NOT a
2. S  T is oneone, but not onto possibility for the sequence
3. S  T is onto, but not oneone k1  k2  k3  k4 ?
4. S  T is neither oneone nor onto 1. 3  4  4  4
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) 2. 1  3  4  4
54. Let T :    be a linear transformation.
n n 3. 2  4  4  4
4. 2  3  4  4
Which of the following statements implies
that T is bijective ? (CSIR NET June 2015)
1. Nullity (T)=n
2. Rank(T)=Nullity (T)=n
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254 Linear Algebra
57. Let V be the space of twice differentiable 3. Let V be the vector space of polynomials
functions on  satisfying over  of degree less than or equal to n.
f   2 f   f  0 . Define T :V   2 by
For p  x   a0  a1 x  ....  an x n in V, define
T  f   ( f (0), f (0)) .
a linear transformation T : V  V by
Then T is n
1. one to one and onto. Tp  x   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  ....   1
an x n .
2. one to one but not onto. Then which of the following are correct ?
3. onto but not one to one. 1. T is one to one 2. T is onto
4. neither one to one nor onto. 3. T is invertible 4. det T  0
(CSIR NET June 2015) (CSIR NET June 2014)

58. For a positive integer n, let Pn denote the 4. Let M n  K  denote the space of all n  n
vector space of polynomials in one variable matrices with entries in a field K. Fix a non
x with real coefficients and with degree
singular matrix A   Aij   M n  K  , and
 n . Consider the map T : P2  P4 defined
consider the linear map
by T  p  x    p  x 2  . Then T : M n  K   M n  K  given by T(X)=AX.
1. T is a linear transformation and dim Then
range(T)=5 n
2. T is a linear transformation and dim 1. trace(T)= n i 1 Aii
range  T   3 n
2. trace(T)=  i1  j 1 Aij
n

3. T is a linear transformation and dim

3. rank of T is n2
range  T   2 4. T is non singular
4. T is not a linear transformation (CSIR NET Dec 2014)
(CSIR NET Dec 2015)
5. Consider non-zero vector spaces
----------------------- M C Q --------------------- V1 ,V2 ,V3 ,V4 and linear transformations
1 :V1  V2 , 2 :V2  V3 , 3 :V3  V4 such
1. Let T1 and T2 be two linear operators on  2
that Ker 1   0 , Range 1   Ker 2  ,
s.t T1 ( x, y )  (0, x) and T2 ( x, y )  ( y,0),
then Range 2   Ker 3  , Range 3   V4 .
1. T22  T12  0 2 Then
2. (TT 1 2 )  T1T2
4
i
3. T1  T2 is invertible 4. (TT 1 2)  0 1.   1 dimV  0
i 1
i

4
2. Let n be a positive integer and V be an i
2.   1 dimV  0 i
(n+1)  dimensional vector space over . i2
4
i
If e1 , e2 ,...., en1 is a basis of V and 3.   1 dimV  0 i
i 1
T : V  V is the linear transformation 4
i
satisfying T  ei   ei 1 for i 1, 2,...., n and 4.   1 dimV  0 i
i 1
T  en1   0 . Then
(CSIR NET June 2015)
1. trace of T is nonzero
2. rank of T is n 6. Let V be the vector space of polynomials
3. nullity of T is 1 over  of degree less than or equal to n.
4. T n  T  T   T (n times) is the zero For p  x   a0  a1 x  ....  an x n in V, define
map a linear transformation T :V  V by
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
Tp  x   an  an1x  ....  a0 x n . Then
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 8 Linear transformations (continued) 255

1. T is one to one 2. T is onto 10. Let L   n  be the space of  -linear maps

3. T is invertible 4. det T  1
(CSIR NET Dec 2015) from  n to  n . If Ker  T  denotes the

7. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space kernel (null space) of T then which of the
over  . Let T :V  V be a linear
following are true ?
transformation such that
rank  T 2   rank  T  . Then 1. There exists T  L  5  \ 0 such that

1. Kernel T 2   Kernel(T) Range T   Ker  T 

2. Range T 2   Range(T)
2. There does not exist T  L  5  \ 0
3. Kernel (T)  Range(T)={0}
4. Kernel T 2   Range T 2   0 such that Range T   Ker  T 
(CSIR NET Dec 2015)
3. There exists T  L   6  \ 0 such that
8. Let V be the vector space of all complex
polynomials p with deg p  n . Let Range T   Ker  T 
T :V  V be the map
4. There does not exist T  L   6  \ 0
Tp  x   p ' 1 , x   . Which of the
following are correct ? such that Range T   Ker  T 
1. dim Ker T  n
2. dim range T  1 (CSIR NET June 2019)
3. dim KerT  1 11. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space
4. dim range T  n  1
over  and T : V  V be a linear map.
(CSIR NET June 2016)
Can you always write T  T2  T1 for some
9. Let V be the vector space over  of all
polynomials in a variable X of degree at linear maps T1 : V  W , T2 : W  V ,
most 3. Let D : V  V be the linear
where W is some finite dimensional vector
operator given by differentiation with
respect to X. Let A be the matrix of D with space and such that
respect to some basis for V. Which of the
1. both T1 and T2 are onto
following are true ?
1. A is a nilpotent matrix 2. both T1 and T2 are one to one
2. A is a diagonalizable matrix
3. the rank of A is 2 3. T1 is onto, T2 is one to one
4. the Jordan canonical form of A is
0 1 0 0 4. T1 is one to one, T2 is onto
0 0 1 0
  (CSIR NET June 2019)
0 0 0 1
 
0 0 0 0
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)

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256 Linear Algebra

True false key

1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T
5. F 6. T 7. F 8. T
9. F 10. F 11. F 12. T
13. T 14. F 15. T 16. F
17. T 18. F 19. F 20. F
21. T 22. T 23. T 24. F
25. T

Assignment key
SCQ
1. 3 2. 3 3. 3 4. 2
5. 2 6. 1 7. 1 8. 3
9. 2 10. 1 11. 1 12. 2
13. 4 14. 3 15. 4 16. 3
17. 2 18. 3 19. 3 20. 4
21. 2 22. 2 23. 1 24. 3
25. 4 26. 2 27. 1 28. 2
29. 1 30. 1 31. 3 32. 2
33. 1 34. 2 35. 1 36. 1
37. 1 38. 4 39. 1 40. 1
41. 2 42. 2 43. 3 44. 4
45. 3 46. 2 47. 1 48. 1
49. 2 50. 4 51. 1 52. 4
53. 4 54. 4 55. 1,2 56. 2
57. 1 58. 2

MCQ
1. 1,2,3,4 2. 2,3 3. 1,2,3
4. 1,3,4 5. 1,2 6. 1,2,3,4
7. 1,2,3,4 8. 1,2 9. 1,4
10. 2,3 11. 3,4

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Chapter 9
Eigen values and eigen
vectors
We will either find a way or make one.
– Hannibal

9.1 Definition and examples

Def. Eigen values and eigen vectors of a linear operator : Let T be a linear operator on a vector
space V(F). If there exists a non zero vector v  V such that T  v    v for some   F , then v is called

an eigen vector of T corresponding to  and  is called an eigen value of T corresponding to v .

Remark : Eigen vector is also called characteristic vector and eigen value is also called characteristic
value (root).
Def. Eigen values and eigen vectors of a matrix : Let A be a square matrix of order n over a field F.
If there exists a non – zero column vector X  F n such that AX =  X for some   F , then X is
called an eigen vector of A corresponding to  and  is called an eigen value of A corresponding
to X .
 1 3 3 
Example 1 : Let A   3 5 3  , which of the following vectors are eigen vectors of A.
 6 6 4 

1 1  2
(i) v1   1  (ii) v2  1  (iii) v3  1 
 0   2  1 
258 Linear Algebra

 1 3 3  1   2  1 
Solution : (i) Av1   3 5 3  1    2   2 1   2v1
     
 6 6 4   0   0   0

 v1 is an eigen vector of A with eigen value –2.

1 3 3   1   4  1
(ii) Av2   3 5 3   1    4   4  1   4v2
     
6 6 4   2  8   2

 v2 is an eigen vector of A with eigen value 4.

1 3 3   2   2 
(iii) Av3   3 5 3  1    4    v3 for any    .
6 6 4  1  10 

 v3 is not an eigen vector of A.

Exercise 9.1
 2 1 2 
1. Let A   2 3 4  , which of the following vectors are eigen vectors of A.
 1 1 1

1 2 1 
(i) v1   1 (ii) v2   0  (iii) v3   2  (iv) v1  v2 (v) v2  v3 (vi) v1  v3
 0  1  1 

2. True or false : Sum of two eigen vectors of a matrix is again an eigen vector.
3. Let T :  3  3 be a linear operator defined by T ( x, y , z )  (3x  y  z, 7 x  5 y  z, 6 x  6 y  2 z )
then which of the following vectors are eigen vectors of T ?
(i) v1  (1,1, 0) (ii) v2  (0, 4, 4) (iii) v3  (1, 0, 2)

(iv) v1  v2 (v) v2  v3 (vi) v1  v3

 1 1
4. Let A    , then which of the following vectors are eigen vectors of A
 2 1
 1   1  1  0  1
(i) v1    (ii) v2    (iii) v3    (iv) v4    (v) v5   
1  i  1  i  0  1  1

1   i  1 1 0 
5. Show that  0  and  1  i  are eigen vectors of the matrix
   0 1 1  but their sum is
 
 0   2   0 2 1

not an eigen vector.

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 259

6. If A and B are similar matrices such that B = P 1AP and if X is an eigen vector of A
corresponding to eigen value  , then prove that P 1 X is an eigen vector of B
corresponding to eigen value  .
 a 1 0   0
 1 a 1   0
 
7. If A is a n  n matrix given by A =  0 1 a   0  i.e. A is a matrix in
 
    a 1 
 0 0 0  1 a 

which diagonal elements are a and entries above and below the diagonal are 1 and zero ; elsewhere
 ij 
then show that the column matrices Xi (i  1 , 2 ,........., n) with j th entry sin  
 n 1
are eigen vectors of A. Also find the corresponding eigen values of A.
C D C D
[Hint : Use the formulae sin 2 A  2sin A cos A and sin C  sin D  2sin   cos  ]
 2   2 

Answers
1. (i) , (ii), (iii), (iv) 2. False 3. (i), (ii) 4. (i), (ii)
 i 
7. a  2cos   are the eigen values.
 n 1 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.2 Evaluation of eigen values and eigen vectors

Part I
Result 1 : Let T : V(F)  V(F) be a linear transformation, then   F is an eigen value of T iff
T   I is singular.
Result 2 : Let A be a n  n matrix over a field F. Then   F is eigen value of A iff A   I is
singular i.e A   I  0 .

Def. Characteristic polynomial : Let A be a n  n matrix over a field F. The function f ( ) = A   I

is a polynomial in  of degree n. This polynomial is called characteristic polynomial of A.

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260 Linear Algebra

Def. Characteristic equation : Characteristic equation of a matrix A is given by A   I  0 or

 I  A  0 . The degree of characteristic equation is equal to the order of the matrix.

Result 3 : Roots of characteristic equation of a matrix are the eigen values of that matrix.
Result 4 : Let T be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space V(F). If A is the matrix of
T with respect to any ordered basis B , then a scalar   F is an eigen value of T iff  is an eigen
value of A .
Result 5 : Let T be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space V(F). If A is the matrix of
T with respect to some ordered basis B of V , then a vector v  V is an eigen vector of T
corresponding to the eigen value  iff its coordinate vector X relative to the basis B is an eigen
vector of A corresponding to its eigen value  .
Result 6 : We know that the coordinate vector of a vector in the standard basis is equal to itself . So
by above result we can say that if we are working in the standard basis then a vector is eigen vector
of T if and only if it is eigen vector of A , where A is the matrix of T relative to the standard basis .
Result 7 : It is clear that, to find the eigen values and eigen vectors of a linear operator T we just have
to find out the eigen values and eigen vectors of matrix of T relative to standard basis .

Part II
Result 1 : Corresponding to a characteristic vector of a linear operator , there exists one and only one
characteristic value.
Result 2 : Corresponding to a characteristic root of a linear operator there exists more than one
characteristic vectors. In fact every non zero scalar multiple of a characteristic vector is also a
characteristic vector.
Remark : All eigen vectors together with zero vector form a subspace of V called eigen space. Let us
define it formally.
Def. Eigen Space : Let  be an eigen value of a linear operator T then the eigen space with respect to
 is denoted by E and is given by E  v : T(v)   v .
Result 3 : Let T be a linear operator on V(F). If  is an eigen value of T, then the eigen space of 
i.e. E  is a subspace of V(F).

Def. Algebraic multiplicity of an eigen value is the number of times it appears as the root of the
characteristic equation.
Def. Geometric multiplicity of an eigen value is defined to be the dimension of its eigen space.
Result 4 : 1  G.M.  A.M. for each eigen value.
Remark : (i) If A.M. of an eigen value is 1, then clearly its G.M. is also 1.
(ii) If A.M. is 2, then G.M. is 1 or 2
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 261

(iii) If A.M. is 3, then G.M. = 1 or 2 or 3

Result 5 :
(i) For a 2  2 matrix A, the characteristic equation is  2   trA    det A  0 .

(ii) For a 3  3 matrix A, characteristic equation is  3   tr A   2   A11  A22  A33    det A  0 ,

where Aii denotes the co-factor of aii .

(iii) For a n  n matrix A, characteristic equation is  n  S1 n1  S 2 n2  ......  (1)n S n  0 ,

where S k is the sum of the principal minors of order k.

Result 6 : Let A be any square matrix of order n such that   A   r , then at least n  r eigen values

are zero.
Result 7 : Let T be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space V(F). Let
1 , 2 ,......., n be distinct eigen values of T and v1 , v2 ,......., vn be their corresponding eigen

vectors, then v1 , v2 ,......., vn are linearly independent.

OR
On a finite dimensional vector space , the characteristic vectors corresponding to distinct characteristic
values are always linearly independent.
Result 8 : Let  be an eigenvalue of a n  n matrix A then
G.M. of   dim E  dim v : Av   v  dim v :  A   I  v  0  dim  N  A   I   n  rank  A   I 

Result 9 : Every non-zero vector of  n is an eigen vector of a n  n matrix A iff matrix is scalar i.e.,
A  kI for some k   .
Result 10 : Rational root theorem : Let f  x   an x n  an1x n1  .....  a0    x  and an  0 . If p and

 p
q are co-prime integers such that f    0 then p | a0 and q | an .
q
Result 11 : Let f  x   x n  an1x n1  .....  a0    x  and p and q are co-prime integers such that

 p
f    0 then q  1 i.e., roots of f  x  cannot belong to    . In other words every rational root
q
of f  x  is an integer.

Result 12 : Let A be a square matrix with integer entries then the eigen values of A cannot belong to
   . In other words every rational eigen value of a matrix with integer entries is an integer.

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262 Linear Algebra
Example 1 : Find all the eigen values and a basis of each eigen space of the linear operator
T : R 2  R 2 defined by T(x , y ) = (x  2 y , 3x  2 y ) .
Solution : First of all , let us find matrix representation of T relative to the standard basis
B = {(1 , 0 ) , (0 , 1) } of R2. We know that the matrix of T in the standard basis can be obtained by
just writing in order the coefficients of x , y on the R.H.S. of T (x , y) in the rows . So the matrix A
of T in the standard basis is
1 2 
A =  
3 2 
The characteristic equation of A is given by
1  2
A  I  =0
3 2
 (1   )(2   )  6  0

  2  3  4  0
 (  1)(  4)  0
  =  1 , 4.
Thus  1 and 4 are eigen values of T.
Let us now find the eigen vectors corresponding to these eigen values .
If X is the eigen vector corresponding to eigen value  , then by definition , we have
AX =  X
 (A   I) X = O

1   2   x  0
  3  ......(1)
 2     y   0 
When  =  1 , then by (1) , we get
 2 2  x  0 
 3 3  y   0 
     
 2 x  2 y  0 , 3x  3 y  0
 x  y  0 , where one variable out of x and y is free.

 1
Taking y =  1 , we get x = 1 and so X1 =   is a eigen vector corresponding to  =  1.
 1
When  = 4 , then by (1) , we get
 3 2   x  0 
 3 2   y    0 
     
 3x  2 y  0 , 3x  2 y  0

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Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 263

 3 x  2 y , where one variable out of x and y is free.

 2
Taking y = 3 , we get x = 2 and so X2 =   is a eigen vector corresponding  = 4.
3 

Exercise 9.2
1. For each of the following matrices find all eigen values (real or complex), construct their
A.M.- G.M. table and find a basis for each eigen space.
1 2   2 4 3 13
(i) 3 2  (ii)  1 6  (iii) 1 3 
     

 8 6 2   1 3 3 
 1 1  6 7 4   3 5 3 
(iv)   (v)  
(vi)  
 1 1  2 4 3   6 6 4 

0 0 0 1
1 1 0  1
0 1 1  0 0 0 
(vii) (viii) 
  0 1 0 2 
 0 2 1  
0 0 1 0
2. For each of the following linear operators , find all eigen values(real or complex),
construct their A.M.-G.M. table and a basis for each eigen space.
(i) T( x , y )  (3x  3 y , x  5 y ) (ii) T( x , y )  ( y ,  x)
(iii) T( x , y , z)  (3 x  y  z , 7 x  5 y  z , 6 x  6 y  2 z )
(iv) T( x , y , z)  (4 x  y  z , 2 x  5 y  2 z , x  y  2 z )
3. Let T be a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space V(F). Then 0 is the
characteristic value of T iff T is singular.
4. Let A be a real matrix of type n  n and  be its real eigen value. Show that there exists
an eigen vector X of A corresponding to eigen value  such that X is also real.
Answers
 G.M. A.M.
basis of E1 {(1,1)}
1. (i) 1 1 1 ;
basis of E4  {(2,3)}
4 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
(ii) ; basis of E4 {(2,1)}
4 1 2
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264 Linear Algebra

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E2 i  {(3  2i,1)}
(iii) 2i 1 1 ;
basis of E2i  {(3  2i,1)}
2i 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E1i  {(1, i)}
(iv) 1  i 1 1 ;
basis of E1i  {(i,1)}
1 i 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E 0  {(1, 2, 2)}
0 1 1
(v) ; basis of E3 {(2, 1,  2)}
3 1 1
basis of E15  {(2,  2, 1)}
15 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E 2  {(1, 1, 0),(1, 0, 1)}
(vi) 2 2 2 ;
basis of E4  {(1 , 1 , 2)}
4 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E1  {(1, 0, 0)}
1 1 1
(vii) ; basis of Ei  {(i,  1  i, 2)}
i 1 1
basis of Ei  {(i, 1  i,  2)}
i 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of Ei  {(1, i,  1, i)}
(viii) i 1 2 ;
basis of E i  {(i, 1,  i, 1)}
i 1 2

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E2  {(3 ,  1)}
2. (i) 2 1 1 ;
basis of E6  {(1,1)}
6 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of Ei  {(i , 1)}
(ii) i 1 1 ;
basis of Ei  {(i , 1)}
i 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E2  {(1, 1, 0)}
(iii) 2 1 2 ;
basis of E4  {(0, 1, 1)}
4 1 1

 G.M. A.M.
basis of E3  {(1, 0, 1),(1,  1, 0)}
(iv) 3 2 2 ;
basis of E5  {(1, 2, 1)}
5 1 1

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9.3 Diagonalization

Def . Diagonalizable operator : A linear operator T on a finite dimensional vector space V is said to
be diagonalizable if there exist an ordered basis B of V such that matrix of T with respect to B is a
diagonal matrix.
Def. Diagonalizable matrix : A n  n matrix ‘A’ is said to be diagonalizable if there exist a non –
singular matrix P such that P 1 AP = D , where D is a diagonal matrix.
OR
A square matrix is said to be diagonalizable if it is similar to a diagonal matrix.
Result 1 : A matrix (or linear operator) is diagonalizable if and only if A.M. = G.M. for each eigen
value.
Result 2 : A matrix whose all eigen values are distinct is always diagonalizable.
Result 3 : A n  n matrix (or linear operator) is diagonalizable if and only if it has n linearly
independent eigen vectors.
Result 4 : A linear operator T on a finite dimensional vector space V(F) is diagonalizable iff
there exist a basis of V in which all vectors are eigen vectors of T.
Result 5 : Let A be a n  n diagonalizable matrix and let X1 , X 2 ,......., X n be n linearly independent

eigen vectors of A. If P = [ X1 X 2 ....... X n ] is a n  n matrix formed by taking X1 ,X 2 ,.......,X n as

columns, then P 1 AP is a diagonal matrix in which elements on the diagonal are the eigen values of A.
Result 6 : If A is diagonalizable matrix, then A1 ( if exists) is also diagonalizable.
Result 7 : If A2 is diagonalizable then A need not be diagonalizable.
0 1
Example : Let A    is not diagonalizable, but A2  O is diagonalizable.
0 0
Result 8 : If A and B are diagonalizable matrices of same order, then A  B need not be diagonalizable.
1 1  0 1 1 2 
Example : Let A    and B    are diagonalizable matrices but A  B    is not
0 0 0 1 0 1 
diagonalizable.
Result 9 : If A and B are diagonalizable matrices of same order, then AB need not be diagonalizable.
1 0  1 1  1 1
Example : Let A    ,B  are diagonalizable matrices but AB    is not a
 0 1 0 1  0 1
diagonalizable matrix.
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266 Linear Algebra

 1 1
Result 10 : All invertible matrices are not diagonalizable e.g.  
 0 1
Result 11 : Every diagonal matrix is diagonalizable.

 3  2 2
Example 1 : Prove that the matrix A =  4  4 6  is not diagonalizable.
 2  3 5 

Solution : The characteristic equation of A is given by

3 2 2
|   I |  4 4 6
2 3 5 

 3      4     5     18   2   4 5    12  2  12  2 4      0

 3     2    2   16  8    4  8   0

   3  4 2    6  8  4  0

  3  4 2  5  2  0
    1  2  3  2   0

    12   2   0

  = 1, 1, 2.
Hence eigen values are 1, 1, 2.
Let us now find the eigen vectors corresponding to these eigen values.
If X is the eigen vector corresponding to eigen value , then by definition, we have
 A  I X  O

3   2 2   x 0
  4 4  6   y  0 ......(1)
     
 2 3 5     z   0 
When  = 1, then by (1), we get

 2  2 2  x  0
 4  5 6  y  0
     
 2  3 4   z   0 

 2 x  2 y  2 z  0 , 4 x  5 y  6 z  0 2 x  3 y  4 z  0

 x  z and y  2 z where z is free variable.

1
Taking z =1, we get x= 1, y = 2 and so X1   2  is an eigen vector corresponding  = 1.
 1 
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Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 267

When  = 2, then by (1), we get

1  2 2  x  0
 4  6 6  y  0
     
 2  3 3   z   0 

Operating R 2  R 2  4R 1 and R 3  R 3  2R 1

1  2 2   x   0 
0 2  2  y    0 
    
 0 0 0   z   0 

 x  2 y  2z  0 2 y  2 z  0
 x = 0 and y = z where z is free variable

0
Taking z = 1, we get y = 1 and so X2 =  1  is an eigen vector corresponding  = 2.
 1 
Since A has only two linearly independent eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen values 1 and 2,
therefore A is not diagonalizable.

Exercise 9.3
1. Which of the following matrices A are diagonalizable (a) over  (b)  . In case A is
diagonalizable find a matrix P and a matrix D such that P 1 AP  D .
1 2   2 4 3 13
(i)   (ii)  1 6  (iii) 1 3 
3 2     

 8 6 2   1 3 3 
 1 1  6 7 4   3 5 3 
(iv)   (v) (vi)
   
 1 1  2 4 3   6 6 4 

0 0 0 1
1 1 0  1
0 1 1  0 0 0 
(vii) (viii) 
  0 1 0 2 
 0 2 1  
0 0 1 0
2. Which of the following operators T are diagonalizable (a) over  (b)  .In case T is
diagonalizable find a matrix P and a matrix D such that P 1 AP  D .
(i) T( x , y )  (3 x  3 y , x  5 y)

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(ii) T( x , y )  ( y,  x) .
(iii) T( x , y , z)  (3 x  y  z , 7 x  5 y  z , 6 x  6 y  2 z )
(iv) T( x , y , z)  (4 x  y  z , 2 x  5 y  2 z , x  y  2 z )

 2 1
3. Let A   .
 2 3 
(i) Find eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors.
(ii) Find a nonsingular matrix P such that D  P 1 AP is diagonal.
(iii) Find A8 and f  A  where f  t   t 4  5t 3  7t 2  2t  5 .

(iv) Find a matrix B such that B 2  A .

Answers
1. (i) diagonalizable over  and  both.
(ii) neither diagonalizable over  nor over  .
(iii) not diagonalizable over  but diagonalizable over  .
(iv)not diagonalizable over  but diagonalizable over  .
(v) diagonalizable over  and  both.
(vi) diagonalizable over  and  both.
(vii) not diagonalizable over  but diagonalizable over  .
(viii)neither diagonalizable over  nor over  .
2. (i) diagonalizable over  and  both.
(ii) not diagonalizable over  but diagonalizable over  .
(iii) neither diagonalizable over  nor over  .
(iv) diagonalizable over  and  both.
1 1 
3. (i)   1, u  1,1 ;   4, v  1, 2  (ii) P   
1 2 
 19 13  21846 21845 0 1 
(iii) f  A     , A8    (iv) B   
 26 32   43690 43691   2 1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.4 Properties of eigen values
Results :
1. Eigen values of a lower triangular, upper triangular and diagonal matrices are just the
diagonal elements.
2. Sum of all eigen values of a matrix is equal to its trace.
3. Product of all eigen values of a matrix is equal to its determinant.
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Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 269

4. All eigen values of a non singular matrix are non zero.

5. Atleast one eigen value of singular matrix is 0.
6. If sum of elements of each row of a matrix is k, then k is an eigen value of that matrix.
7. If sum of elements of each column of a matrix is k, then k is an eigen value of that matrix.
8. The number of eigen values (counting multiplicities) of a n  n matrix is always n.
9. The eigen values of A and A are same.
10. If  is an eigen value of A corresponding to the eigen vector v then k  is an eigen value of kA
corresponding to the same eigen vector v.
11. If  is an eigen value of A corresponding to the eigen vector v then k1  k2 is an eigen value of

k1I  k2 A corresponding to the same eigen vector v.

12. If  is an eigen value of matrix A corresponding to the eigen vector v then  n is an eigen value of
An corresponding to the same eigen vector v, where n is a positive integer.
13. If  is an eigen value of A corresponding to the eigen vector v and f ( x ) be a polynomial then
f ( ) is an eigen value of f ( A) corresponding to the same eigen vector v.
14. If  is an eigenvalue of A and  is an eigenvalue of B then    need not be an eigenvalue of A  B .
15. If  is an eigenvalue of A and  is an eigenvalue of B then   need not be an eigenvalue of AB .
1
16. If  is an eigen value of a non singular matrix A corresponding to the eigen vector v then is an

eigen value of A1 corresponding to the same eigen vector v.
17. If  is an eigen value of a non singular matrix A corresponding to the eigen vector v and
b1 b2 b
f  x   a0  a1x  ....  an x n   2  ...  mm then f    is an eigen value of f  A 
x x x
corresponding to the same eigen vector v.
det A
18. If  is an eigen value of a non singular matrix A, then is an eigen value of adjoint of A

i.e. adj A.
19. If  is an eigen value of A, then  is an eigen value of A and A .
2

20. If  is an eigen value of A, then  need not be an eigen value of A A or AA* , however 
 
eigen values of A A or AA* are non negative real numbers. Further if A is non-singular then

 
eigen values of A A or AA* are positive real numbers.
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270 Linear Algebra

21. If A is a real matrix then the eigen values of AT A  or AAT  are non-negative real numbers. Further

 
if A is non-singular then eigen values of AT A or AAT are positive real numbers.

22. Invertible matrix theorem : The following conditions on an n  n matrix A are logically
equivalent. In other words, if the matrix has any one of the given properties, then it has all of them.
Coefficient matrix :
1. A is invertible.
2. AT is invertible.
Linear System :
3. The system Ax  b has at least one solution for every b in  n .
4. For every b in  n , the equations Ax  b has a unique solution.
5. The homogeneous system Ax  0 has only the trivial solution x  0 .
Pivots :
6. A has n pivot positions.
7. Every column of A has a pivot position.
8. Every row of A has a pivot position.
Rank and Row equivalence :
9. A is row equivalence to I n .

10. Rank  A   n .

Linear transformations :
11. The transformations x  Ax is one-to one (injective).
12. The transformation x  Ax maps  n onto  n (surjective).
Left inverse and right inverse :
13. There is an n  n matrix B such that BA  I n .

14. There is an n  n matrix C such that AC  I n .

Column vectors :
15. The columns of A form a linearly independent set.
16. The set of columns in A spans  n .
17. The columns of A form a basis for  n .
18. The column space of A is  n : Col  A    n .

19. Dim(Col(A)  n
Row vectors :
20. The rows of A form a linearly independent set.

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Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 271

21. The set of rows in A spans  n .

22. The row space of A is  n : Row(A)   n .
23. The rows of A form a basis for  n .
24. Dim(Row(A))  n .
Eigenvalues and determinant :
25. 0 is not an eigenvalue of A.
26. Det  A   0 .

Kernel or null space :

27. The kernel of A contains only the zero vector 0.
28. Null(A)  0 .

Exercise 9.4
 4 1 1
1. If A   2 5 2  , then find the eigen values A, A1 , A2 , A3 , A and adjA .
 1 1 2 

2. Find the eigen values of the following matrices :

1 2 2 4 1 3 
(i) A   0 6 1 (ii) B   2 3 7 
 8 2 11   2 4 2 

4 * *
3. If eigen values of a 3  3 matrix are 7, 8, 9 then find the value of x in the matrix  * 5 *  .
 * * x 

4. Find the eigen values of the following matrices :

1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(i) 1 1 1 (ii)  (iii) A   aij  such that aij  1 for all i, j.
1 1 1 1 nn
1 1 1  
1 1 1 1

1 1
5. Consider the matrix A    , find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A and A ' .
 0 1
What do you notice.

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 4 1 1
6. If A   2 5 2  then find eigen values of I  A , I  A, 2 I  3 A  A2 , A2  5 A3 , 2 A2  3I  4 A3 .
 1 1 2 

Answers
1 1 1
1. A : 3,3,5 ; A1 : , , ; A2 : 9,9, 25 ; A3 : 27,27,125 ; A ' : 3,3,5 ; adj A :15,15,9
3 3 5

3  65
2. (i) 4,5,9 (ii) 8, 3. 1 4. (i) 0,0,3 (ii) 0,0,0,4 (iii) 0  A.M. n  1 , n
2
5. Eigen values of A and A ' are always same but eigen vectors may be different.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.5 Characteristic and minimal polynomial

Def. Annihilating polynomial of a matrix : A polynomial f  x  is said to be an annihilating

polynomial of a matrix A if f  A   0.

Remark : Let f  x  be an annihilating polynomial of A and g  x  be any other polynomial, then

f  x   g  x  is also an annihilating polynomial of A.

Proof : f  A   0 (given), Consider f  A   g  A   0  g  A   0  f  x  g  x  is also an

annihilating polynomial of A.
Remark : By above remark, it is clear that we can construct infinitely many annihilating polynomials
by using one annihilating polynomial.
Def. Minimal polynomial of a linear operator(matrix) : The minimal polynomial m(x) of a linear
operator T is defined to be monic polynomial of lowest degree of which T is a root.
We know that if A is a matrix of T and f(x) be any polynomial, then f (A) is the matrix of f (T). In
particular, f (T) = 0 if and only if f (A) = 0. Therefore, we can say that T and A has same minimal
polynomials.
Result 1 : Cayley Hamilton Theorem : Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic polynomial.
OR
If c  x  is the characteristic polynomial of a matrix A, then c  A   0. OR

Characteristic polynomial is an annihilating polynomial.

Result 2 : If A is a n  n matrix and k  n is a positive integer then Ak can be expressed as the linear
combination of I , A, A2 ,....., An1 .

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Result 3 : Let A be a n  n matrix and W  An : n  0 then dimW  n .

Result 4 : If A is a n  n non-singular matrix then A m can be expressed as the linear combination of

I , A, A2 ,....., An1 for all positive integers m.

Result 5 : Let A be a n  n non-singular matrix and W  An : n   then dimW  n .

Result 6 : The minimal polynomial of a matrix is unique.

Result 7 : If m  x  is the minimal polynomial of a matrix A and f  x  be an annihilating polynomial

then m  x  divides f  x  .

OR
If f (x) is a polynomial such that f (A) = O, and if m(x) is the minimal polynomial of A, then there
exists a polynomial q(x) such that f(x) = m(x) q(x).
Result 8 : The minimal polynomial of a matrix divides its characteristic polynomial.
Result 9 : Let m  x  and c  x  denotes the minimal and characteristic polynomial of a matrix

respectively. Then, m  x  and c  x  have the same distinct linear factors.

OR
1 2  1 2 k
If c  x    x  a1   x  a2  ...... x  ak  k , then m  x  is of the form  x  a1   x  a2  ...... x  ak 

where 1   i   i

Result 10 : Let m  x  and c  x  denotes the minimal and characteristic polynomial of a n  n matrix
n
respectively then c( x) divides  m( x)  .

Result 11 : A scalar  is an eigen value of a matrix A if and only if  is a root of the minimal
polynomial of A.
Result 12 : A matrix is singular iff the constant term in the minimal polynomial and the characteristic
polynomial is zero.
Result 13 : A matrix is non singular iff constant term in the minimal polynomial and the characteristic
polynomial is non zero.
Result 14 : Minimal polynomial of a matrix is of degree 1 iff the matrix is a scalar matrix.
Remark : The degree of minimal polynomial of a non-scalar matrix is  2 .
Result 15 : A matrix is diagonalizable if and only if its minimal polynomial has no repeated linear
factors (i.e. all factors must be with single power in m  x  ).

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Result 16 : If a square matrix A satisfies any of the relation
(i) Ak  I (ii) Ak   I (iii) Ak  A (iv) Ak   A
where, k is some positive integer greater than 1, then the matrix A is always diagonalizable over  .
Remark : Whenever a matrix relation is given e.g. A2  A , A3  A , A3  I etc. then such type of the
questions will be solved by using m( x) .

Result 17 : If the fixed matrix M is diagonalizable then the linear operator T : M n     M n   

defined by T  A   MA and T  A   AM are both diagonalizable.

Example 1 : Find the characteristic polynomial and the minimal polynomial of

 6 2 2
A   2 3 1
 
 2 1 3

6 2 2
Solution : | A  I |  2 3 1
2 1 3 

Operating C3  C3  C2

6 2 0
= 2 3  2
2 1 2

6 2 0
= (2   ) 2 3   1 [Taking (2  ) common from C3]
2 1 1

6 2 0
Operating R2  R2  R3 = (2   ) 4 4 0
2 1 1

= (2   )[(6   )(4   )  8]

= (2   )( 2  10  16)  (2   )(  2)(  8)

=   3  12 2  36  32 [on multiplication]

 Characteristic polynomial is   3  12 2  36  32

Characteristic roots are 2, 2, 8
Since distinct characteristic roots of A are also roots of the minimal equation of A so 2, 8 are roots of
the minimal equation of A.
 The minimal polynomial of A is either (  2)(  8) or (  2)2 (  8)

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Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 275

i.e.  2  10  16 or  3  12 2  36  32 [with leading coefficient 1]

First let us check whether  2  10  16 is a minimal polynomial of A or not.

2
 6 2 2  6 2 2 1 0 0 
Now A  10A  16I    2
2
3 1  10   2
 3  1  16  0 1 0 

 2 1 3  2 1 3  0 0 1 

 44  20 20   60  20 20  16 0 0  0 0 0 
=   20 14 10     20 30 10    0 16 0 =  0 0 0   O
      
 20 10 14   20 10 30   0 0 16  0 0 0 

 Minimal polynomial of A is  2  10  16

Exercise 9.5
 4 1 1
1. Let A   2 5 2  , then find
 1 1 2 

(i) c  x  (ii) m  x  (iii) Is A diagonalizable

(iv) Find five different annihilating polynomials of A.

2. Find c( x) and m( x) of each of the following matrices and then find which of them are
diagonalizable :
 4  2 2  3  2 2
5 6
(i)   (ii)  6  3 4  (iii)  4  4 6 
  2  2  3  2 3   2  3 5 

1 2 3  6 2 2
(iv) A   2 3 1  (v) A    2 3 1

 3 1 2   2 1 3

3. Find c( x) and m( x) of each of the following linear transformations and then find which of
them are diagonalizable :
(i) T x y    2 x 4 x  5 y  (ii) T x y z    x  y 2 x  3 y  z  2 x  3 y  5 z 
(iii) T x y z    x  y  z 2 y  z 2 y  3 z 

4. Find the possible candidates for m  x  if

2 3 2
(i) c  x    x  1  x  2  (ii) c  x    x  2   x  7   x  4 
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5. Find the eigen values of n  n idempotent, involutory and nilpotent matrices. Also find c( x) and
m( x) .
6. Let A be a 100  100 idempotent matrix such that 0 is an eigen value of A with algebraic
multiplicity (A.M.) is 40, then find the other eigen values of A.

Answers
2
1. (i) c( x)   x  3  x  5  (ii) m( x)   x  3 x  5  (iii) yes
2 2 2 2
(iv)  x  3 x  5 ,  x  3  x  5 ,  x  3  x  5  ,  x  3 x  4  x  5 ,  x  3 x  5
2. (i) c( x)  x 2  3x  2 ,

(ii) c ( x )  x 3  4 x 2  5 x  2 , m( x)  x 2  3 x  2

(iii) c( x)  x3  4 x 2  5 x  2 , m( x)  x3  4 x 2  5 x  2

(iv) c( x)  x3  6 x 2  3x  18 , m( x)  x3  6 x 2  3 x  18

(v) c( x)  x3  12 x 2  36 x  32 , m( x)  x 2  10 x  16

3. (i) c( x)  x 2  3x  10 , m( x)  x 2  3 x  10

(ii) c( x)  x3  9 x 2  18 x , m( x)  x3  9 x 2  18 x

(iii) c( x)  x3  6 x 2  9 x  4 , m( x)  x 2  5 x  4
2
4. (i)  x  1 x  2  ,  x  1  x  2 
2 2 2 3
(ii)  x  2  x  7  x  4  ,  x  2   x  7  x  4  ,  x  2   x  7   x  4  ,  x  2   x  7  x  4  ,
3 2 2
 x  2   x  7   x  4  ,  x  2  x  7   x  4 
5. Idempotent matrix :
Case I : If A  0 , then c  x   x n and m  x   x
n
Case II : If A  I , then c  x    x  1 and m  x   x  1
n 
Case III : If A  0, I , then c  x   x  x  1 and m  x   x  x  1

Involutory matrix :
n
Case I : If A  I , then c  x    x  1 and m  x   x  1
n
Case II : If A   I , then c  x    x  1 and m  x   x  1
 n
Case III : If A  I ,  I , then c  x    x  1  x  1 and m  x    x  1 x  1
Nilpotent matrix : c  x   x n and m  x   x k , where k is the index of nilpotency.
6. 1 with A.M. 60

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9.6 Diagonalizibility of some special matrices

Result 1 : Let A be a real symmetric matrix. If u and v are eigen vectors corresponding to distinct
eigen values then u and v are orthogonal. ie. (u , v)  0 .

Result 2 : Let A be a real symmetric matrix, then there exists an orthogonal matrix P such that P 1 AP
is diagonal. i.e., real symmetric matrix is orthogonally diagonalizable.
Result 3 : If two matrices are similar, then their D C T E R M are same, where D–determinant ;
C–characteristic polynomial ; T–trace ; E–eigen values ; R–rank ; M–minimal polynomial
Result 4 : If two matrices are equivalent, then they have same rank but need not have same eigen
values, characteristic and minimal polynomial.
Result 5: If two matrices are congruent , then they have same number of positive eigen values but
need not have same eigen values, characteristic and minimal polynomial.
Result 6: If A and B are two n  n matrices such that anyone (or both) of them is non singular then
AB and BA are similar and therefore their D C T E R M are same.
Result 7 : Let A and B are any two n  n matrices then D C T E of AB and BA are necessarily same
but R M may or may not be same.
Result 8 : Let A be a m  n matrix and B be a n  m matrix such that m  n then
(i) det  AB  may or may not be zero.

(ii) det  BA  must be zero

(iii) trace  AB   trace  BA 

(iv) non-zero eigen values of AB and BA are same.

Result 9 : If A and B are 3  3 matrices such that their D C T E R M is same then they are similar.
Result 10 : (i) Eigenvalues of a diagonal matrix is just the diagonal elements.
0 , i  j
(ii) Eigenvalues of a n  n scalar matrix aij   is k , k ,...., k (n times)
k , i  j
(iii) Eigenvalues of a lower triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements.
(iv) Eigenvalues of a upper triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements.
(v) Eigenvalues of a super lower triangular matrix are 0,0,....,0  n times 

(vi) Eigenvalues of a super upper triangular matrix are 0,0,....,0  n times 

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0 0 ... ... 0 d1 
0 0 ... ... d 2 0
 
(vii) Eigenvalues of a backward diagonal matrix are       
 
     
 d n 0 ... ... 0 0 

Case (i) : If n is even then eigenvalues are  d1 d n ,  d 2 d n1 ,  d3 d n 2 ,...,  d n d n

1
2 2

Case (ii) : If n is odd then eigenvalues are d n 1 ,  d1 d n ,  d 2 d n 1 ,...,  d n 1 d n3

2 2 2

0 0 0 2
0 0 3 0 
e.g., A , eigenvalues of A are 4,  3 3
0 9 0 0
 
8 0 0 0

0 0 9
B   0 5 0  , eigenvalues of B are 5, 6
 
 4 0 0 

0 0 ... ... 0 k 
0 0 ... ... k 0 

(viii) Eigenvalues of a backward scalar matrix A        
 
     
 k 0 ... ... 0 0 

n n
Case (i) : If n is even, then eigenvalues are k and eigenvalues are –k
2 2
n 1 n 1
Case (ii) : If n is odd, then eigenvalues are k and eigenvalues are  k
2 2
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
e.g., A , eigenvalues of A are 1,1, 1, 1
0 1 0 0
 
1 0 0 0

0 0 4
B   0 4 0  , eigenvalues of B are 4, 4, 4
 
 4 0 0 

Def. SBS Matrix : A matrix is said to be SBS matrix if it is sum of a scalar and a backward scalar
2 0 0 5
3 0 4 0 2 5 0 
matrix. e.g., A   0 7 0  , B  
0 5 2 0
 4 0 3   
5 0 0 2
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(ix) Eigenvalues of a SBS matrix are :

a 0 0 ... ...
... 0 0 b 
0 a 0 ... ... ... 0 b 0 

0 0 a ... ... ... b 0 0 
    n 1 
         a  b, a  b,..., a  b  2 times  
  
Case (i) : If n is odd      a  b      , eigenvalues are  
  a  b, a  b,..., a  b  n  1 times  
          
 2


0 0 b ... ... ... a 0 0 
 
0 b 0 ... ... ... 0 a 0 
b 0 0 ... ... ... 0 0 a 


3 0 4
e.g., A   0 7 0  , eigenvalues of A are 7, 7  1
 4 0 3 

a 0 ... ... 0 b
0 a ... ... b 0 
  n 
      a  b, a  b,...., a  b  2 times  
  
Case (ii) : If n is even   , eigenvalues are  
      a  b, a  b,...., a  b  n times  
0 2 
b ... ... a 0   
 
b 0 ... ... 0 a

2 0 0 5
0 2 5 0 
e.g., B   , eigenvalues of B are 7,7, 3, 3
0 5 2 0
 
5 0 0 2

Result 11 : Spectrum of eigen values :

Real skew symmetric and skew hermitian

i
Real orthogonal and unitary
–1 O 1

Real symmetric and hermitian

Involutary
–i
Nilpotent Idempotent

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Result 12 : Table of eigen values and diagonalizibility :

S.No. Matrix Eigen values Diagonalizable

1. Real symmetric Real over 
2. Hermitian Real over 
3. Real skew-symmetric 0 or purely imaginary over 
4. Skew-Hermitian 0 or purely imaginary over 
5. Real orthogonal of modulus unity over 
6. Unitary of modulus unity over 
7. Idempotent 0 or 1 over 
8. Involutary 1 or 1 over 
9. Nilpotent 0 not diagonalizable

Result 13 : A non zero nilpotent matrix is never diagonalizable. In other words, if a nilpotent matrix A
is diagonalizable then A 0 .
OR
Zero matrix is the only nilpotent matrix which is diagonalizable.
Result 14 : A matrix is nilpotent iff its all eigen values are zero.
Result 15 : If rows of a matrix are orthogonal then columns may or may not be orthogonal.
Result 16 : Rows of a matrix are orthonormal iff columns are orthonormal.

Exercise 9.6
1. For each of the following symmetric matrices A, find its eigenvalues, a maximal
orthogonal set S of eigenvectors, and an orthogonal matrix P such that D  P 1 AP is
diagonal :
0 1 1  2 2 4 
(i) A  1 0 1  (ii) A   2 5 8 
1 1 0   4 8 17 

1 1 0 2 0 0
2. Let A   0 2 0 and B   0 2 2  . Show that A and B have different characteristic
 
 0 0 1   0 0 1 

polynomials (and so are not similar), but have the same minimal polynomial. Thus
nonsimilar matrices may have the same minimal polynomial.
3. Determine the eigenvalues of the following matrices :

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0 0 0 7
 0 0 14  0 5 0 0 
0 7 0 
(i) A   0 14 0  (ii) B   (iii) C  0 5 0 
0 7 0 0
14 0 0    0 0 5 
7 0 0 0

0 0 0 2
0  0 0 14  7 0 5
0 3 0 
(iv) D   (v) E   0 2 0  (vi) F   0 12 0 
0 7 0 0
   2 0 0   5 0 7 
9 0 0 0

2 0 0 3
0 2 3 0 
(vii) G  
0 3 2 0
 
3 0 0 2
4. Find the determinant of the following matrices :
1 0 0 0 0 2
2 3 3 3 3 0
3 1 0 0 2 0 
2 3 3 3 
 0 0 1 2 0 0
(i) A   3 3 2 3 3 (ii) B   
  0 0 2 1 0 0
3 3 3 2 3
0 2 0 0 1 0
 3 3 3 3 2  
2 0 0 0 0 1

 I A
5. Let M   where I , A, B are n  n matrices. Show that the eigen values of M are
0 B  2 n2 n

 ,  ,...,   n times  and the eigen values of B.

4 0 2 x y z
0 6 0 p q r 

2 0 4 a b c
6. Find the determinant of the matrix  .
0 0 0 7 0 0
0 0 0 0 7 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 7

1 2 3 4
2 4 6 8 
7. If A   then find A2  I .
3 6 9 12 
 
4 8 12 16 
8. If A is a real symmetric and orthogonal matrix then what are the possible eigen values of A.

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0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 

0 0 0 0 0 1
9. Find the eigen values of the matrix  .
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 1 0 0 0
10. If A is a real skew-symmetric and orthogonal matrix then what are the possible eigen values of A.
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 1
11. Find the eigen values of the matrix  .
 1 0 0 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0 0 0
 
 0 0 1 0 0 0

4 0 3 0
0 4 0 0 
12. Find the eigen values and determinant of the matrix  .
 3 0 4 3
 
0 0 3 4
n  tr A 
13. If A is a n  n involutory matrix then show that A   1 2 .

Answers
 1 1 1   2 2 1 
   6
 2 6 3  14 21 
 1 1 1   1 3 2 
1. (i)   1, 2 ; P   (ii)   1, 22 ; P  
 2 6 3  6 14 21 
 
 2 1   1 1 4 
 0 6 3   6 14 21 


3. (i) 14,14, 14 (ii) 7,7, 7, 7 (iii) 5,5,5 (iv)  18,  27

(v) 2,  28 (vi) 12,12, 2 (vii) 5,5, 1, 1

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.7 Block Matrices and companion matrices

Using a system of horizontal and vertical (dashed) lines, we can partition a matrix A into submatrices
called blocks (or cells) of A. Clearly, a given matrix may be divided into blocks in different ways.
Def. Block square matrix : A square matrix is said to be block square matrix if there are same
number of horizontal and vertical lines and they are placed symmetrically.

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Def. Block diagonal matrix : A block square matrix is said to be block diagonal matrix if all the non-
diagonal blocks are zero matrices.
Def. Block upper triangular matrix : A block square matrix is said to be block upper triangular
matrix if all the blocks below the diagonal are zero matrices.
Def. Block lower triangular matrix : A block square matrix is said to be block lower triangular
matrix if all the blocks above the diagonal are zero matrices.
Def. Block triangular matrix : A block square matrix is said to be block triangular matrix if either it
is block upper triangular or block lower triangular matrix.
The matrices A, B and C (given below) are block lower triangular, block upper triangular and block
diagonal matrices respectively.
 1 2 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 3 2 5 0 0 0
2 3 0 0 0 0 3 4 8 6  0 2 0 0 0 
  
A  5 1 2 7 0 B  0 0 2 7 0 C  0 0 4 2 0
     
0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 4 5 0 0 3 5 0
8 6 5 4 3 0 0 0 0 3  0 0 0 0 7 
  
Remark : Clearly, every block diagonal matrix (B.D.M.) is block triangular matrix (B.T.M.)

CPT Result : Let A is a block triangular matrix with diagonal blocks A11 , A22 ...... Arr and let ci ( x) be

the characteristic polynomial of Aii and c( x) be the characteristic polynomial of A then

c( x)  c1 ( x )c2 ( x )......cr ( x) .
In words characteristic polynomial of a block triangular matrix is the product of the characteristic
polynomials of the diagonal blocks.

MLD Result : Let A is a block diagonal matrix with diagonal blocks A11 , A22 ...... Arr and let mi ( x) be

the minimal polynomial of Aii and m( x) be the minimal polynomial of A then

m( x)  l.c.m. m1 ( x), m2 ( x ),......, mr ( x )  .

In words minimal polynomial of a block diagonal matrix is the l.c.m. of the minimal polynomials of
the diagonal blocks.
DPT Result : Let A is a block triangular matrix with diagonal blocks A11 , A22 ...... Arr then

det( A)  det( A11 )det( A22 ).......det( Arr ) .

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Def. Companion matrix : Let f ( x ) be a monic polynomial of degree n i.e.

f ( x)  x n  an1 x n1  .....  a2 x 2  a1 x  a0 then the following four matrices are known as companion

matrix of f ( x ) .

0 0 0 ... 0  a0    an 1 1 0 ... 0 0 
1 0 0 ... 0  a1   a 0 1 ... 0 0 
   n 2 
0 1 0 ... 0  a2        
   
... ... ... ... ... ...    a2 0 0 ... 1 0 
0 0 0 ... 0  an 2    a1 0 0 ... 0 1 
   
 0 0 0 ... 1  an 1    a0 0 0 ... 0 0 

 0 1 0 ... 0 0    an1  an 2 ...  a2  a1  a0 

 0 0 1 ... 0 0   1 0 ... 0 0 0 
  
 0 0 0 ... 0 0   0 1 ... 0 0 0 
   
         ... ... ... ... ... ... 
 0 0 0 ... 0 1   0 0 ... 0 1 0 
   
  a0  a1  a2 ...  an2  an1   0 0 ... 0 0 0 

CMCM Result : Let A be companion matrix of a monic polynomial f ( x ) then characteristic and
minimal polynomials of A are f ( x ) itself.

Exercise 9.7
1. Find the characteristic polynomial, minimal polynomial and determinant of the following
2 5 0 0 0  4 1 0 0 0 3 2 0 0 0
0 2 0 0 0  1 2 0 0 0  1 4 0 0 0 
  
matrices (i) A   0 0 4 2 0 (ii) B   0 0 3 1 0  (iii) C   0 0 3 1 0
     
0 0 3 5 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 1 3 0
 0 0 0 0 7   0 0 0 0 3   0 0 0 0 4 

2 1 3 4
2 2 1 0   A B 
2. If M    then show that M  A D  B C .
6 6 1 2  C D 
 
0 0 0 1
3. Find a matrix A whose minimal polynomial is :
(i) x 3  5 x 2  6 x  8 (ii) x 4  5 x 3  2 x 2  7 x  4

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Answers
1. (i) c( x)  ( x  2)3 ( x  7)2 , m( x)  ( x  2)2 ( x  7)

(ii) c( x)  ( x  3)5 , m( x )  ( x  3)3

(iii) c( x)  ( x  2)2 ( x  4)2 ( x  5), m( x )  ( x  2)( x  4)( x  5)

0 0 0 4 
 0 0 8  1 0 0 7 
3. (i)  1 0 6  (ii) 
0 1 0 2
 0 1 5   
0 0 1 5
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.8 Jordan Canonical Forms

 1 
  1 
 
Def. Basic Jordan Block : Bn ( )   . . 
 
 . 1
   
i.e  (eigen value) on diagonal entries, 1’s on super-diagonal and 0’s elsewhere.
 Bn1     
 
 Bn2    
Def. Jordan Block : J n ( )   . .  , where n  n  n  ......  n .
1 2 k
 
 . 
 
  Bnk    

i.e. basic Jordan blocks on diagonal entries and 0’s elsewhere.

 J n1     
 
 J n2    
Def. Jordan Canonical form : J n   . .  , where n  n  n  ......  n .
1 2 k
 
 . 
 
  J nk    

i.e Jordan blocks on diagonal entries and 0 elsewhere.

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 II III
Remark : Matrix   c  x  , m  x  ,   Blocks and their sizes   J.C.F.

Some results :
1. Diagonal matrices are the most beautiful matrices of this world.
2. Jordan canonical form of a matrix is always an upper triangular matrix.
3. Jordan canonical forms are not the diagonal matrices but they are very close to the diagonal
matrices. In a Jordan Canonical Form, all non diagonal elements are 0 except some or all 1’s on
the super diagonal.
4. If a matrix is diagonalizable, then its Jordan canonical form is a diagonal matrix.
5. Every matrix is not diagonalizable over  but every matrix has a Jordan canonical form over  .
In other words, we can say that every matrix is triangularizable over  .
Jordan Canonical forms of nilpotent Matrices :
Result 1 : 0 is the only eigen value of a nilpotent matrix.
Result 2 :Let A be a n  n nilpotent matrix with index of nilpotency k, then
c( x )  x n and m( x)  x k .
Result 3 : Let A be a nilpotent matrix, then the number of basic Jordan blocks is equal to the nullity
of A.
OR
For a n  n nilpotent matrix with index of nilpotency ‘k’ and rank ‘r’ we have,
(i) c( x )  x n (ii) m( x)  x k
(iii) Decomposition for the basic Jordan blocks is
n  k  k1  k 2  ......  k m where k  k1  k2  ......  k m  1 and m  1  n  r
Result 4 : Let A and B are any two n  n matrices. If AB is nilpotent then BA is also nilpotent.
Result 5 : Let A and B are any two n  n nilpotent matrices such that AB=BA then A+B and AB are
also nilpotent.
Exercise 9.8
1. Construct the following basic Jordan blocks :
(i) B4  1 (ii) B4 1 (iii) B4  0  (iv) B3  1

(v) B3 1 (vi) B3  0  (vii) B2  1 (viii) B2 1

(ix) B2  0  (x) B1  1 (xi) B1 1 (xii) B1  0 

2. Determine all the possible Jordan canonical forms with the following data :
3 2 2 4 2 3 2
(i) c  x    x  7   x  1 ; m  x    x  7   x  1 (ii) c  x    x  1  x  1 ; m  x    x  1  x  1

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4 3 3 2 5 4 3 2
(iii) c  x    x  2   x  3 ; m  x    x  2   x  3 (iv) c  x    x  1  x  2  ; m  x    x  1  x  2 

3. Find the Jordan canonical forms for the following matrices :

 1 2 3 0 1 2
 1 2  3i 
(i) A   2 4 0  (ii) B   1 0 3 (iii) C  
 2  3i 2 
 3 0 3  2 3 0 

 2i 1  2i  0 1 1   1  2i  4  2i 
(iv) D    (v) E    (vi) F  
 1  2i 3i  1 0  5  2  4i 2  i 

0 2 0 0
0  5 4
1 0 0    0 1 
(vii) G   (viii) H  21 (ix) J   
0 3 0 0  5  1 0 
   4 
0 4 0 0
4. Find the Jordan canonical forms for the following nilpotent matrices :
0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1  0
 0 1 1  0 0 0 1 
(i) A   0 0 0 1 1 (ii) B   (iii) C  
  0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0    
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 

0 1 1 0 0 2  1 1 1
(iv) D   0 0 1  (v) E  0 0 0  (vi) F   1 1 1
 0 0 0  0 0 0   0 0 0 

1 1 1 1 2 3 
(vii) G   1 1 1 (viii) H   5 10 15

 1 1 0   3 6 9 

Answers
 1 1 0 0  1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
 0 1 1 0  0 1 1 0  0 0 1 0 
1. (i)   (ii)  (iii) 
 0 0 1 1  0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
     
 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

 1 1 0  1 1 0 0 1 0
(iv)  0 1 1  (v)  0 1 1  (vi)  0 0 1 
 0 0 1  0 0 1   0 0 0 

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 1 1   1 1 0 1
(vii)   (viii)   (ix)  
 0 1  0 1 0 0
(x)  1 (xi) 1 (xii)  0

 2 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0  0 2 1 0
7 1 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 
1 1 0 0 0 
0 7 0 0 0    0 0 2 0 0 0 0
 0 0 1 0 0 0  
2. (i)  0 0 7 0 0 (ii)   (iii)  0 0 0 2 0 0 0
 
0 1 0  0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1  
3 1

 0 0 0 0 1   0 0 0 0 0 3 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
 0 0 3 

1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 
0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 
0 0
   
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 
0 0
   
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
(iv)  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0  OR  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0  OR
   
0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 
0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 2  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
 
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0  0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0  OR  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 
0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 2  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
 

6 0 0  0 0 0   3  53 
 0 
   
3. (i)  0 1  7 0  (ii)  0 i 14 0  (iii)  2 
0  3  53 
 0 1  7  0
 0 i 14   0 
 2 



 3 5 1 i  0


 2  i 0 
(iv)   (v)  

0

 3 5 1 i    0 i 
 2 

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Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 289

 0 
(vi)  1 , where 1 
 i  3  398  294i and    i  3  398  294i
 2
 0 2  10 10

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0  2 0  1 0 
(vii)  (viii)   (ix)  
0 0 0 0  0 2   0 1
 
0 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0  0
 0 1 0  0 0 0 0 
4. (i)  0 0 0 1 0 (ii)  (iii) 
  0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0    
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
(iv)  0 0 1  (v)  0 0 0  (vi)  0 0 0 
 0 0 0   0 0 0   0 0 0 

0 1 0 0 1 0
(vii)  0 0 1  (viii)  0 0 0 
 0 0 0   0 0 0 

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.9 Permutation Matrix

Def. Permutation matrix : Let I n denotes the n  n identity matrix and let us denote its columns by

1  0  0 
0  1  0 
C1 , C2 ,...., Cn i.e, C1    ,C    ,......, Cn    and then we decide to write the identity matrix. I n
  2    
     
0  0  1 
as I n   C1 C 2 ... C n  . Now let S n denote the symmetric group over n symbols 1, 2,...., n and

suppose   Sn be any permutation, then the permutation matrix with respect to the permutation  is

denoted by P   and is defined as P    C 1 , C  2 ,..., C  n   .

 
Remark : We have defined the permutation matrices by the column approach. Some authors also
define the permutation matrices by the row approach. But the results of both approaches are almost same.

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Example 1. Construct the permutation matrices with respect to the following permutations :
(i)   1 2 4  3 5   S 5 (ii) n  1 2 5  2 4   S 6

0 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 

Solution : (i) P    C 1 , C  2  , C 3 , C  4  , C 5    C 2 , C4 , C5 , C1 , C3   0 0 0 0 1
   
0 1 0 0 0
 0 0 1 0 0 

0 0 0 00 1
1 0 0 0 
0 0

0 0 0 01 0
(ii) P    C 1 , C  2  , C 3 , C  4 , C 5 , C  6     C2 , C5 , C4 , C3 , C1 , C6   
 
0 0 1 00 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 1
Example 2. Find the permutation corresponding to the following permutation matrices :
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 1
 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
(i) A    (ii) B   
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

 1 2 3 4 5 6
Solution : (i) A  C 4 , C1 , C 2 , C6 , C5 , C3       1 4 6 3 2  5 
 4 1 2 6 5 3
 A  P   where   1 4 6 3 2   S 6

 1 2 3 4 5 6
(ii) B  C4 , C5 , C6 , C1, C2 , C3       1 4  2 5  3 6   S6
 4 5 6 1 2 3
Results :
1. A matrix is a permutation matrix if and only if each row and column contains exactly one 1 and all
other elements are zero.
2. Every permutation matrix is an orthogonal matrix but converse is not true.
3. Product of two permutation matrices is again a permutation matrix. Further if  ,  S n then

P   P    P   .
1 T
 
4. P  1  P     P    for any   Sn .

k
5. If   Sn and k is any positive integer then P  k  P   .  

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Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 291

r k
6. Let   Sn and o    r then  P     I n and  P     I n for 1  k  r .

 1 , if  is even
7. det  P     signature of   
1 , if  is odd
8. Rank of a n  n permutation matrix is always n.
9. Trace of P    number of fixed elements in  .

10. For any positive integer n, there are n permutation in Sn and hence there are n permutation
matrices of size n  n .
11. Let Gn  P   :   S n  then Gn is a group with respect to matrix multiplication and Gn  S n .

 1 0  0 1  
e.g. G2    ,    S 2 and G3   P  I  , P 12  , P 13 , P  23 , P 123 , P 132 
 0 1  1 0  

  1 0 0   0 1 0 0 0 1   1 0 0   0 0 1  0 1 0  
 
  0 1 0  , 1 0 0 , 0 1 0  ,  0 0 1  , 1 0 0  , 0 0 1    S3
  0 0 1   0 0 1  1 0 0   0 1 0   0 1 0  1 0 0  
           
12. We know that every permutation can be expressed as product of disjoint cycles. Now let   Sn

and suppose    1  2  k where  i ’s are disjoint cycles. Also suppose that length of  i  li

for 1  i  k , then

(i) the characteristic polynomials of the permutation matrix P   is

    
c  x   xl1  1 xl2  1 .... xlk  1

(ii)   1 is an eigen values of P   with algebraic multiplicity k.

(iii)   1 is an eigen value of P   iff atleast one li is even.

(iv) If   1 is an eigen value of P   then its algebraic multiplicity is equal to the number of

even li ’s.

(v) mth primitive root of unity is an eigen value of P   if and only if atleast one li is a multiple

of m.

(vi) If mth primitive root of unity is an eigen value of P   then its algebraic multiplicity is equal

to the number of li ’s which are multiple of m.

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292 Linear Algebra

13. If  is an eigen value of a permutation matrix P   then   1 .

14. A.M. = G.M. for each eigen value of a permutation matrix.

15. The permutation matrix P   is always diagonalizable over  .

16. P   is diagonalizable over  iff    1 i.e., o    1 or 2 i.e.,  is identity or transposition

or product of finitely many transpositions.

17. If 1, 2 ,...., k are distinct eigen values of a permutation matrix P   then the minimal

polynomial of P   is m  x    x  1  x  2  ...... x  k  .

Exercise 9.9

Find the DCTERM of the following matrices :

0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1   
1. A   2. B  1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0  
  0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 

0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
 
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
3. C    4. D   
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
   
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
   
5. E   0 0 0 0 1 0 0 6. F   0 0 0 0 1
0  
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1  0 1 0 0 0 
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 


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True false exercise  7 0 0

12. The matrix  8 3 0  is diagonalizable.
1. Two n  n matrices A and B are similar if
 0 0 0 
there is an invertible matrix Q such that
BQ  QA . 13. If A  PBP 1 and if x is an eigenvector of
B corresponding to an eigenvalue  , then
2. For any n  n matrices A and B, if A is Px is an eigenvector of A corresponding to
similar to B, then A2 is similar to B 2 . eigenvalue  .

3. If A and B are row-equivalent matrices, 1 2 

14. The eigenvalues of the matrix   are
then their eigenvalues are the same. 3 0 
–3 and 2.
4. For every matrix A, 0 is an eigenvalue
because the equation A0  00 is always 15. If  is an eigenvalue of a matrix A, then
true.
 2 is an eigenvalue of A2 .
5. Real matrices have only real eigenvalues
and complex matrices have only complex 16. If A is an 11 11 matrix whose entries are
eigenvalues. all real numbers, then at least one
eigenvalue of A is real.
6. The characteristic polynomial of an n  n
17. A square matrix is invertible if and only if
matrix has a nonzero term of the form  t n . all of its eigenvalues are non zero.
7. If an n  n matrix A has n real eigenvalues 18. The number 7 is an eigenvalue of the
ordered 0  1  2  ....  n , then the  3 2
corresponding (nonzero) eigenvectors form matrix  
a linearly independent set.  2 6

8. If an n  n matrix A has a factorization 19. If A is an n  n matrix and if

A  PDP 1 , in which D is a diagonal  1 2

v  , v  ,...., v   is a linearly independent
k

matrix and P is an invertible matrix, then set of k eigenvectors of A, then n  k .

Ak  P k D k P  k .
T
20. The vector  6, 5 is an eigenvector of the
9. If the entries in a matrix are integers, then
its eigenvalues are rational numbers. 1 6 
matrix  .
5 2 
10. If the n  n matrix A has n distinct
eigenvalues, then A is diagonalizable. 21. Let a and b be real numbers and let A be a
real matrix. If a  ib is an eigenvalue of A,
11. When we say that a matrix is then b  ia is also an eigenvalue of A.
diagonalizable, we mean that it is row
equivalent to a diagonal matrix. (Here i  1 .)

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294 Linear Algebra

 a b  36. Every invertible matrix is diagonalizable.

22. One eigenvector of the matrix   is
b a  37. Every lower triangular matrix is
1 diagonalizable.
 i  . Here a and b are real. n
 
23. For a real matrix A, if  is an eigenvalue 38. If  aij  c for 1  j  n, then c is an
i 1
of A, then so is  .
eigenvalue of A.
24. For every invertible matrix A, if Av   v ,
 5 12 
then A1v   1v . 39. The only eigenvalue of   is 1.
 2 5
25. There exists a real 3  3 matrix A such that
2  3i and 3  2i are eigenvalues of A.  3 2
40. The matrix   cannot be diagonalized.
 0 3
1
26. Let B   A   I  , where  is a number
that is not an eigenvalue of A. Then A and  4 1 1
B have the same eigenvectors. 41. For the matrix A   1 4 1 the

27. If the matrix A is invertible, then A is  0 1 3 

characteristic equation has a double root
similar to AT . but the corresponding eigenspace is one
dimensional.
28. If A is an invertible n  n matrix and B is
any n  n matrix, then AB is similar to BA.
6 5 3
29. If the matrix A is similar to the matrix B, 42. The eigenvalues of  4 1 0  are 7, 3
then the two matrices have the same eigen-  7 0 0 
vectors. and 1.

30. The eigenvalues of A and AT are the same. 2 2 7 1

0 5 6 2 
31. If  is an eigenvalue of A, then the kernel 43. The matrix  is
of A   I contains only zero vectors. 0 0 8 3
 
0 0 0 7
32. If the determinant of A equals  , then  is diagonalizable.
an eigenvalue of A.
44. For an n  n matrix A, the leading term in
33. If one of the eigenvalues of A is zero, then
A is not row equivalent to the identity the characteristic polynomial is   n .
matrix.
45. For n  n matrix A, the constant term in the
n
34. If the n  n matrix A has the property that
n
characteristic polynomial is  i , where
i 1
 aij  2 for i  1, 2,...., n , then 2 is an i are the eigenvalues.
j 1
eigenvalue of A. (The term aij are the
46. If the characteristic polynomial of a matrix
entries in A, in the usual way.)
A is p, and if p(0)  0 , then A is non
35. If the column sums of a square matrix are invertible.
all equal to  , then  is an eigenvalue of
the matrix.
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Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 295

47. If A is a 10  10 matrix whose entries are all 59. A diagonalizable n  n matrix must have n
real numbers, then at least one eigenvalue distinct eigenvalues.
of A is real.
60. There exists a 4  4 matrix A such that the
48. If the equation Ax   x has a solution,
then nothing more is required in concluding
 
set of matrices A3 , A4 , A5 , A6 , A7 is
that  is an eigenvalue of A. linearly independent.

49. Every square matrix A can be factored as  

61. The set I n , A, A2 ,..., An is linearly
A  PDP 1 , where D is a diagonal matrix
dependent if A is an n  n matrix.
and P is invertible.

a b  Assignment
50. If   has one eigenvalue, then it is
c d  ---------------------- S C Q ------------------------

(a  d ) .
2
1. Let T be a linear operator on a finite
51. The exact condition on a, b, c, d in order dimensional space V and c is any scalar,
a b  then c is characteristic value of T if
that   has only one eigenvalue is
c d  1. the operator (T  cI ) is singular
1
(a  d )2  bc  0 .
4 2. the operator (T  cI ) is non-singular
3. the operator (T  cI ) is identity
52. The eigenvalues of a matrix that is real and
symmetric are always real. 4. the operator (T  cI ) is zero

53. The eigenvalues of any (real) symmetric

matrix are nonnegative. 2. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space.
54. If a real matrix has only real eigenvalues, The minimal polynomial for the zero
then it is symmetric. operator is
55. Theorems that are true for real Hermitian 1.  x 2. x
and unitary matrices are automatically true
3. x  1 4. None of these
for symmetric and orthogonal matrices.

56. If the eigenvalues of a matrix are all

3. If V is an n -dimensional vector space over
complex, then the matrix is Hermitian.
the field F, then the characteristic
57. If A is a Hermitian matrix, then the
polynomial of the identity operator on V is
eigenvalues of A are real.
1. x n 2. (1  x )n
58. If xT Ax  xT Bx for all x, then A  B .
3. (1  x )2 n 4. None of these

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296 Linear Algebra

4. Let T : C n  C n be an linear operator If m( )   r  ar 1 r 1  ...  a1  a0

having n distinct eigen values. Then, (a0  0) be a minimal polynomial of T ,
1. T is invertible
then
2. T is invertible as well as diagonalizable
1. T is invertible
3. T is not diagonalizable
2. 0 is an eigen value of T
4. T is diagonalizable
3. T is singular
(GATE 2001)
4. 0 is root of m( )

5. Let {v1 , v2 ,..., v16 } be an ordered basis for

8. Let T be a linear operator on a finite
16
V  C . If T is a linear transformation on dimensional vector space V . If
V defined by T (vi )  vi 1 for 1  i  15 and m( )   r  ar 1 r 1  ...  a0 be a minimal
T (v16 )  (v1  v2  ...  v16 ), then polynomial of T , then
1. T is singular with rational eigen values 1. T is singular
2. T is singular but has no rational eigen 2. T is non-singular
values 3. T is invertible
3. T is regular (invertible) with rational 4. 0 is not root of m( )
eigen values
4. T is regular but has no rational eigen 9. Let T : V2 ( )  V2 (), where T be the
values
reflection of the points through the line
(GATE 2006)
y   x, then (with respect to standard
basis)
6. If  is a non-zero eigen value of a linear
1. T must be diagonalizable
operator T . Then, the following statement
2. T is invertible
is correct
3. minimal polynomial and characteristic
n n
1.  is an eigen value of T for n  1
polynomial are equal
1 2
2.  is an eigen value of T 4. All of the above
1
3. f ( ) is an eigen value of f (T ) for any
polynomial f (t ) 10. Let T : P1 ( )   2 be the linear
4. None of the above transformation T (a  bx )  (a, a  b), then
which is false?
7. Let T be a linear operator on a finite 1. T is invertible
dimensional vector space V .
 1 0
2. T 1    with respect to standard
 1 1 

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Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 297

basis 2. T is invertible
3. there exist a trivial subspace of P1 () 3. T is nilpotent

which is equal to eigen space of T . 4. Either diagonalizable or nilpotent

4. y -axis in two dimensional plane will be

15. Suppose T : V  V has characteristics
eigen space.
11. If T : V  V is a linear operator for polynomial c(t )  (t  8) 4 (t  1)3 and

dim V  n and T has n distinct eigen minimum polynomial m(t )  (t  8)3 (t  1)2 .
values, then Then,
1. T must be invertible 1. the geometrical multiplicity of 1 is less
2. T must be diagonalizable than that of 8
3. T must be invertible as well as 2. the geometrical mulplicity of 1 is
diagonalizable greater than that of 8
4. T is not diagonalizable 3. the geometrical multiplicity of 1 is
equal to that of 8
12. Let V be the vector space  and let T be2
4. T has 7 LI eigen vectors
the linear transformation on V defined by
T ( x, y )  ( x  y , y ). Then, the characteristic 16. If T be a linear operator on a vector space
polynomial of T is V such that T 2  T  I  0, then
1. 1  3x  x 2 2. 2  2x 1. T is one-one but may not be onto
2 2
3. 1  2x  x 4. 1  x 2. T is onto but may not be one-one
3. T is invertible
13. Suppose that the minimal polynomial of a 4. no such T exists
linear map T : 5  5 is x 2 ( x 3  1) .
Then, 17. If 3  3 real skew symmetric matrix has an

1. T  0 2. det(T )  0 eigen value 2i, then one of the remaining

eigen values is
3. det(T )  0 4. T is onto
1 1
1. 2. 
2i 2i
14. Let T :  n   n such that
3. 0 4. 1
T ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )  (0, x1 , x2 ,...., xn 1 ), then

1. T is diagonalizable

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298 Linear Algebra

18. Let T :  4   4 be defined by  3 2 

22. If A    satisfies the matrix
T  x, y , z , w    4 2 
 x  y  5w, x  2 y  w,  z  2w,5 x  y  2 z  . equation A2  kA  2 I  0, then what is the

The maximum number of L.I. eigen vectors value of k ?

of T is 1. 0 2. 1 3. 3 4. 4
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
(GATE 2011) 23. Let A be an n  n matrix from the set of
19. Let T : 3  3 be defined by numbers and A3  3 A2  4 A  6 I  0, where
T  x, y , z    x  y  z ,  x  y,  x  z  and I is n  n unit matrix. If A1 exist, then
M be its matrix with respect to the standard 1. A1  A  I
ordered basis. The eigen values of M are 2. A1  A  6 I
1. 1, i, i 2. 1, i, i 3. A1  3 A  6 I
3. 1, i, i 4. 1, i, i 1
4. A1  ( A2  3 A  4 I )
(GATE 2006) 6

20. Let T : 3  3 be defined by 24. All the eigen value of the matrix

T  x, y , z    x  y  z ,  x  y,  x  z  and 1 2 0 
 2 1 0  lie in the disc
M be its matrix with respect to the standard  
 0 0 1
ordered basis. The matrix M is similar to a
1.  1  1 2.  1  1
matrix which is
1. unitary 3.  1  0 4.  1  2
2. hermitian
3. skew hermitian 25. A matrix M has eigen value 1 and 4 with
4. having trace 0 corresponding eigen vectors (1, 1)T and
(GATE 2006)
(2,1)T , respectively. Then, M is

 4 8   9 8 
21. Let V be vector space of real polynomials 1.   2.  
5 9  5 4 
of degree atmost 2. Define a linear operator
i  2 2 3 2
3.   4.  
T : V  V by T  x    x , i  0,1, 2 . The
i j
1 3 1 2
j0

dimension of the eigen space of T 1

26. Let A and B be n  n matrices with the same
corresponding to the eigen value 1 is
minimal polynomial. Then,
1. 4 2. 3 3. 2 4. 1
1. A is similar to B
(GATE 2005)
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 299

2. A is diagonalizable, if B is diagonalizable 1 3 3 
3. A  B is singular 30. Let A   3 5 3  , if P is modal matrix
4. A and B is commute 6 6 4 

for A then P 1 AP is
27. Let A be an n  n matrix which is both  2 0 0   4 0 0 
Hermitian and unitary. Then, 1.  0 2 0  2.  0 4 0 
1. A2  I  0 0 4   0 0 2 

2. A is real  4 0 0   2 0 6
3. the eigen value of A are 0,1,1 3.  0 2 0  4.  0 2 0 
4. the characteristic and minimal  0 0 2  0 0 4

polynomials of A are the same

31. Let A be an n  n non singular complex
28. Which of the following statement is t t
matrix and let B   A  A, where  A  is
correct:
the conjugate transpose of A. If  is an
1. The matrix A and its transpose
eigen value of B, then
AT have the same characteristic
1.  is real and <0
polynomials.
2.  is real and   0
2. Similar matrices have not the same
3.  is real and   0
characteristic polynomials.
3. The trace of two similar matrices are 4.  is real and >0

not same. (GATE 2001)

4. The determinant of two similar

matrices are not same. 32. The number of vectors of maximum set of
linearly independent eigen vectors of

1 1  4 1 1
29. If A    , then the modal matrix P is A   2 5 2  is
 2 1  
 1 1 2 
 1 1   1 1 
1.   2.   1. 1 2. 2
1  i 1  i  1  i 1  i 
3. 3 4. None of these
 1 1   1 1 
3.   4.  
1  i 1  i  1  i 1  i 

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300 Linear Algebra
33. The characteristic polynomial of the 3  3 4. M 1  M  I
 0 0 c 
real matrix A  1 0 b  is  a 2 ab ac 
 0 1  a   
37. Consider the matrix M   ab b 2 bc  ,
1.  3  a 2  b  c  ac bc c 2 
 
2. (  a )(  b)(  c ) where a,b and c are non-zero real numbers.
Then, the matrix has
3. (  1)(  abc)2
2
1. three non-zero real eigen values
4.    1 (  abc)
2. complex eigen values
3. two non-zero eigen values
 3 7 4. only one non-zero eigen value
34. If the characteristic roots of   are 1
 2 5
and 2 , the characteristic roots of  1 1  i 2i 9 
1  i 3 4 7  i 
 5 7  38. Let M   , then
 2 3  are  2i 4 5 i 
   
 9 7  i i 7 
1. 1  2 , 1  2
1. M has purely imaginary eigen values
1 1
2. and 2. M has only real eigen values
1 2
3. M is not diagonalizable
3. 21 and 22
4. M has eigen values which are neither
4. 1  2 and 1  2 real nor purely imaginary

2 1  1 0  39. A is any n  n matrix with all entries equal

35. If A    and I    . Which of
 3 1 0 1  to 1, then 0 is an eigen value of A and
the following is the zero matrix? 1. multiplicity of 0 is n  1

1. A2  A  5I 2. A2  A  5 I 2. multiplicity of 0 is 1

3. A2  A  I 4. A2  3 A  5 I 3. multiplicity of 0 is n
4. multiplicity of 0 is 0

36. Let the characteristic equation of a matrix

40. Let A is any matrix which satisfy
M be  2    1  0, then
1
A3  A2  A  I  0 then A4 is
1. M does not exists
1. A  0
2. M 1 exists but cannot be determined
2. A4  I
from the data
3. there is no such matrix
3. M 1 = M  I
4. A3  A2  A  I
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Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 301

41. The eigen values of the matrix 45. How many of the following have an eigen
 4 2  1 0 0 1   1 0 
 2 1  are value 1?     and  
  0 0 0 0  1 1
1. 1,4 1. one 2. two 3. three 4. four
2. 1,2
3. 0,5  2 2 3
4. cannot be determined 46. For the matrix A   2 1 6  one of
 
 1 2 0 

42. Which one of the following is an eigen the eigen value is 3 .The other two eigen
5 0 0 0 values are
0 5 5 0  1. 2,5 2. 3,5
vector of the matrix 
0 0 2 1 3. 2,5 4. 3,5
 
0 0 3 1

1 0 1 1 47. Suppose ( , X ) be an eigen pair consisting

 2  0 0  1
1.   2.   3.   4.   of an eigen value and its corresponding
0 1  0 2
        eigen vector for a real matrix
0 0  2  1
 I  A   3  3 2  4  3 . Let I be a

1 2 (n  n) unit matrix, which one of the

43. The eigen vectors of the matrix   are
 0 2 following statement is not correct?

1 1  1. rank of ( A   I ) is less than n.

written in the form   and   . What is
a b  2. For matrix Am , m being a positive
a  b? integer ( m , X ) is the not an eigen pair.
1
1. 0 2. 3. 1 4. 2 3. If AT  A1 , then   1 .
2
4. If AT  A, then  is real.

1 1 0 
44. An eigen vector of A   0 2 2  is 2 3
48. Consider the following matrix A   .
 0 0 3  x y
1. [1 1 1]T 2. [1 2 1]T If the eigen values of A are 4 and 8, then
T T 1. x = 4, y = 10 2. x = 5, y = 8
3. 1 1 2 4.  2 1 1
3. x = 3, y = 9 4. x = 4,y =10

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302 Linear Algebra
49. The eigen values of the matrix 2.
3
 x     x   
3

 1 3 5  3. ( x   )( x   )( x   ) for some    , 
 3 1 6  are
 
 0 0 3  4. ( x   )2 ( x   ) or ( x   )( x   )2

1. 3,3  5i,6  i
54. The characteristic polynomial of 3  3
2. 6  5i,3  i,3  i
matrix A is  I  A   3  3 2  4  3 .Let
3. 3  i,3  i,5  i
4. 3, 1  3i, 1  3i x  trace( A) and y  A , the determinant

of A. Then,

50. The eigen values of a skew-symmetric x 3

1. 
y 4
matrix are
1. always zero x 4
2. 
y 3
2. always pure imaginary
3. x  y  3
3. either zero or pure imaginary
4. always real 4. x  3 and y  3

51. The characteristic equation of a 3  3 matrix 55. Let A be a real 4  4 matrix with

A is defined as C ( )    AI characteristic polynomial c( x)  ( x 2  1)2 .

Which of the following is true?
  3   2  2  1  0. If I denotes identity
1. A is diagonalizable over complex
matrix, then the inverse of matrix A will be
number but not over real numbers.
1. A2  A  2 I 2. A2  A  I
2. A is nilpotent.
3. ( A2  A  I ) 4. ( A2  A  2 I )
3. A is invertible.
4. there is no such matrix A .
 3 2 
52. If A    , then calculate A9 .
 1 0 
56. The characteristic vector of the matrix
1. 511A  510 I 2. 309 A  104 I
 2 3
3. 154 A  155 I 4. exp (9A)  1 4  corresponding to characteristic
 
root 1 is
53. If A is a 3  3 matrix over  and
1. (1,1) 2. (3,1)
 ,  ,   are the only characteristic roots
3. (3,1) 4. (1,3)
(eigen values) of A in  , then the
characteristic polynomial of A is
57. The constant term of the characteristic
1. ( x   )( x   )
polynomial of the matrix

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Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 303

1 2 6 5 
 2 4 12 10  4.   2n  for some integer n
4
  is
 1 3 2 5 
 
 3 2 1 4  61. Let A  [aij ] be an n  n matrix with real
1. 0 2. 1 3. trace A 4. 2 entries such that the sum of all the entries
58. The minimal polynomial of the 3  3 real in each row is zero. Consider the following
 a 0 0 statements.
matrix  0 a 0 is I. A is non-singular.
 0 0 b 
II. A is singular.
1. ( x  a )( x  b) III. 0 is an eigen value of A.
2. ( x  a )2 ( x  b) Which of the following is correct?

3. ( x  a )2 ( x  b)2 1. Only I is true

2. I and III are true
4. ( x  a )( x  b) 2
3. II and III are true
4. Only III is true
0 1 1
59. Let A  1 0 1  , then the eigen value of
62. A square matrix A is said to be idempotent,
1 1 0 
if A2  A. An idempotent matrix is non-
A are
singular if and only if
1. 2,1 and 0
1. all eigen values are real
2. 2,(1  i) and (1  i)
2. all eigen values are non-negative
3. 2,1 and 1
3. all eigen values are either 1 or 0
4. 1,1 and 0
4. all eigen values are 1

 cos   sin  
63. If A is symmetric matrix 1 , 2 ,..., n be the
60. Let A   be such that A has
 sin  cos  
eigen values of A and a11 , a22 ,..., ann is the
real eigen values, then
diagonal entries of A . Then, which of the
1.   n for some integer n
following is correct?

2.   2n  for some integer n
2 1. a  
ii i 2. a  
ii i

3. there is no restriction on  3. a  
ii i 4. a  
ii i

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304 Linear Algebra

64. Minimal polynomial m( x) of Ann each of then P 1 AP

whose element is 1, is  ei 0   e i 0
1.   2.  
1. x  1 2. x 2  x 0 e  i   0 ei 

3. x 2  nx 4. x 2  nx 1 0  1 0 
3.   4.  
0 1  0 1
65. The minimal polynomial m( ) of

2 8 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 4
0 2 0 0 0 0 0  69. Let A   0 5 6  , Then,

0 0 2 4 0 0 0  0 0 7 
 
M  0 0 0 5 0 0 0  is 1. A is diagonalizable but not A2
0 0 0 0 0 3 0
  2. A2 is diagonalizable but not A
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 5  3. Both A and A2 are diagonalizable

4. Neither A nor A2 is diagonalizable
1.  2 (  2)2 (  5)

2.  (  2)2 (  5)
5 1
3.  (  2)(  5) 70. For the matrix A    which of the
1 3 
4.  2 (  2)(  5) following is not correct?
1. A is non-singular
66. If the characteristic polynomial of A is 2. A is not diagonalizable
given by ( )   3   2  2  28. Then, 3. (1,1) is an eigen vector
trace of A and determinant of A are, 4. It has an eigen space of dimension 2
respectively
1. 1 and 28 2. 1 and 28 71. Let A be a 2  2 real matrix of rank 1. If

3. 1 and 28 4. 1 and 28 A is not diagonalizable, then

1. A is nilpotent
2. A is not nilpotent
1  1 n 
67. If   is an eigen vector  3 2n  , then 3. the minimal polynomial of A is linear
 1  
4. A has a non-zero eigen value
n is
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
72. Let A be an n  n matrix and has r
distinct eigen values (r  n), then the
1 i 
68. If x1    , x2    are given vectors and degree of its minimal polynomial is
i  1
1. atleast n 2. atleast r
 cos  sin  
A and if P  [ x1 , x2 ] ,
  sin  cos   3. atleast n  r 4. atmost r

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 305

73. Consider the matrix 76. Let A be a matrix with complex entries. If
0 1 2 0 A is hermitian as well as unitary and  is
1 0 1 0  an eigen value of A , then
A . Then,
2 1 0 2 1.  can be any real number
 
0 0 2 0
2.  =1 or 1
1. A has no real eigen value
3.  can be any complex number of
2. all real eigen values of A are positive
absolute value 1
3. all real eigen values of A are negative
4. None of the above
4. A has both positive and negative real
eigen values
77. Let P and Q be square matrices such that
(GATE 2005)
PQ = I, the identity matrix. Then, zero is an
eigen value of
74. If A and B are two matrices such that AB
1. P but not Q 2. Q but not P
and BA both exist, then which is not
3. Both P and Q 4. Neither P nor Q
correct?
1. Eigen values of AB and BA are
same a b 
78. Consider 2  2 matrix A    . If
c d 
2. AB  BA
a  d  1  ad  bc, then A3 equals
3. Trace  AB   Trace  BA 
1. 0 2.  I
4. Rank  AB   Rank  BA 
3. 3I 4. None of these

75. If A is 3  3 real matrix that satisfies 79. The eigen values of a 3  3 real matrix
A3  A, then A are 1,2 and 3. Then,
1. A is diagonalizable 1
1. A1   A2
2. A cannot be diagonalized 6

3. A is invertible 1
2. A1  (7 I  A2 )
6
4. the characteristic polynomial of A is
1
different from its minimal polynomial 3. A1   (7 I  A2 )
6
1
4. A1  (7 I  A2 )
6

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306 Linear Algebra
80. The minimal polynomial of  a b  22
85. If A     K , b  0, then A has
1 0 0 0  b a 
1
 1 0 0  eigen values if K is
is
0 0 2 0
  1.  2. 
0 0 0 2
3.  4. All of these
2 2
1. ( x  1) ( x  2) 2. ( x  1)( x  2)

3. ( x  1)( x  2) 4. ( x  1)2 ( x  2)2 86. If M is a 3  3 real matrix that satisfies

M 3  M , then
81. Let A be a 3  3 real matrix such that I. M is invertible
2
A   I 3 , where I 3 is the 3  3 identity II. Eigen values of M are distinct
matrix. Then, a matrix A is III. M is singular
1. diagonalizable 2. orthogonal Select the correct code
3. does not exist 4. symmetric 1. I and II 2. II and III
3. only I 4. all are wrong.

0 a
82. Let A    where 0  a  . If B is
0 0 87. If a square matrix of order 10 has exactly 4
another 2  2 real matrix which commutes distinct eigen values, then the degree of its
with A , then the eigen values of B are minimal polynomial is
always 1. atleast 4 2. atmost 4

1. equal 2. distinct 3. atleast 6 4. atmost 6

3. equal to 0 4. equal to 1 (GATE 2005)

83. Let A be 3  3 matrix whose characteristic 88. Let M be a skew-symmetric, orthogonal

roots are 3, 2, 1. If B  A2  A, then B is real matrix. Then, only possible eigen
values are
1. 24 2. 2 3. 12 4. 12
1. 1,1 2. i, i
3. 0 4. 1,i
84. If A is a real n  n matrix satisfying
A3  A, then trace of A is always
89. For a 3  3 real matrix let C ( A) denote the
1. n
set of the real characteristic roots of A .
2. 0
Suppose, C ( B)  C ( B 1 ) for a non singular
3. n
4. an integer in the set matrix B with no repeated eigen values.

{n, (n  1),..., 1,0,1,..., n} Then,

1. either 1 or 1 must be an eigen value of B .
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 307

2. I  B 2  a1  1 a2 a3 

B  b1 b2  1 b3  is
3. 1 and 1 are the only possible real  
 c1 c2 c3  1
eigen values of B
4. 1 must be an eigen values of B 1. 2 2. 1 3. 3 4.  2

93. If A and B are square matrices of different

3 0 0
 3 0 
90. Let M 1  1 3 0  , M 2   , order, C x ( A) and C x ( B) are characteristic
 1 3
 0 0 3 polynomials of A and B , respectively and
0 0  it is given that C x  B  is minimal
M3    . Then, the minimal
1 0  polynomial of A as well, then
M1 0 0  1. A is invertible implies B is invertible
polynomial of the matrix  0 M2 0  but B may be invertible even, if A is

 0 0 M 3 
not so
is 2. B is invertible implies A is invertible
1. x 2 ( x  3)3 ( x  3) 2 but A may be invertible even, if B is
2. x 2 ( x 2  9) not so
3. A and B are invertible together or fail
3. x 2 ( x 2  9) 2
together to be so
4. x( x  3)4 ( x  3) 2
4. No such relation is necessary

91. If  is a characteristic root of a non-

94. The eigen values of a 3  3 real matrix
singular matrix, then characteristic root of
P are 1,2,3. Then,
adj( A) is
1
1. P 1  (5 I  2 P  P 2 )
1.  A 2.  6

A adj( A) 1
2. P 1  (5 I  2 P  P 2 )
3. 4. 6
 
1
 a1 a2 a3  3. P 1  (5 I  2 P  P 2 )
6
92. Let A   b1 b2 b3  be an idempotent

 c1 c2 1
c3  4. P 1  (5 I  2 P  P 2 )
6
matrix with rank 2. Then, the rank of

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308 Linear Algebra
95. Let U be a 3  3 complex hermitian matrix 99. Let A be a 3  3 matrix with eigen values
which is unitary. Then, the distinct eigen 1,1,0. Then, the determinant of I  A100 is
values of U are 1. 6 2. 4 3. 9 4. 100
1. i 2. 1  i

3. 1 4.
1
(1  i ) 100.Let A   nn be such that the sum of
2
entries of each row is equal to 0 and the
(GATE 2001)
rank of A is non zero. Then,
1. A is diagonalizable
96. A basis for the eigen space of the matrix
2. A is idempotent
1 0 3. A is singular
 0 1  consist of
  4. A is involuntary
1 0 1
1.   2.   and  
1 0 1 101.The roots of the
0 0 1  ax h g
3.   4.   and  
1  1  0 equation h bx f  0;
g f cx
97. If A and B are square matrices of same where a, b, c, f , g , h are real, are
order, then 1. all real
1. AB is invertible iff BA is invertible 2. only one real
2. AB and BA have same eigen vectors 3. cannot be determined
3. A and B have same eigen vectors, 4. of same sign
if AB  BA
4. AB and BA have same eigen values iff 102.Let M be the real 5  5 matrix having all of
AB  BA its entries equal to 1. Then,
1. M is not diagonalizable
98. If 1 , 2 ,..., n are eigen values of matrix 2. M is idempotent
A , then trace of A is 3. M is nilpotent
1. 12 ...n 4. the minimal polynomial and the charac-

2. 1  2  ...  n teristic polynomial of M are not equal

1
3.
12 ...n 103.Let A be a non-zero upper triangular
matrix all of whose eigen values are 0.
4. 12  22  ...  n2
Then, I  A is
1. invertible 2. singular
3. idempotent 4. nilpotent
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 309

104.The eigen values of a skew-symmetric  40 29 11 

matrix are 108.Suppose the matrix A   18 30 12 
 26 24 50 
1. negative  
2. real has a certain complex number   0 as an
3. purely imaginary or zero eigenvalues. Which of the following
4. None of the above numbers must also be an eigenvalue of A ?
105.The number of linearly independent eigen 1. +20 2. 20
2 2 0 0 3. 20 4. 20
2 1 0 0 
vectors of the matrix  is (CSIR NET Dec 2011)
0 0 3 0
 
0 0 1 4
109.Let A be a 3  3 matrix with real entries
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
such that det(A)=6 and the trace of A is 0. If
(GATE 2008)
det(A+I)=0, where I denotes the 3  3
identity matrix, then the eigenvalues of A
106.Let A be an n  n complex matrix whose
are
characteristic polynomial is given by
1. 1, 2, 3 2. 1, 2, 3
f  t   t n  cn 1t n1  ...  c1t  c0 . Then,
3. 1, 2, 3 4. 1, 2, 3
1. det A = cn 1 (CSIR NET Dec 2011)
2. det A = c0 1 0 0 
3. det A = ( I n  A)2  I n  A 110.If A  1 0 1  , then A50 is
 0 1 0 
n
4. det A =  1 c0
 1 0 0  1 0 0
(GATE 2001) 1. 50 1 0  2.  48 1 0 
50 0 1   48 0 1 
107.Which of the following matrices is not
 1 0 0  1 0 0
diagonalizable ? 3.  25 1 0  4.  24 1 0 
1 1  1 0  25 0 1   24 0 1 
1.   2.  
1 2  3 2 (GATE 2012)
 0 1  1 1
3.   4.  
1 0   0 1
(GATE 2009)

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310 Linear Algebra
111.For the matrix 1 1
1. 2.  3. 0 4. 1
3  2i 4  2i 2i
 2

M  3  2i 5 6i  (GATE 2010)
 
 4 6i 3 

which of the following statements are 115.The minimal polynomial associated with

correct? 0 0 3
P : M is skew hermitian and iM is hermitian the matrix  1 0 2  is
 0 1 1 
Q : M is hermitian and iM is skew
hermitian 1. x 3  x 2  2 x  3
R : eigen values of M are real 2. x 3  x 2  2 x  3
S : eigen values of iM are real 3. x 3  x 2  3x  3
1. P and R only 2. Q and R only 4. aii
3. P and S only 4. Q and S only
(GATE 2009)
(GATE 2012)

116.Let f  x  be the minimal polynomial of

112.The distinct eigen values of the matrix
0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1
 1 1 0  are 0 0 0 
  the 4  4 matrix A  
0 1 0 0
 0 0 0   
0 0 1 0
1. 0 and 1 2. 1 and 1
Then the rank of the 4  4 matrix f  A  is
3. 1 and 2 4. 0 and 2
1. 0 2. 1
(GATE 2011)
3. 2 4. 4
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
113.The minimal polynomial of the matrix
3 3 0
 3 3 0  is 117.Let P be a 2  2 complex matrix such that
 
 0 0 6  P*P is the identity matrix, where P* is the
conjugate transpose of P . Then the
1. x  x  1 x  6  2. x  x  3
eigenvalues of P are
3.  x  3 x  6  4. x  x  6 
1. real
(GATE 2011) 2. complex conjugate of each other
3. reciprocals of each other
114.If a 3  3 real skew symmetric matrix has 4. of modulus 1
an eigen value 2i, then one of the remaining
eigen values is

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 311

118.Which of the following matrices is not x  Ax on  4 is  4 .

diagonalizable over  ? (CSIR NET Dec 2013)

1 1 0 1 1 0
121.Let A, B be n  n matrices. Which of the
1.  0 2 0  2.  0 2 1 
 0 0 1   0 0 3  following equals trace ( A2 B 2 ) ?

1. (trace ( AB ))2
1 1 0  1 0 1 
3.  0 1 0  4.  0 2 0  2. trace ( AB 2 A)
 0 0 2   0 0 3 
3. trace (( AB ) 2 )
(CSIR NET Dec 2014) 4. trace (BABA)
(CSIR NET June 2015)
119.Let A be an n  n matrix with real entries.
Which of the following is correct? 122.If A is a 5  5 real matrix with trace 15 and
2
1. If A  0, then A is diagonalizable if 2 and 3 are eigenvalues of A, each with
over complex numbers. algebraic multiplicity 2, then the
2. If A2  I , then A is diagonalizable determinant of A is equal to

over real numbers. 1. 0 2. 24 3. 120 4. 180

3. If A2  A, then A is diagonalizable (CSIR NET Dec 2015)

only over complex numbers.

123.Let A be a real 3  4 matrix of rank 2.
4. The only matrix of size n satisfying
the characteristic polynomial of A is A. Then the rank of At A , where At denotes

(CSIR NET Dec 2013) the transpose A, is :

1. exactly 2

120.Let A be a 4  4 invertible real matrix. 2. exactly 3

Which of the following is NOT necessarily 3. exactly 4

true? 4. at most 2 but not necessarily 2

(CSIR NET Dec 2015)
1. The rows of A form a basis of  4 .
2. Null space of A contains only the 0
124.Let S denote the set of all the prime
vector.
numbers p with the property that the matrix
3. A has 4 distinct eigenvalues.
4. Image of the linear transformation

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312 Linear Algebra

 91 31 0  127.Let J denote the matrix of order n  n with

 29 31 0  has an inverse in the field all entries 1 and let B be a (3n)  (3n)
 
 79 23 59  0 0 J
matrix given by B   0 J 0  .
 / p . Then J 0 0
 
1. S  {31} 2. S  {31,59} Then the rank of B is
1. 2n 2. 3n  1
3. S  {7,13,59} 4. S is infinite 3. 2 4. 3
(CSIR NET Dec 2015) (CSIR NET Dec 2016)
 0 0 0 4 
1 0 0 0 
125.Let A  I n be an n  n matrix such that 128. Let A   
0 1 0 5 
A2  A , where I n is the identity matrix of  
0 0 1 0 
order n. Which of the following statements Then a Jordan canonical form of A is
 1 0 0 0   1 1 0 0
is false ? 0 1 0 0  0 
1.   2.  0 1 0
1. ( I n  A)2  I n  A . 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0
   
2. Trace(A)=Rank(A).  0 0 0 2  0 0 0 2 
3. Rank( A)  Rank( I n  A)  n .
1 1 0 0  1 1 0 0
4. The eigenvalues of A are each equal 0 1 0 0   0 1 0 0 
3.  4. 
to 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0
   
(CSIR NET Dec 2015) 0 0 0 2  0 0 0 2 

(CSIR NET Dec 2011)

126.Let V be the vector space of all real 1 0 2 
polynomials of degree  10 . Let 129.Let A  1 2 0  and I be the 3  3
Tp( x )  p( x ) for p V be a linear  0 0 3
identity matrix.
transformation from V to V. Consider the
If 6A1  aA2  bA  cI for a, b, c   then
2 10
basis {1, x, x ,...., x } of V. Let A be the  a, b, c  equals
matrix of T with respect to this basis. Then 1. 1, 2,1 2. 1, 1, 2 
1. Trace A = 1 3.  4,1,1 4. 1, 4,1
2. det A = 0 (CSIR NET June 2017)
1 1 2
3. there is no m   such that Am  0
130.Let A   1 2 5  . Then the

4. A has a non-zero eigenvalue  2 5 3
(CSIR NET June 2016) eigenvalues of A are
1. 4,3, 3 2. 4,3,1
3. 4, 4  13 4. 4, 2  2 7
(CSIR NET June 2017)

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 313

131. Let A be a real symmetric matrix and 3. real

B  I  iA, where i 2  1 . Then 4. of modulus less than one
1. B is invertible if and only if A is
invertible (CSIR NET Dec 2018)
2. all eigenvalues of B are necessarily real 135. Let u1 , u2 ,..., un  be an orthonormal basis
3. B  I is necessarily invertible
4. B is necessarily invertible of  n as column vectors. Let
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
M   u1 ,...., uk  , N   uk 1 ,..., un  and P be
132. If A is a  2  2  matrix over  with
the diagonal k  k matrix with diagonal
Det  A  I   1  Det  A  then we can
entries 1 , 2 ,...., k   . Then which of
conclude that
the following is true ?
1. Det  A   0
1. Rank  MPM    k whenever  i   j
2. A  0
1  i, j  k .
3. Tr  A   0
k
2. Trace  MPM     i
4. A is nonsingular i 1

(CSIR NET June 2018)

3. Rank  M  N   min  k , n  k 
133. Let  n , n  2 , be equipped with standard
4. Rank  MM   NN    n
inner product. Let v1, v2 ,....., vn  be n
(CSIR NET Dec 2018)
column vectors forming an orthonormal
136. Let PA  x  denote the characteristic
basis of  n . Let A be the n  n matrix
polynomial of a matrix A. Then for which
formed by the column vectors v1 ,...., vn .
of the following matrices, PA  x   PA1  x 
Then
is constant ?
1. A  A1 2. A  AT
 3 3  4 3
3. A1  AT 4. Det  A   1 1.   2.  
 2 4  2 3
(CSIR NET June 2018)
 3 2  2 3
134. Let A be an n  n complex matrix. 3.   4.  
 4 3  3 4
Assume that A is self-adjoint and let B
(CSIR NET June 2019)
denote the inverse of A  iI n . Then all
137. Which of the following matrices is not
eigenvalues of  A  iI n  B are diagonalizable over  ?
1. purely imaginary
2. of modulus one
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314 Linear Algebra

2 0 1 4. Let  be a complex number such that

 1 1
1.  0 3 0  2.    3  1 but   1. If
 0 0 2  1 1
   1  2 
 
 2 1 0 A     2 1  , then which of the
 1 1
3.  0 3 0  4.    2  1 
 
 0 0 3 2 4 
  following statement are true?
(CSIR NET June 2019) 1. A is invertible
2. rank ( A)  2
---------------------- M C Q ------------------------ 3. 0 is an eigen value of A
4. There exists linearly independent
 3 2 
1. If A    , then A satisfies the relation vectors v,   C 3 such that
 1 0 
Av  A  0
1
1. A  3I  2 A  O
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
2. x  y  3
3. ( A  I )( A  2 I )  O 5. Let A be a 4  4 matrix with real entries
4. exp ( A)  0 such that 1,1,2,2 are its eigen values. If
B  A4  5 A2  5 I , where I denotes the
 cos   sin   4  4 identity matrix, then which of the
2. For 0     , the matrix 
 sin  cos 
following statements are correct?
1. has no real eigen value 1. det ( A  B)  0
2. is orthogonal
2. det ( B)  1
3. is symmetric
3. trace of A  B is 0
4. is skew-symmetric
4. trace of A  B is 4
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
3. Let T be any matrix and its characteristic
polynomial is x 2  x  1  0, then what
6. Let N be a 3  3 non zero matrix with the
about T ?
property N 3  0. Which of the following
1. T is one-one
is/are true ?
2. T is not one-one
1. N is not similar to a diagonal matrix.
3. may be in some case trace T   and in
2. N is similar to a diagonal matrix.
some cases may not.
3. N has one non zero eigenvector.
4. trace T   always.
4. N has three linearly independent
eigen vector.
(CSIR NET June 2011)
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 315

7. Let W = {p(B) : p is a polynomial with real 3. T is invertible

0 1 0 4. T(B) = B for some 0  B in M 2   
coefficients }, where B   0 0 1 
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
1 0 0
 
10. Let A be 2  2 non zero matrix with entries
The dimension d of the vector space W
in  such that A2  0 . Which of the
satisfies
following statements must be true ?
1. 4  d  6 2. 6  d  9
1. PAP 1 is diagonal for some invertible
3. 3  d  8 4. 3  d  4
2  2 matrix P with entries in 
(CSIR NET June 2011)

2. A has two distinct eigenvalues in 

8. Let A, B be complex n  n matrices. Which 3. A has only one eigenvalue in  with
of the following statements are true ? multiplicity 2
1. If A, B and A+B are invertible, then
4. Av = v for some v   2 , v  0
A1  B 1 is invertible
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
2. If A, B and A+B are invertible, then
A1  B 1 is invertible
11. Let ,  be distinct eigenvalues of a 2  2
3. If AB is nilpotent, then BA is
matrix A. Then which of the following
nilpotent
statements must be true ?
4. Characteristic polynomials of AB
1. A2 has distinct eigenvalues
and BA are equal if A is invertible
3  3
(CSIR NET Dec 2011) 2. A3  A        I
 
9. Let M 2    denote the set of 2  2 real
3. trace of An is  n   n for every
matrices. Let A M 2    be of trace 2 and
positive integer n
determinant 3. Identifying M 2    with 4. An is not a scalar multiple of

 4 , consider the linear transformation identity for any positive integer n

(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
T : M 2     M 2    defined by
12. Let C be an n  n real matrix. Let W be the
T  B   AB . Then which of the following
vector space spanned by I , C , C 2 ,..., C 2 n .
statements are true ?
The dimension of the vector space W is
1. T is diagonalizable
1. 2n 2. atmost n
2. 2 is an eigenvalue of T
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316 Linear Algebra

3. n2 4. atmost 2n 4.  is an eigenvalue of A.
(CSIR NET June 2012) (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
13. Let A  M 10    , the vector space of 16. Let A be a 4  4 matrix over  such that
rank(A)=2 and A3  A2  0. Suppose that A
10  10 matrices with entries in  . Let WA
is not diagonalizable. Then
be the subspace of M 10    spanned
1. One of the Jordan blocks of the
by  A | n  0 . Choose the correct
n
0 1
Jordan canonical form of A is  .
statements. 0 0

1. For any A, dim WA   10 2. A2  A  0.

3. There exists a vector v such that
2. For any A, dim WA   10
Av  0 but A2v  0
3. For some A, 10  dim WA   100
4. The characteristic polynomial of A is
4. For some A, dim WA  100
x 4  x3 .
(CSIR NET June 2013) (CSIR NET June 2014)
17. Which of the following matrices have
14. Let A be a complex 3  3 matrix with Jordan canonical form equal to
3
A   I . Which of the following statements 0 1 0
 
are correct ? 0 0 0 ?
0 0 0
1. A has three distinct eigenvalues  
2. A is diagonalizable over  0 0 1 0 0 1
3. A is triangularizable over  1.  0 0 0  2.  0 0 1 
0 0 0 0 0 0
4. A is nonsingular    
(CSIR NET June 2013) 0 1 1 0 1 1
3.  0 0 0  4.  0 0 1 
0 0 0 0 0 0
15. For an n  n real matrix A,    and a    

nonzero vector v   n suppose that

(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
k
 A  I  v  0 for some positive integer k.
18. Which of the following are eigenvalues of
Let I be the n  n identity matrix. Then
0 0 0 1 0 0
which of the following is/are always true ? 0
 0 0 0 1 0 
k r
1.  A   I  v  0 for all positive integers r. 0 0 0 0 0 1
the matrix   ?
2.  A  I 
k 1
v0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
 
3.  A   I  is not injective. 0 0 1 0 0 0 

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 317

1. +1 2. 1 3. +i 4. i  q ( a ) q (b ) q (c ) 
matrix q( A)   0 
q( a ) q( d )  .
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)  0 0 q(a ) 


 x y 3. If An  0 for some positive integer n,

19. Let A   , where x, y   such that
y x  then A3  0 .

x 2  y 2 1. Then we must have : 4. A commutes with every matrix of the

a' 0 c'
 cos  sin   form  0 a ' 0  .
1. For any n  1, An  
  sin  cos    0 0 a '
 
(CSIR NET June 2015)
   
where x  cos   , y  sin  
n n
21. Let S be the set of 3  3 real matrices A
2. tr  A   0 1 0 0
with A A   0 0 0  . Then the set S
T

 0 0 0
3. At  A1  
contains
4. A is similar to a diagonal matrix over 
1. a nilpotent matrix.
2. a matrix of rank one.
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
3. a matrix of rank two.
4. a non-zero skew-symmetric matrix.
a b c  (CSIR NET June 2015)
20. Let A   0 a d  be a 3  3 matrix
0 0 a 
 
22. An n  n complex matrix A satisfies
where a, b, c, d are integers. Then, we must
Ak  I n , the n  n identity matrix, where k is
have :
a positive integer  1 . Suppose 1 is not an
1. If a  0 , there is a polynomial
eigenvalue of A. Then which of the
p  [ x] such that p ( A) is the inverse
following statements are necessarily true ?
of A.
1. A is diagonalizable.
2. For each polynomial q    x  , the
2. A  A2  .....  Ak 1  0 , the n  n
zero matrix.
3. tr( A)  tr( A2 )  .....  tr( Ak 1 )   n

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318 Linear Algebra

4. A1  A2  ....  A ( k 1)   I n 3. B is the Jordan canonical form of A.

(CSIR NET June 2015) 4. The minimal polynomial and the

characteristic polynomial of A are the

23. Let u be a real n  1 vector satisfying same. (CSIR NET Dec 2015)

u ' u  1 , where u ' is the transpose of u .

26. Let A be an n  n matrix over  such that
Define A  I  2uu ' where I is the nth order
every nonzero vector of  n is an
identity matrix. Which of the following
eigenvector of A. Then
statements are true ?
1. All eigenvalues of A are equal.
1. A is singular.
2. All eigenvalues of A are distinct.
2. A2  A .
3. A   I for some    , where I is
3. Trace( A)  n  2 .
the n  n identity matrix.
2
4. A  I . 4. If  A and mA denote the characteristic
(CSIR NET June 2015)
polynomial and the minimal
polynomial respectively, then  A  mA .
24. Let A be an invertible 4  4 real matrix.
(CSIR NET Dec 2015)
Which of the following are NOT true ?
1. Rank A  4 .
27. Let S :  n   n be given by v   v for a
2. For every vector b   4 , Ax  b has
fixed   ,  0 . Let T :  n   n be a
exactly one solution. linear transformation such that
3. dim(nullspace A)  1 .   v1 ,..., vn  is a set of linearly
4. 0 is an eigenvalue of A. independent eigenvectors of T. Then
1. The matrix of T with respect to  is
(CSIR NET June 2015) diagonal.
2. The matrix of T–S with respect to  is
diagonal.
2 2 1  3. The matrix of T with respect to  is not
25. Consider the matrices A   0 2 1 and necessarily diagonal, but upper
triangular.
 0 0 3 
4. The matrix of T with respect to  is
2 1 0 diagonal but the matrix of  T  S  with
B   0 2 0  . Then respect to  is not diagonal.
  (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
 0 0 3 

1. A and B are similar over the field of

28. Let A be an n  n real matrix. Pick the
rational numbers  .
correct answer(s) from the following
2. A is diagonalizable over the field of
1. A has at least one real eigenvalue.
rational numbers  . 2. For all nonzero vectors

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 319

T
v, w   n ,  Aw   Av   0 . 1 1 
31. Let A    and let  n and  n denote
1 0 
3. Every eigenvalue of AT A is a non-
the two eigenvalues of An such that
negative real number.  n   n . Then
4. I  AT A is invertible. 1.  n   as n  
(CSIR NET June 2016) 2.  n  0 as n  
3.  n is positive if n is even.
4.  n is negative if n is odd.
29. Let a1 ,...., an  and b1 ,...., bn  be two bases
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
of  n . Let P be an n  n matrix with real 32. If P and Q are invertible matrices such that
PQ  QP , then we can conclude that
entries such that Pai  bi i  1, 2,..., n . 1. Tr ( P)  Tr (Q )  0
Suppose that every eigenvalue of P is 2. Tr ( P)  Tr (Q )  1
3. Tr ( P)  Tr (Q)
either-1 or 1. Let Q  I  2 P . Then which
4. Tr ( P)  Tr (Q)
of the following statements are true ? (CSIR NET Dec 2016)
1. a  2b i  1, 2,..., n is also a basis of
i i
33. Let n be an odd number  7 . Let A   aij 
 . n
be an n  n matrix with ai , i 1  1 for all
2. Q is invertible. i  1, 2,..., n  1 and an,1  1. Let aij  0 for
3. Every eigenvalue of Q is either 3 or –1. all the other pairs (i, j ) . Then we can
conclude that
4. det Q  0 if det P  0 .
1. A has 1 as an eigenvalue.
(CSIR NET June 2016) 2. A has –1 as an eigenvalue.
3. A has at least one eigenvalue with
multiplicity  2 .
30. Let T be a n  n matrix with the property 4. A has no real eigenvalues.
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
T n  0 . Which of the following is/are
true ? 34. Let A be a real symmetric matrix. Then we
can conclude that
1. T has n distinct eigenvalues. 1. A does not have 0 as an eigenvalue
2. T has one eigenvalue of multiplicity n. 2. All eigenvalues of A are real
3. If A1 exists, then A1 is real and
3. 0 is an eigenvalue of T.
symmetric
4. T is similar to a diagonal matrix. 4. A has at least one positive eigenvalue
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
(CSIR NET June 2016)
35. Consider a matrix A  [aij ]nn with integer
entries such that aij  0 for i  j and aii =1

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320 Linear Algebra

for i  1,..., n. Which of the following 39. For any n  n matrix B, let
property must be true?
1. A1 exists and it has integer entries.
 
N  B   X   n : BX  0 be the null
space of B. Let A be a 4  4 matrix with
2. A1 exists and it has some entries that
not integers. dim  N  A  2 I    2, dim  N  A  4 I    1
3. A1 is a polynomial function of A with and rank  A   3 . Then
rational coefficients. 1. 0, 2 and 4 are eigenvalues of A
4. A1 is not a power of A unless A is the 2. determinant  A   0
identity matrix.
3. A is not diagonalizable
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
4. trace  A   8
36. Let A be a non zero linear transformation (CSIR NET June 2017)
on a real vector space V of dimension n.
Let the subspace V0  V be the image of V 40. Which of the following 3  3 matrices are
under A. Let k  dim V0  n and suppose diagonalizable over  ?
1 2 3 0 1 0
that for some    , A2  A . Then
1.   1 1.  0 4 5  2.  1 0 0
 
2. det A  
n  0 0 6   0 0 1 
3.  is the only eigenvalue of A. 1 2 3 0 1 2
4. There is a nontrivial subspace V1  V 3.  2 1 4  4.  0 0 1

such that Ax  0 for all x V1  3 4 1   0 0 0 
(CSIR NET June 2012) (CSIR NET June 2017)
41. Consider the matrix
37. Let V be the vector space of polynomials of  1  x 2 7 11 
degree at most 3 in a variable x with  
coefficients in  . Let T  d / dx be the A  x    3x 2x 4 ; x   .
linear transformation of V to itself given by  8x 17 13 
 
differentiation. Which of the following are
Then
correct ?
1. T is invertible 1. A  x  has eigenvalue 0 for some x  
2. 0 is an eigenvalue of T 2. 0 is not an eigenvalue of A  x  for any
3. There is a basis with respect to which x
the matrix of T is nilpotent.
4. The matrix of T with respect to the basis 3. A  x  has eigenvalue 0 for all x  
4. A  x  is invertible for every x  
1,1  x,1  x  x 2 ,1  x  x 2  x3 is
(CSIR NET June 2017)
diagonal
(CSIR NET June 2017)
42. Let A be an m  n matrix of rank m with
n  m . If for some non-zero real number
38. Let A be an n  n real matrix with A2  A .  , we have x t AAt x   xt x, for all x   m
Then
1. the eigenvalues of A are either 0 or 1 then At A has
2. A is a diagonal matrix with diagonal 1. exactly two distinct eigenvalues
entries 0 or 1 2. 0 as an eigenvalue with multiplicity
3. rank  A   trace  A  nm
3.  as a non-zero eigenvalue
4. rank  I  A   trace  I  A  4. exactly two non-zero distinct
(CSIR NET June 2017) eigenvalues
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 321

2. minimal polynomial of A can only be of

43. Let A be a 3  3 matrix with real entries.
degree 3
Identify the correct statements.
1. A is necessarily diagonalizable over  3. either A  I33 or A   I33
2. if A has distinct real eigenvalues then it
is diagonalizable over  4. there are uncountably many A satisfying
3. if A has distinct eigenvalues then it is the above
diagonalizable over 
4. if all eigenvalues of A are non-zero then (CSIR NET June 2018)
it is diagonalizable over  47. Let A be an n  n matrix (with n  1 )
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
satisfying A2  7 A  12 I nn  O nn , where
 a b 
44. Let M   A    | a, b, c, d   and I nn and O nn denote the identity matrix
 c d
the eigenvalues of A are in  . Then and zero matrix of order n respectively.
1. M is empty Then which of the following statements are
 a b   true ?
2. M    | a, b, c, d   
 c d   1. A is invertible
3. if A  M then the eigenvalues of A are
in  2. t 2  7t  12n  0 where t  Tr  A 
4. if A, B  M are such that AB  I then
3. d 2  7d  12  0 where d  Det  A 
det A 1, 1
(CSIR NET Dec 2017) 4.  2  7  12  0 where  is an
45. Let V be a vector space over  with
eigenvalue of A
dimension n. Let T : V  V be a linear
(CSIR NET June 2018)
transformation with only 1 as eigenvalue.
48. Let A be a  6  6  matrix over  with
Then which of the following must be true ?
2 4
1. T  I  0 characteristic polynomial   x  3  x  2 
n 1 2
2.  T  I  0 and minimal polynomial   x  3 x  2  .
n
3.  T  I   0 Then Jordan canonical form of A can be

2n 3 0 0 0 0 0
4.  T  I  0 0
 3 0 0 0 0 
(CSIR NET June 2018) 0 0 2 1 0 0
1.  
46. Let A  M 3    be such that A8  I 33 . 0 0 0 2 1 0
0 0 0 0 2 1
Then  
0 0 0 0 0 2 
1. minimal polynomial of A can only be of
degree 2

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322 Linear Algebra

3 0 0 0 0 0 3. Characteristic polynomial of A2 is
0
 3 0 0 0 0  3
 X  1
0 0 2 1 0 0
2.   4. If A has exactly two Jordan blocks, then
0 0 0 2 0 0
0 0 0 0 2 0 2
   A  1 is diagonalizable
0 0 0 0 0 2 
(CSIR NET Dec 2018)
3 0 0 0 0 0
51. Let P3 be the vector space of polynomials
0
 3 0 0 0 0 
0 0 2 1 0 0 with real coefficients and of degree at most
3.  
0 0 0 2 0 0 3. Consider the linear map T : P3  P3
0 0 0 0 2 1
  defined by T  p  x    p  x  1  p  x  1 .
0 0 0 0 0 2 
Which of the following properties does
3 1 0 0 0 0
0 matrix of T (with respect to the standard
 3 0 0 0 0 
0 0 2 1 0 0 basis B  1, x, x 2 , x3  of P3 satisfy ?
4.  
0 0 0 2 0 0 1. det T  0
0 0 0 0 2 1
  T  2I 
4 3
 0 but  T  2 I   0
0 0 0 0 0 2  2.
3 2
(CSIR NET June 2018) 3. T  2I   0 but  T  2 I   0
49. Consider the linear transformation 4. 2 is an eigenvalue with multiplicity 4
T :    defined by
7 7
(CSIR NET Dec 2018)
T  x1 , x2 ,...., x6 , x7    x7 , x6 ,....., x2 , x1  . 52. Let M be an n  n Hermitian matrix of

Which of the following statements are true? rank k , k  n . If   0 is an eigenvalue of

1. the determinant of T is 1 M with corresponding unit column vector

2. there is a basis of  7 with respect to u, with Mu  u , then which of the

which T is a diagonal matrix following are true ?

3. T 7  I 1. rank  M  uu    k  1

4. The smallest n such that T n  I is even 2. rank  M  uu    k

(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
3. rank  M  uu    k  1
50. Let A be a real matrix with characteristic
 n
3
polynomial  X  1 . Pick the correct 4.  M  uu   M n   nuu 

statements from below : (CSIR NET Dec 2018)

1. A is necessarily diagonalizable 53. Let T :  n   n be a linear map that
2. If the minimal polynomial of A is satisfies T 2  T  I n . Then which of the
3
 X  1 , then A is diagonalizable following are true ?
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 9 Eigen values and eigen vectors 323

1. T is invertible the same eigenvalues in 

2. T  I n is not invertible (CSIR NET June 2019)

3. T has a real eigen value 0 1

56. Consider the matrix A    over the
4. T 3   I n (CSIR NET Dec 2018) 1 0
field  of rationals. Which of the
 1 1 1 
54. Let M   2 1 4  . Given that 1 is an following matrices are of the form Pt AP
 2 1 4  for a suitable 2  2 invertible matrix P over

eigenvalue of M, then which among the  ? Here Pt denotes the transpose of P.

following are correct ? 2 0   2 0
1.   2.  
1. The minimal polynomial of M is  0 2   0 2
 X  1 X  4  1 0   3 4
3.   4.  
2. The minimal polynomial of M is  0 1  4 5
2 (CSIR NET June 2019)
 X  1  X  4 
3. M is not diagonalizable
True false key
1 1
4. M   M  3I  1. T 2. T 3. F 4. F
4
(CSIR NET Dec 2018) 5. F 6. T 7. T 8. F
9. F 10. T 11. F 12. T
55. Let M n    be the ring of n  n matrices
13. T 14. F 15. T 16. T
over  . Which of the following are true
17. T 18. T 19. F 20. T
for every n  2?
21. F 22. T 23. T 24. T
1. there exist matrices A, B  M n    such
25. F 26. T 27. T 28. T
that AB  BA  I n , where I n denotes 29. F 30. T 31. F 32. F
the identity n  n matrix. 33. T 34. T 35. T 36. F

2. if A, B  M n    and AB  BA , then A 37. F 38. T 39. F 40. T

41. T 42. F 43. T 44. T
is diagonalizable over  if and only if
45. F 46. F 47. F 48. F
B is diagonalizable over 
49. F 50. T 51. T 52. T
3. if A, B  M n    , then AB and BA have
53. F 54. F 55. F 56. F
same minimal polynomial
57. T 58. T 59. F 60. F
4. if A, B  M n    , then AB and BA have 61. T

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324 Linear Algebra

Assignment key 133. 3 134. 2 135. 2 136. 3

SCQ 137. 1

1. 1 2. 2 3. 4 4. 4
5. 4 6. 1 7. 1 8. 1 MCQ

9. 4 10. 3 11. 2 12. 3 1. 1,3 2. 1,2 3. 1,4

13. 2 14. 3 15. 3 16. 3 4. 2,3 5. 1,2,4 6. 1,3

17. 3 18. 4 19. 1 20. 1 7. 3,4 8. 1,3,4 9. 1,3

21. 4 22. 2 23. 4 24. 4 10. 3 11. 2,3 12. 2,4

25. 4 26. 2 27. 1 28. 1 13. 1 14. 2,3,4 15. 1,3,4

29. 2 30. 1 31. 4 32. 3 16.1,3,4 17. 1,2,3 18. 1,2

33. 1 34. 2 35. 1 36. 3 19. 1,3,4 20.1,3,4 21. 1,2

37. 4 38. 2 39. 1 40. 2 22. 1,3,4 23. 3,4 24. 3,4

41. 3 42. 1 43. 2 44. 2 25. 1,3,4 26. 1,3 27. 1,2
45. 1 46. 2 47. 2 48. 4 28. 3,4 29. 1,2,3,4 30. 2,3

49. 4 50. 3 51. 4 52. 1 31. 1,2,3,4 32. 1,3 33. 1

53. 4 54. 3 55. 3 56. 3 34. 2,3 35. 1,3,4 36. 4

57. 1 58. 1 59. 3 60. 1 40. 1,3 41. 1 42. 1,2,3

61. 3 62. 4 63. 2 64. 4 43. 2,3 44. 3,4 45. 3,4

65. 1 66. 3 67. 2 68. 1 46. 4 47. 1,4 48. 2,3

69. 3 70. 4 71. 1 72. 2 49. 2,4 50. 3,4 51. 4

73. 4 74. 4 75. 1 76. 2 52. 1,4 53. 1,4 54. 2,3

77. 4 78. 2 79. 2 80. 1 55. 4 56. 1,3,4

81. 3 82. 1 83. 1 84. 4
85. 2 86. 4 87. 1 88. 2
89. 1 90. 3 91. 3 92. 2
93. 3 94. 1 95. 3 96. 4
97. 1 98. 2 99. 2 100. 3
101. 1 102. 4 103. 1 104. 3
105. 4 106. 4 107. 4 108. 3
109. 4 110. 3 111. 2 112. 4
113. 4 114. 3 115. 1 116. 1
117. 4 118. 3 119. 2 120. 3
121. 2 122. 4 123. 1 124. 4
125. 4 126. 2 127. 4 128. 1
129. 4 130. 3 131. 4 132. 3
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Chapter 10
Quadratic forms
Imagination is more important than knowledge.
– Albert Einstein

10.1 Definition and examples

Def. Quadratic Form : An expression q in n variables is called a quadratic form if it is an

homogeneous expression of degree two.
Def. Matrix of a quadratic form : Let q be a quadratic form in variables x1 , x2 ,....., xn over

a field F. A n  n matrix A is said to be matrix of q if

(i) A is symmetric.
 x1 
x 
(ii) q(X)  XAX , where  2 

 
 xn 

Def. Real Quadratic Form : A quadratic form is said to be real if its matrix A is over the
real field  and the column vector X is in the vector space  n .
Note : We shall confine our study to real quadratic forms only. Therefore , unless otherwise
stated , a quadratic form will be understood to be a real quadratic form.
Method : To write the matrix of a quadratic form.
Input : A quadratic form q(X) is given.
Output : Symmetric matrix of q(X).
Working Steps : The matrix of the quadratic form is given by
326 Linear Algebra

 1 1 
 coeff of x1
2
coeff of x1x2  coeff of x1xn 
2 2
 
 1 coeff of x x coeff of x22 
1
coeff of x2 xn 
2 1
A = 2 2 
 
     
1 1 
 coeff of xn x1 coeff of xn x2  2
coeff of xn 
2 2 
Method : To find a quadratic form when its matrix is given .
Input : Matrix of a quadratic form A =  aij  is given.
nn

 x1 
x 
Working Steps : (i) Take X =  2 

 
 xn 
(ii) Compute XAX and we get the required quadratic form.

Exercise 10.1
1. Which of the following are quadratic forms :
(i) x 2  y 2  x y  y z  4 y (ii) x12  2 x1 x2  x32  4 x1 x2 x3

(iii) x12  x22  3 x32  2 x1 x2 (iv) x 2  y 2  z 2  4 xy  2 xz  3 y z  5

(v) x 2  y 2  z 2  2 xy (vi) x12  x1 x2  x1 x3

2. Write the symmetric matrices of the following quadratic forms :

(i) x12  2 x22  x32  2 x1 x2  x2 x3  4 x1 x3 (ii) ( x  y )2  ( z  t ) 2

(iii) x1 x2  3x2 x3  2 x1 x3 (iv) ax 2  2hxy  by 2

(v) ax 2  by 2  cz 2  2hxy  2 fy z  2 g z x (vi) x12  2 x22  3x32  4 x2 x3  6 x1 x3

(vii) 2 x 2  4 y 2  3z 2  2 xy (viii) x1 x2  x2 x3  x3 x1
3. Write the quadratic forms corresponding to following symmetric matrices :

 1 2 4  2 5 3
 1 4
(i)   (ii)  2 3 5 (iii)  5 0 4 
 4 2  4 5 7   3 4 1

 
 1 3 4 1 0 5 2
   a 0 0 0
7 2 0 1

(iv) 3 1 (v)  0 b 0  (vi) 
 2 5 0 3 2
   0 0 c   
7 2 1 2 4
4 1
 2 
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 10 Quadratic forms 327

Answers
1. (i) No (ii) No (iii) yes (iv) No (v) Yes (vi) Yes

   1 
 1 1 2  1 1 0 0 0 2
1
  1  
1 1 0 0  1 3  a h
2. (i)  1 2 (ii)  (iii)  0 (iv)  
 2 0 0 1 1 2 2  h b
 1     3 
 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
 2   2 
 1 1
0 2 2
a h g 1 0 3  2 1 0  
1 1
(v)  h b f (vi)  0 2 2 
 (vii)  1 4 0 (viii)  0
 2 2
 g f c   3 2 3  0 0 3 1 1 
 0
 2 2 
3. (i) x12  8 x1 x2  2 x22 (ii) x12  3 x22  7 x32  4 x1 x2  8 x1 x3  10 x2 x3

(iii) 2 x12  x32  10 x1 x2  6 x1 x3  8 x2 x3 (iv) x12  x22  x32  6 x1 x2  8 x1 x3  7 x2 x3

(v) ax 2  by 2  cz 2 (vi) x12  2 x22  3x32  4 x42 10 x1 x3  4 x1 x4  2 x2 x4  4 x3 x4

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10.2 Diagonalization

Def. Discriminant of a quadratic form : The discriminant of a quadratic form is defined to be the
determinant of its matrix i.e. for q(X)= XA X , the discriminant of q(X) is det (A).
Def. Rank of a quadratic form : Rank of a quadratic form is defined to be the rank of its matrix.
Def. Singular and non – singular quadratic forms : A quadratic form is said to be singular if
its discriminant is zero ; otherwise it is called non – singular.
Def. Let q(X) = XAX be any quadratic form. A substitution X = BY in it is called a linear
transformation of the quadratic form. Further , if B is singular then the linear transformation X = BY
is called singular and if B is non – singular then it is called non-singular.
Result 1 : A quadratic form remains a quadratic form when subjected to a linear transformation.
Result 2 : The rank of a quadratic form is invariant under a non-singular linear transformation.
Def. Diagonal quadratic form : A quadratic form q(X) = XA X is called diagonal if matrix A is of
D O
the type  r where Dr is a diagonal matrix of order r.
O O 
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328 Linear Algebra
OR
A quadratic form q in the variables x1 , x2 ,.........., xn is called canonical or diagonal if it is

represented as q = a1 x12  a2 x22  ............  ar xr2 , where r  n .

Def. Diagonalization : The process of transforming a quadratic form into a diagonal form is called
diagonalization.
There are many methods to diagonalize a quadratic form. Among them we shall discuss two methods.
Result 3 : Every real quadratic form of rank r can be reduced to the form d1 y12  d 2 y22  ...  d r yr2 , di  0

by the application of a linear transformation. OR

Every real quadratic form on a field can be reduced to a diagonal form.
Method : To diagonalize a quadratic form.
Input : A quadratic form.
Output : Equivalent diagonal quadratic form and equations of transformation.
Working Steps :
(i) Find the symmetric matrix A of the given quadratic form.
(ii) Form the augmented matrix [A : I].
(iii) Check the entry a11. If a11  0 its okay but if a11 = 0 then make it non – zero by suitable row

operations and corresponding column operations.

(iv) Makes 0’s below a11 by applying row operations.
(v) Apply the corresponding column operations of step (iv) to make 0’s on the right of a11 .

(vi) Repeat the above process on a22 , a33 .... so on untill A is diagonalized. Then augmented matrix
[A : I] is transformed to a matrix, say, [D : P ], matrix A is congruent to D.
(vii) The equations of transformation are X = PY and diagonal form of given quadratic form is
d11 y12  d 22 y22  ...........  d nn yn2 .

Def. Rank , Index and Signature of a quadratic form : The number of non – zero terms in
the diagonal form of a quadratic form is called its rank and is denoted by r.
The number of positive terms in the diagonal form of a quadratic form is called its index and
is denoted by p.
The number 2p – r is called signature of a quadratic form and is denoted by s.
Example 1 : Reduce to diagonal form and find the rank , index and signature of the
following quadratic forms : x 2  y 2  4 z 2  9t 2  2 xy  4 yz  6 yt  6tx  12tz .

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 10 Quadratic forms 329

 1 1 0 3 
 1 1 2 3 
Solution : The matrix of the given quadratic form is A =  
 0 2 4 6 
 
 3 3 6 9 
 1 1 0 3  1 0 0 0
 1 1 2 3  0 1 0 0
Consider the augmented matrix [A : I] =  
 0 2 4 6  0 0 1 0
 
 3 3 6 9  0 0 0 1

 1 1 0 3  1 0 0 0
 0 0 2 0  1 1 0 0
Operating R 2  R 2  R1 , R 4  R 4  3R1 , we get ~  
 0 2 4 6  0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 6 18  3 0 0 1

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0
 0 0 2 0  1 1 0 0
Operating C 2  C 2  C1 , C 4  C 4  3C1 , we get ~  
 0 2 4 6  0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 6 18  3 0 0 1

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0
 0 4 2 6  0 0 1 0
Operating R 2  R 3 , C 2  C3 , we get ~  
 0 2 0 0  1 1 0 0
 
 0 6 0 18  3 0 0 1

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0
 1 
1 1  0 1 1 3  0 0 0
Operating R 2  R 2 , C 2  C 2 , we get ~  2 
2 2  0 1 0 0  1 1 0 0
 
 0 3 0 18  3 0 0 1 

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0
 1 
0 1 1 3  0 0 0
 2 
Operating R 3  R 3  1R 2 , R 4  R 4  3R 2 , we get ~  1 
0 0 1 3  1 1 0
 2 
 3 
0 0 3 27  3 0 1
 2 

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330 Linear Algebra

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0
 1 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0
 2 
Operating C3  C3  1.C 2 , C4  C4  3C2 , we get ~  1 
0 0 1 3  1 1 0
 2 
 3 
0 0 3 27  3 0 1
 2 

1 0 0 0
0  1 0 0
 1 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0
2
R 4  R 4  (3)R 3 , C 4  C4  (3)C3 ,we get ~   =[D : P ]
1 
0 0 1 0  1 1 0
 2 
 0 0 0 18  0 3 0 1 

Thus the diagonal form is y12  y22  y32  18 y42 .

and rank = 4 , index = 2 , signature = 0.
1 0 1 0
 x1    y1 
 x  0 0 1 3  
 y2
Equations of transformations are given by X = PY i.e.  2    1 1  
 x3   0 0   y3 
   2 2 y 
 x4   0 0 0 1   4 

1 1
i.e. x1 = y1  y3 , x2 = y3  3 y4 , x3 = y2  y3 and x4 = y4 .
2 2
Def. Canonical quadratic form : A quadratic form q(X)  X A X is said to be canonical if
(i) it is diagonal.
(ii) all non – zero elements on the diagonal of A are either 1 or 1 .
OR
A quadratic form q(X) in the variables {x1 , x2 ,..........., xn } is called in canonical form if

q(X) =  x12  x22  ...........  xr2 where r  n

Example 2 : Reduce the quadratic form x 2  y 2  4 z 2  9t 2  2 xy  4 yz  6 yt  6tx  12tz into

canonical form and also find the equations of transformation and rank , index , signature.
Solution : For the given quadratic form we have already obtained in example (1) that
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
 1 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0
 2 
[A : I] ~  1 
0 0 1 0  1 1 0
 2 
 0 0 0 18  0 3 0 1 

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 10 Quadratic forms 331

1 1
Operating R 4  R 4 , C4  C 4 , we get
18 18

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0 
 1 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0 
 2 
~  1  = [D : P ]
0 0 1 0  1 1 0 
 2 
 1 1 
0 0 0 1  0  0 
 2 18 

Thus the canonical form of quadratic form is y12  y22  y32  y42 .

Equations of transformations are given by

1 0 1 0 
 1   y 
 x1  0 0 1  1
x   2 y 
X = PY i.e.  2    1 1  2
 x3  0 0   y3 
   2 2  
 x4   1  4
y
0 0 0 
 18 
1 1 1 1
i.e. x1 = y1  y3 , x2 = y3  y4 , x3 = y2  y3 and x4 = y4 .
2 2 2 18
Also , rank , index and signature are given by same manner as in the diagonal form.
So Rank = 4 , Index = 2 and Signature  0 .
Def. Canonical quadratic form over complex field : A quadratic form q(X)  X A X is said

I O
to be in canonical form if matrix A is of the type A =  r  , where Ir denotes the
O O 
identity matrix of order r. OR
A quadratic form q(X) in the variables {x1 , x2 ,..........., xn } is called in canonical form

over C, q(X) = x12  x22  ...........  xr2 , r  n

Example 3 : Reduce the quadratic form x 2  y 2  4 z 2  9t 2  2 xy  4 yz  6 yt  6tx  12tz into

canonical form over complex field and also find the equations of transformation.
Solution : For the given quadratic form we have already obtained in Example 2 that

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1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0 
 1 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0 
 2 
[A : I] ~  1 
0 0 1 0  1 1 0 
 2 
 1 1 
0 0 0 1  0  0 
 2 18 
Operating R 3  i R 3 , C3  i C3 , R 4  i R 4 , C4  i C4 , we get

1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0 
 1 
0 1 0 0  0 0 0 
 2 
~  1  = [D : P ]
0 0 1 0  i i i 0 
 2 
 1 1 
0 0 0 1  0  i 0 i
 2 18 

Thus the canonical form of quadratic form is y12  y22  y32  y42 .

Equations of transformations are given by

1 0 i 0 
 1   y 
 x1  0 0 i  i 1
x   2 y 
X = PY i.e.  2    1 1   2
 x3  0 i 0   y3 
   2 2  
 x4   1   4
y
0 0 0 i
 18 
1 1 1 1
i.e. x1 = y1  i y3 , x2 = i y3  i y4 , x3 = y2  i y3 and x4 = i y4 .
2 2 2 18
Lagrange’s method of diagonalization :
Input : A quadratic form q(X) = X A X .
Output : Diagonal form of q(X) .
Working steps :
(i) If quadratic form is given in the matrix notation then first change it into polynomial
expression form. Let the variables used are x1 , x2 ,.........., xn .

(ii) Collect the terms containing x1 in one bracket and take the coefficient of x12 common

outside the bracket to make it unity.

2
1 
(iii)Complete the square by adding and subtracting  coefficient of x1  .
2 
(iv)Repeat the above process for x2 , x3 ,..... and so on.
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(v) Give the name a1 y12  a2 y22  .......  ar yr2 to the last obtained expression , this is the

required diagonal form and the equations of transformation are given by values of
y1 , y2 ,....., yr in terms of x1 , x2 ,....., xn .

Example 4 : Apply Lagrange’s method to reduce the following to the diagonal form
2 x 2  2 y 2  3 z 2  4 yz  2 xy  4 zx .

Solution : The given quadratic form can be expressed as (2 x 2  2 xy  4 xz )  2 y 2  4 yz  3 z 2

= 2[ x 2  x( y  2 z )]  2 y 2  4 yz  3z 2
1 1
= 2[ x 2  x( y  2 z )  ( y  2 z ) 2 ]  2 y 2  4 yz  3 z 2  ( y  2 z ) 2
4 2
2
 1  1
= 2  x  ( y  2 z )   2 y 2  4 yz  3z 2  ( y 2  4 z 2  4 yz )
 2  2
2
 1  3
= 2  x  ( y  2 z )   y 2  2 yz  z 2
 2  2
2
 1  3 4 
= 2  x  ( y  2 z )    y 2  yz   z 2
 2  2 3 
2
 1  3 4 4  2
= 2  x  ( y  2 z )    y 2  yz  z 2   z 2  z 2
 2  2 3 9  3
2 2
 1  3 2  1
= 2  x  ( y  2z)   y  z   z 2
 2  2 3  3
3 2 1 2
= 2 y12  y2  y3
2 3
1 2
where y1  x  y  z , y2  y  z , y3  z .
2 3
Exercise 10.2
1. Diagonalize the following quadratic forms and also find the rank , index and signature.
(i) x 2  2 y 2  7 z 2  4 xy  8 xz (ii) xy  yz  2 xz

1 2 3
(iii) X '  2  2  4  X
 (iv) 2 x12  2 x22  3 x32  4 x2 x3  4 x1 x3  2 x1 x2
 3  4  3 

(v) x 2  2 y 2  3z 2  4 yz  6 zx

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2. Reduce the following quadratic forms into canonical form and also find the equations of
transformations. Also find rank , index and signature.
(i) x12  3x22  5 x32 +4 x1 x2  4 x1 x3  10 x2 x3

1 2 3 1
2  4 6 2 
(ii) X '  X (iii) 2 x12  2 x22  3 x32  4 x2 x3  4 x1 x3  2 x1 x2
3 6 9 3
 
1 2 3 1

3. Reduce the following quadratic forms into form d i yi2 and also find the equations of

transformations.
 1 2 4 
2 2 2
(i) 2 x  2 x  3 x  4 x2 x3  4 x1 x3  2 x1 x2 (ii) X '  2 2 0 X
1 2 3  
 4 0  7 

(iii) x1 x2  x1 x3  x1 x4  x2 x3  x3 x4

4. By using the Lagrange’s method diagonalize the following quadratic forms.

(i) x12  2 x22  7 x32  4 x1 x2  8 x1 x3

(ii) 2 x12  5 x22  19 x32  24 x42  8 x1 x2  12 x1 x3  8 x1 x4  18 x2 x3  8 x2 x4  16 x3 x4

5. Reduce the real quadratic form

x12  3x22  8 x32  8 x42  4 x1 x2  6 x3 x1  4 x1 x4  10 x2 x3  16 x2 x4  20 x3 x4 to canonical form over

(i)  (ii)  . Also find the rank and index and write the matrix of transformation.

Answers
1. (i) y12  2 y22  9 y32 , rank = 3 index = 2 signature = 1.

1 2
(ii) y12  y2  2 y32 , rank = 3 index = 2 signature = 1.
4
14 2
(iii) y12  6 y22  y3 , rank = 3 index = 2 signature = 1.
3
3 2 1 2
(iv) 2 y12  y2  y3 , rank = 3 index = 3 signature = 3.
2 3
(v) y12  2 y22  4 y32 , rank = 3 index = 1 signature =  1.

2. (i) y12  y22  y32 , rank = 3, index = 2, signature = 1

1 1
Equations are x1  y1  2 y2  2 2 y3 , x2  y2  y3 , x3  y3
2 2
(ii) y12  y22 , rank = 2 , index = 1 , signature = 0.

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Chapter 10 Quadratic forms 335

y2 y
Equations are x1  y1   3 y3  y4 , x2  2 , x3  y3 , x4  y4
2 2
(iii) y12  y22  y32 , rank = 3 , index = 3 , signature = 3.

3 2 1 2 1 2 2
3. (i) 2 y12  y2  y3 , equations are x1  y1  y2  y3 , x2  y2  y3 , x3  y3
2 3 2 3 3
(ii) y12  2 y22  9 y32 , equations are x1  y1  2 y2  4 y3 , x2  y2  4 y3 , x3  y3

1 2 3 1 1 1 1
(iii) y12  y2  y32  y42 , equations are x1  y1  y2  y3  y4 , x2  y1  y2  y3  y4 ,
4 4 2 2 2 2
1
x3  y3  y4 , x4  y4
2
4. (i) y12  2 y22  9 y32 (ii) 2 y12  3 y22  4 y32

 1 5 2 1
 0 2 1 1
 
5. (i) y12  y22  y32 ; rank = 3 ; index = 2 ;  0 0 0 1 
 
0 1 0 0 
 2 
 1 5 2i 1
0 2 i 1
 
(ii) y12  y22  y32 ; 0 0 0 1
 
0 1 0 0
 2 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10.3 Definiteness of the quadratic forms

Def. Positive definite quadratic form : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called positive
definite if q is always positive for all non-zero real values of X and is zero only if X = 0.
A quadratic form q( x1 , x2 ,........, xn ) is positive definite if in its diagonal form (over reals)

all the variables x1 , x2 ,........, xn are present with positive coefficients i.e.

q = a1 x12  a2 x22  .....  an xn2 where a1 , a2 ,........, an are all positive real numbers.

Further in this form we see that rank = index = n i.e. p = r = n.

Remark : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called positive definite if q  X   0  X  0 .

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Def. Negative definite quadratic form : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called negative
definite if q is always negative for all non-zero real values of X and is zero only when X = 0.
A quadratic form q( x1 , x2 ,......, xn ) is negative definite if in its diagonal form (over reals) all

the variables x1 , x2 ,........, xn are present with negative coefficients i.e.

q =  a1 x12  a2 x22  .....  an xn2 where a1 , a2 ,........, an are all positive real numbers.

Further in this form we see that rank = n and index = 0 i.e. r = n and p = 0.
Remark : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called negative definite if q  X   0  X  0

Def. Positive semi - definite quadratic form : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called
positive semi – definite if q is always  0 for all real values of X .
A quadratic form q( x1 , x2 ,........, xn ) is positive semi – definite if in its diagonal form

(over reals) at least one variable out of x1 , x2 ,........, xn is absent and all remaining

variables are present with positive coefficients i.e.

q = a1 x12  a2 x22  .....  ar xr2 , r  n , where a1 , a2 ,........, an are all positive real numbers.

Further in this form we see that rank = index < n i.e. p = r < n.
Remark : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called positive semi – definite if q  X   0  X  0

Def. Negative semi - definite quadratic form : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called
negative semi – definite if q is always  0 for all real values of X .
A quadratic form q( x1 , x2 ,........, xn ) is negative semi – definite if in its diagonal form

(over reals) at least one variable out of x1 , x2 ,........, xn is absent and all remaining
variables are present with negative coefficients i.e.
q = a1 x12  a2 x22  .....  ar xr2 , r  n , where a1 , a2 ,........, an are all positive real numbers.
Further in this form we see that rank < n and index = 0 i.e. r < n and p = 0 .
Remark : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called negative semi – definite if q  X   0  X  0

Def. Indefinite quadratic form : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called indefinite if q
can assume both positive and negative values for different real values of X.
A quadratic form q( x1 , x2 ,........, xn ) is indefinite if in its diagonal form (over reals) at least

one negative and one positive term is present.

Remark : A real quadratic form q = XA X is called indefinite if q  X 1   0 for some X 1  0 ,

q  X 2   0 for some X 2  0

Def. Let q = XA X be a real quadratic form. The definiteness of the matrix A is defined
to be the definiteness of the quadratic form q.

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Def. Range of a quadratic form : The set of all values attained by a quadratic form is called its range.
Results : (i) Range of a positive definite and positive semi definite quadratic form is [0, ) .
(ii) Range of a negative definite and negative semi definite quadratic form is (,0] .
(iii) Range of an indefinite quadratic form is (, ) .
Example : Determine the definiteness of the quadratic form
6 x 2  25 y 2  61z 2  24 xy  36 xz  76 yz .

 6 12 18
Solution : The matrix of the given quadratic form is A =  12 25 38 
 18 38 61 

We have already obtained the diagonal form of this quadratic form in Example 4, namely,
6 y12  y22  3 y32 . Clearly this canonical form contains all the three variables and also with

positive coefficients, therefore the given quadratic form positive definite.

Note : If a quadratic form contains atleast one square term with positive sign and one square term with
negative sign, then that quadratic form is always indefinite.

Exercise 10.3
1. Determine the definiteness of the following quadratic forms using the digonalization process
(i) 6 x 2  3 y 2  3 z 2  4 xy  2 yz  4 zx (ii) 9 x 2  y 2  4 z 2  6 xy  4 yz  12 zx

(iii) 21x 2  11 y 2  2 z 2  30 xy  8 yz  12 zx (iv)  y 2  2 xy  2 yz

(v) 2 x12  4 x2 2  8 x32  2 x2 x3  2 x1 x3  2 x1 x2 (vi) x 2  2 y 2  3z 2  4 yz  6 zx

(vii)  3x 2  4 y 2  2 z 2  2 yz  xz  7 xy

Answers
1. (i) Positive Definite (ii) Positive Semi definite (iii) Negative Semi definite
(iv) Indefinite (v) Positive definite (vi) Indefinite
(vii) Indefinite

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10.4 Sylvester’s Criterion

Example : Write down all the minors, principal minors and the leading principal minor of
order 1,2,3 for a 3  3 matrix.

 a11 a12 a13 

Solution : Let A   a21 a22 a23 

 a31 a32 a33 

(i) Minors of order 1 : a11 , a12 , a13 , a21 , a22 , a23 , a31, a32 , a33 .

Principal minors of order 1 : a11 , a22 , a33 .

Leading principal minor of order 1 : a11 .

a22 a23 a21 a22 a21 a22 a12 a13 a11 a13
(ii) Minors order of 2 : , , , , ,
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32 a22 a23 a31 a33

a11 a12 a12 a13 a11 a13 a11 a12

, , ,
a31 a32 a23 a33 a21 a23 a21 a22

a11 a12 a11 a13 a22 a23

Principal minors of order 2 : , ,
a21 a22 a31 a33 a32 a33

a11 a12
Leading Principal Minor of order 2 :
a21 a22

a11 a12 a13

(iii) Minor of order 3  a21 a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a33

There is only one minor of order 3 which acts as principal minor and leading principal minor as well.
Result : Let A   aij  be a matrix, then
nn

2
(i) Number of all minors of order r  r is  n
Cr 

(ii) Number of all principal minors of order r  r is n Cr .

(iii) Number of leading principal minor of r  r is 1.

Theorem 1 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is positive definite iff all the leading principal

minors of A are positive.

Particular Cases :
a a  a a12
(i) The matrix A   11 12  is positive definite iff a11  0 , 11 0
 a21 a22  a21 a22

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 a11 a12 a13 

(ii) The matrix A   a21 a22 a23  is positive definite iff

 a31 a32 a33 

a11 a12 a13

a11 a12
a11  0 ,  0 , a21 a22 a23  0
a21 a22
a31 a32 a33

Theorem 2 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is negative definite iff all the leading

principal minors are alternatively negative and positive, starting with first.
Particular cases :
a a  a a12
(i) The matrix A   11 12  is negative definite iff a11  0 , 11 0
 a21 a22  a21 a22

 a11 a12 a13  a11 a12 a13

a a12
(ii) The matrix A   a21 a22 a23  is negative definite iff a11  0 , 11  0 , a21 a22 a23  0
 a21 a22
 a31 a32 a33  a31 a32 a33

Theorem 3 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is positive semi definite iff A is singular i.e

A  0 and all other principal minors are non-negative.

Particular cases :
a a  a a12
(i) The matrix A   11 12  is positive semi-definite iff a11  0 , a22  0 and 11 0
 a21 a22  a21 a22

 a11 a12 a13 

(ii) The matrix A   a21 a22 a23  is positive semi-definite iff

 a31 a32 a33 

a11 a12 a11 a13 a22 a23

a11  0 , a22  0 , a33  0 , 0, 0,  0 and A  0
a21 a22 a31 a33 a32 a33

Theorem 4 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is negative semi definite iff A  0 and all

principal minors of even order of A are non-negative while those of odd order are non-positive.
Particular Cases :
a a  a a12
(i) The matrix A   11 12  is negative semi-definite iff a11  0 , 11 0
 a21 a22  a21 a22

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 a11 a12 a13 

(ii) The matrix A   a21 a22 a23  is negative semi-definite iff

 a31 a32 a33 

a11 a12 a11 a13 a22 a23

a11  0 , a22  0 , a33  0 , 0 , 0 ,  0 and A  0 .
a21 a22 a31 a33 a32 a33

Theorem 5 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is indefinite iff at least one of the following

condition is satisfied.
(i) A has negative principal minor of even order.
(ii) A has positive principal minor of odd order and negative principal minor of even order.
Particular Cases :
a a 
(i) The matrix A   11 12  is indefinite iff A  0 and a11 and a22 are of opposite signs.
 a21 a22 

 a11 a12 a13 

(ii) The matrix A   a21 a22 a23  is indefinite iff

 a31 a32 a33 

a11 a12 a11 a13 a22 a23

(i)  0 or  0 or 0
a21 a22 a31 a33 a32 a33

(ii) Out of a11 , a22 , a33 , A at least one is positive and at least one is negative.

Theorem 6 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is positive semi-definite if A  0 and the other

leading principal minors are positive.

Particular Cases :
a a 
(i) The matrix A   11 12  is positive semi-definite if a11  0 , det  A   0
 a21 a22 

 a11 a12 a13 

a a12
(ii) The matrix A   a21 a22 a23  is positive semi-definite if a11  0 , 11  0 and det(A)=0
 a21 a22
 a31 a32 a33 

Theorem 7 : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is Negative Semi-definite if det  A   0 and

the other Principal Minor of odd order are negative and of even order are positive.
Eigen Value Theorem For definiteness : A quadratic form q  X   X T AX is

(i) Positive definite iff all eigen value of A are positive.

(ii) Negative definite iff all eigen value of A are negative.
(iii) Positive semi-definite iff at-least one eigen value is zero and all other eigen values are
non-negative.
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 10 Quadratic forms 341

(iv) Negative semi-definite iff at-least one eigen value is zero and all other eigen values are non-
positive.
(v) Indefinite iff at-least one eigen value is positive and at-least one eigen value is negative.
Results :
1. If A and B are two congruent matrices then they have same rank, same index and same signature.
or
If two matrices are congruent then they have same number of positive eigen values and same number
of negative eigen values.
2. If A and B are two positive definite matrices, then A  B is also positive definite.
Proof : If A and B are positive definite, then for all non-zero values of X, we have
X ' AX  0 and X ' BX  0
 X ' AX  X ' BX  0
 X ' A  B  X  0

 A  B is positive definite.
3. If A and B are two positive definite matrices such that AB  BA , then AB is also positive definite.
4. If A is positive definite matrix, then Ak is also positive definite for all k   .
Proof : If A is positive definite, then all the eigen values of A are positive and hence all the eigen
values of Ak are also positive. Therefore, Ak is positive definite.
5. If A and B are two positive definite matrices, then ABA is also positive definite.
Proof : Since A is positive definite, therefore A is symmetric also i.e., A '  A
 ABA  A ' BA  B
Thus, A ' BA and B have same number of positive eigen values and B is positive definite, therefore
A ' BA  ABA is also positive definite.
6. If A is positive definite matrix, then A ' A is also positive definite.
Proof : Since A is positive definite, therefore A is symmetric also i.e., A '  A
 A ' A  A2
and A2 is positive definite by result (4). Therefore, A ' A is positive definite.

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342 Linear Algebra

Exercise 10.4
1. Determine the definiteness of the following quadratic forms using the Sylvester’s Criterion .
(i) 6 x 2  3 y 2  14 z 2  4 xy  4 yz  18 zx (ii) x 2  y 2  z 2  xy  yz  zx

(iii)  x 2  2 y 2  2 z 2  2 xy  2 yz (iv)  x 2  3 y 2  2 z 2

(v)  21x12  30 x1 x2 12 x1 x3  11x22  8 x2 x3  2 x32

2. Prove that the quadratic form ax 2  2hxy  by 2 is positive definite iff a > 0 and h 2  a b .

3. For a positive definite quadratic form X  A X , prove that A  0 .

Answers
1. (i) Positive Definite (ii) Positive definite (iii) Negative definite
(iv) Negative definite (v) Indefinite

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 10 Quadratic forms 343

Assignment Pick the correct statement from below :

---------------------- S C Q --------------------- 1. There exists an eigenvector v of A such
t
1. Consider the quadratic form Q  v   v Av , that Av is perpendicular to v

1 0 0 0 2. The set {v   2 | f (v, v)  0} is a non-

0 1 0 0 
where A   , v   x, y , z , w  zero subspace of  2
0 0 0 1
  3. If v, w   2 are non-zero vectors such
0 0 1 0
that f (v, v)  0  f (w, w) , then v is a
Then
scalar multiple of w.
1. Q has rank 3
4. For every v   2 , there exists a non-
2. xy  z 2  Q  Pv  for some invertible
zero w   2 such that f (v, w)  0 .
4  4 real matrix P.
(CSIR NET June 2016)
3. xy  y 2  z 2  Q  Pv  for some

invertible 4  4 real matrix P.

 3 1 0 
4. x 2  y 2  zw  Q  Pv  for some 4. The matrix  1 2 1 is
invertible 4  4 real matrix P.  0 1 3 
 
(CSIR NET Dec 2015) 1. positive definite.
2. non-negative definite but not positive
definite.
2. Let A be a n  n real symmetric non- 3. negative definite.
4. neither negative definite nor positive
singular matrix. Suppose there exists definite.
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
x   n such that xAx  0 . Then we can
5. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such
conclude that
that b 2  c 2  a  1 . Consider the 3  3
1. det( A)  0 .
1 b c 
2. B   A is positive definite. matrix A  b a 0  .
3. y   n ; yA1 y  0 .  c 0 1 
1. All the eigenvalues of A are negative
4. y   n ; yA1 y  0 . real numbers
(CSIR NET June 2016) 2. All eigenvalues of A are positive real
numbers
3. A can have a positive as well as a
negative eigenvalue
1 0 
 . Let f :      be
2 2
3. Let A   4. Eigenvalues of A can be non real
 0 1 complex numbers
defined by f (v, w)  wT Av . (CSIR NET Dec 2012)

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344 Linear Algebra

1 2 Then which of the following are positive

6. Let A     M 2    and
4 3 definite
 :  2   2   be the bilinear map 1. A  B 2. ABA
T
defined by   v, w   v Aw . Choose the 3. A2  I 4. AB
correct statement from below :
(CSIR NET June 2011)
1.   v, w     w, v  for all v, w   2
2. there exists nonzero v   2 such that
  v, w   0 for all w   2 3. Which of the following matrices are
3. there exists a 2  2 symmetric matrix B positive definite ?
such that   v, v   vT Bv for all v   2  2 1 1 2
1.   2.  
4. the map  :    defined by
4
1 2  2 1
  v1  
   4 1 0 4
v  v  w   3.   4.  
   2       1  ,  1   is linear  1 4   4 0
  w1  
      v2   w2  
(CSIR NET June 2012)
  w2  
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
4. Suppose A is a 3  3 symmetric matrix
--------------------- M C Q -----------------------  x
such that  x, y ,1 A  y   xy  1 .
1. Let aij  ai a j , 1  i, j  b , where a1 ,....., an  1 

are real numbers. Let A   aij  be the  Let p be the number of positive eigenvalues
of A and let q  rank(A)  p . Then
n  n matrix  a  . Then
ij
1. p 1 2. p  2
1. It is possible to choose a1 ,....., an so as 3. q  2 4. q  1
to make the matrix A non singular. (CSIR NET Dec 2012)
2. The matrix A is positive definite if

 a1 ,....., an  is a non zero vector. 5. Let A be a n  n non-singular matrix with

3. The matrix A is positive semidefinite for real entries. Let B  AT denote the
transpose of A. Which of the following
all  a1 ,....., an  . matrices are positive definite ?
1. A  B 2. A1  B 1
4. For all  a1 ,....., an  , zero is an 3. AB 4. ABA
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
eigenvalue of A.
(CSIR NET June 2011)
3 1 2
6. Let A   1 2 3  and Q  X   X t AX for
2. Suppose A, B are n  n positive definite
 2 3 1 
matrices and I be the n  n identity matrix.
X  3 . Then

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 10 Quadratic forms 345

1. A has exactly two positive eigenvalues 10. For any real square matrix M let    M 
2. all the eigenvalues of A are positive
be the number of positive eigenvalues of M
3. Q  X   0 for all x   3 counting multiplicities. Let A be an n  n
4. Q  X   0 for some x   3 real symmetric matrix and Q be an n  n
real invertible matrix. Then
(CSIR NET June 2017)
1. Rank A  Rank QT AQ
2. Rank A  Rank Q 1 AQ
7. Consider the quadratic form 3.    A      QT AQ 
q  x, y , z   4 x 2  y 2  z 2  4 xy  2 xz  yz
4.    A     Q 1 AQ 
over  . Which of the following statements
about the range of values taken by q as (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
x, y , z vary over  , are true ?
11. Let f :  4   be defined by
1. range contains 1,  
f  x   xt Ax, where A is a 4  4 matrix
2. range is contained in  0, 
3. range   with real entries and xt denotes the
transpose of x. The gradient of f at a point
4. range is contained in   N ,   for some
x0 necessarily is
large natural number N depending on q
(CSIR NET Dec 2011) 1. 2Ax0 2. Ax0  At x0
3. 2 At x0 4. Ax0
8. Which of the following matrices are
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
positive definite ?
 2 1 1 2 12. For every 4  4 real symmetric non-
1.   2.  
1 2  2 1 singular matrix A, there exists a positive
 4 1 0 4 integer p such that
3.   4.   1. pI  A is positive definite
 1 4   4 0
(CSIR NET June 2012) 2. A p is positive definite
3. A p is positive definite
9. Consider the quadratic forms q and p given 4. exp  pA   I is positive definite
by q  x, y , z, w   x 2  y 2  z 2  bw2 and (CSIR NET Dec 2017)
p  x, y, z, w   x 2  y 2  czw . 1 2 0 
Which of the following statements are 13. Let A   0 0 2  and define for
true ? 0 0 1 
 
1. p and q are equivalent over  if b and
c are non zero complex numbers. x, y , z  
2. p and q are equivalent over  if b and
c are non zero real numbers.  x
 
3. p and q are equivalent over  if b and Q  x, y, z    x y z  A  y  .
c are non zero real numbers with b z
 
negative.
4. p and q are NOT equivalent over  if Which of the following statements are true
c0
?
(CSIR NET June 2013)

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346 Linear Algebra
1. The matrix of second order partial Assignment key
derivatives of the quadratic form Q is SCQ
2A 1. 4 2. 3 3. 4 4. 1
2. The rank of the quadratic form Q is 2 5. 2 6. ---
3. The signature of the quadratic form Q is
  0 MCQ
4. The quadratic form Q takes the value 0 1. 3,4 2. 1,2,3 3. 1,3

for some non-zero vector  x, y, z  4. 1,3 5. 3 6. 1,4

(CSIR NET June 2018) 7. 1,3 8. 1,3 9. 1,3,4
14. Consider the Quadratic forms 10. 1,2,3,4 11. --- 12. 1,2,3
Q1  x, y   xy 13. 4 14. 2 15. 1,2,4

Q2  x, y   x 2  2 xy  y 2

Q3  x, y   x 2  3 xy  2 y 2

on  2 . Choose the correct statements from

below :
1. Q1 and Q2 are equivalent

2. Q1 and Q3 are equivalent

3. Q2 and Q3 are equivalent

4. all are equivalent

(CSIR NET Dec 2018)
15. Consider a matrix A   aij  , 1  i, j  5
55

1
such that aij  , where ni , n j   .
ni  n j  1

Then in which of the following cases A is a

positive definite matrix ?
1. ni  i for all i  1, 2,3,4,5

2. n1  n2  ....  n5

3. n1  n2  ....  n5

4. n1  n2  ....  n5

(CSIR NET June 2019)

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Chapter 11
Inner product spaces
Believe in yourself and you will be unstoppable.
– Emily Guay

11.1 Definition and examples

Def. Inner Product : Let V be a vector space V over F where F is the field of complex numbers or
real numbers. A mapping ( , ) : V  V  F is called an inner product if it satisfies the following
axioms :
(i) (u , v ) = (v, u ) , the complex conjugate of (v, u )
(ii) (u , u )  0 and (u , u ) = 0 iff u = 0
(iii) (au  bv, w)  a (u , w)  b(v, w) for all u , v, w  V and a, b  F .
The space V equipped with an inner product is called an inner product space.
OR
A vector space V over F (F being the field of complex numbers or real numbers) is called an inner
product space if for any two elements u , v  V , there is defined an element of F , denoted by
(u , v ) ,satisfying the following axioms :

(i) (u , v ) = (v, u ) , the complex conjugate of (v, u )

(ii) (u , u )  0 and (u , u ) = 0 iff u = 0
(iii) (au  bv, w)  a (u , w)  b(v, w) for all u , v, w  V and a, b  F .
Remarks :
(1) Axioms (i) , (ii) and (iii) in the definition of Inner Product Space are called Symmetry , Non-
negativity and Linearity respectively.
(2) If F is the field of real numbers , then V is called real inner product space or Euclidean space. In
this case the axiom (i) is stated as : (u , v ) = (v, u )
(3) If F is the field of complex numbers , then V is called complex inner product space or Unitary space.
348 Linear Algebra

(4) It should be noted that by axiom (i) , we have , (u , u ) = (u , u ) so that (u , u ) is a real number and
hence (u , u )  0 in axiom (ii) is justified.
Some standard inner products :
1. Let u  ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn ) and v  ( y1 , y2 ,...., yn ) be any two vectors in  n then the standard inner

 y1 
y 
... xn     x1 y1  x2 y2  .....  xn yn
2
product is defined as (u , v)  uv '   x1 x2

 
 yn 

 x1   y1 
x  y 
Remark : If u   2
and v   2  be two column vectors of  n then the standard inner product is
 
   
 xn   yn 
given by  u , v   u ' v

2. Let u  ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn ) and v  ( y1 , y2 ,...., yn ) be any two vectors in  n then the standard inner

product is defined as (u , v)  uv  x1 y1  x2 y2  .....  xn yn .

 x1   y1 
x  y 
Remark : If u   2
and v   2  be two column vectors of  n then the standard inner product is
 
   
 xn   yn 
given by  u , v   u ' v  x1 y1  x2 y2  .....  xn yn

3. Let A and B be any two matrices of same order, then the standard inner product is defined as :
n
If complex entries, then A, B  tr( B A)   aij bij
i , j 1

If real entries, then A, B  tr( B ' A)  a1b1  a2b2  ....  anbn

4. Consider the vector space  n with inner product x, y  xT y , then Ax, y  x, A y . Where x

and y are column vectors.

T
Proof : Ax, y   Ax  y

 xT AT y
 xT A y

 
 xT A y

 x, A y

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 11 Inner product spaces 349

Remark : If  n is replaced by  n , then Ax, y  x, AT y .

Example 1 : Consider the vector space R2 (R). Show that

(u , v)  x1 y1  2 x1 y2  2 x2 y1  5 x2 y2 where u  ( x1 , x2 ) and v  ( y1 , y2 )

is an inner product on R2.

Solution : (i) For u  ( x1 , x2 ) and v  ( y1 , y2 ) , we have

(v, u ) = y1 x1  2 y1 x2  2 y2 x1  5 y2 x2

= x1 y1  2 x1 y2  2 x2 y1  5 x2 y2

= (u , v )
(ii) We have, by definition
(u , u ) = x1 x1  2 x1 x2  2 x2 x1  5 x2 x2

= x12  4 x1 x2  5 x22

= x 2
1  4 x1 x2  4 x22   x 2

= ( x1  2 x2 )2  x22  0

Also , (u , u ) = 0 iff ( x1  2 x2 )2  x22  0

iff x1  2 x2  0 and x2  0

iff x1 = 0 and x2 = 0

iff ( x1 , x2 ) = (0 , 0)
iff u = 0.
(iii) Let u = ( x1 , x2 ) , v = ( y1 , y2 ) and w = ( z1 , z2 ) , so that we have

au  bv  a ( x1 , x2 )  b( y1 , y2 )  (ax1  by1 , ax2  by2 )

Now by definition of inner product,

(au  bv, w)  (ax1  by1 ) z1  2(ax1  by1 ) z2 2(ax2  by2 ) z1  5(ax2  by2 ) z2

= a( x1 z1  2 x1 z2  2 x2 z1  5 x2 z2 ) + b( y1 z1  2 y1 z 2  2 y2 z1  5 y2 z2 )

= a(u, w)  b(v, w)
Hence (u , v ) defines an inner product on R2.

Example 2 : Given u1  (1,3) and u2  (2,1)  R 2 , find u  R 2 such that

(u , u1 )  3 and (u , u2 )  1

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350 Linear Algebra
Solution : The standard inner product on R2 is defined as
(u1 , u2 ) =  ( x1, x2 ),( y1, y2 )   x1 y1  x2 y2
Now given that u1 = (1 , 3) , u2 = (2 , 1)

Let u = (x , y)
Then by given conditions ,
(u , u1 ) = 3

  ( x, y), (1,3)   3
 x.1 + y.3 = 3
 x + 3y = 3 ......(1)
Also , (u , u2 )  1

  ( x, y), (2,1)   1
 x.2 + y.1 = 1
 2x + y = 1 ......(2)
6 7  6 7
Solving (1) and (2) , we obtain , x=  , y = . Hence u =   ,  .
5 5  5 5

Exercise 11.1
1. For u  ( x1 , x2 ) and v  ( y1 , y2 )   2 show that (u , v)  2 x1 y1  x1 y2  x2 y1  x2 y2 is an inner product

on  2 .
2. Consider the vector space  2 () . For u  ( x1 , x2 ) and v  ( y1 , y2 ) , show that (u , v) defined by

(u , v)  x1 y1  x2 y1  x1 y2  4 x2 y2 is an inner product on  2 .

3. For u  ( x1 , x2 ) and v  ( y1 , y2 ) , show that (u , v)  x1 y2  x2 does not define an inner product on

 2 ( ) .
4. Let V be the vector space over C of all complex valued continuous functions on the
b
interval [a , b] . Define the inner product on V as  f (t ) , g (t )  =  f (t ) g (t ) dt . Show
a

that V is an inner product space.

5. In 3 () , let u  (1  i, i, 1) , v  (1  2i,1  i, 2i) . Find (u , v) and (v , u) and verify that :

(i) (u , v)  (v, u ) (ii) (u , v)  (v, u )  2 Re(u, v ) (iii) (u , v)  (v, u )  2 Im(u , v)

6. (a) Let u = (1, 2), v = (  1, 1)  2 . If w is a vector s.t. (u , w)= 1 and (v , w) = 3, find w.
(b) If u1  (1, 3,1), u2  (2,1, 4) , u3  (6, 7,8)   3 , find u   3 such that (u , u1 )  1 ,

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 11 Inner product spaces 351

(u , u2 )  1 , (u , u3 )  7 .
7. (a) Let V be the vector space of all real polynomials of degree  2, show that
1

 f ( x), g ( x)    f ( x) g ( x) dx for all f ( x ) g ( x )  V is an inner product on V.

1

(b) If f ( x )  x 2  x  4 and g ( x )  x  1 , then find  f ( x ), g ( x )  and  g ( x), g ( x)  .

 1 2 0  2 3 1 
8. Let A    and B    , then find
 2 3 1   0 1 2 
(i) A, A (ii) B, B (iii) A, B

Answers
 7 2 8
6. (a)   ,  (b) (1 , 1 , 1) 7. (b) 8 , . 8. (i) 19 (ii) 19 (iii) –3
 3 3 3
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11.2 Properties of an inner product

Let V (F) be an inner product space then for all a, b, c  F and u , v, w  V , we have
(i) (au, v)  a (u , v) (ii) (u  v, w)  (u , w)  (v, w)
(iii) (u  v, w)  (u , w)  (v, w) (iv) (u , av)  a (u , v)

(v) (u , bv  cw)  b (u , v)  c (u, w) (vi) (u , v  w)  (u , v )  (u, w)

(vii) (u , v  w)  (u, v )  (u , w) (viii) (0, v )  (u, 0)  0
(ix) (u , v )  0 for all v  V  u = 0 (x) (u , w)  (v, w) for all w  V  u  v

Def. Norm of a vector : Let V be an inner product space and v  V . Then norm (length) of v,

denoted by v , is defined as v  (v, v )  (v, v)1 2

We take only non-negative value of square root and so norm of a vector is always a non-negative
real number.
Def. Unit Vector : A vector v of an inner product space V is called a unit vector if v = 1.

Result 1 : In an inner product space V over the field F , then

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v
(i) av  a v for all a  F , v  V (ii) is always a unit vector, where v  0
v

Result 2 : Cauchy schwarz inequality : Let V be an inner product space. Then for arbitrary vectors
u , v  V , we have (u, v)  u v

Further , equality holds if and only if u and v are linearly dependent.

OR
Modulus of inner product of two vectors cannot exceed the product of their norms.
Result 3 : Triangle’s inequality : Let V be an inner product space , then for all u , v  V , we have

uv  u  v .

Further if u  v  u  v , then u and v are linearly dependent.

Remark : In the above result , we have that if u  v  u  v , then u and v are

linearly dependent.
Now , we give an example to show that converse of this is not true , in general , i.e., if u and
v are linearly dependent , then it is not necessary that u  v  u  v .

For this , consider standard inner product on  3 .

Let u = (1, 2, 2) , v = (2, 4, 4)   3 then u and v are linearly dependent as v  2u

We have : u  (u, u ) = 1.1  (2)(2)  2.2 = 1 4  4  3

and v = (v , v ) = (2)(2)  4.4  (4)(4) = 4  16  16 = 6

Thus u + v = 3 + 6 = 9

Also , u + v = (1, 2, 2) and

u  v  (u  v, u  v ) = (1)(1)  2.2  (2)(2) = 1 4  4 = 3

Clearly u  v  u  v .

Result 4 : Parallelogram law : If u and v are vectors in an inner product space , then
2 2 2 2
u v  u v  2 u 2 v .

Result 5 : Every inner product space is a metric space.

Result 6 : Every inner product space is a normed linear space.
Example 1 : (i) Find the norm of the vector u = (2, 3,6)  R 3 .
u
(ii) Verify that is a unit vector.
u

Solution : (i) Using the standard inner product on R3 we have :

(u , u )  2.2  (3)(3)  6.6 = 4 + 9 + 36 = 49
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 u  (u, u ) = 7.

u 1 2 3 6
(ii) We have,  (2, 3,6) =  ,  , 
u 7 7 7 7

u 2 2  3  3  6 6 49
So ,  .        . =  1.
u 7 7  7  7  7 7 49

u
Hence is a unit vector.
u

Exercise 11.2
1. Let V(R) be a vector space of all real polynomial with inner product defined by
1
( f , g )   f ( x) g ( x) dx
0

If f ( x )  x 2  1 and g ( x )  x  1 then find ( f , g ) and g .

n 12 12
 n 2  n 2
2. For xi , yi  R , prove that  xi yi   xi   yi  .
i 1  i 1   i1 
1 12 12
1 2  1 2 
3. Prove that :  f ( x) g ( x) dx    f ( x ) dx    g ( x ) dx  where f ( x) and g ( x ) are continuous
0 0  0 
complex valued functions on [0 , 1].
4. If u = (2, 3,5) and v = (4,6, 10)   3 , verify that (u , v)  u . v . Why does the equality occur

here ?
5. If u ,v are vectors in a real inner product space s.t. u  v , prove that (u  v, u  v) = 0.

Answers
7 1
1.  , .
12 3

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11.3 Orthogonality

Def. Orthogonal Vectors : Let V be an inner product space and u , v be vectors in V. Then u is said
to be orthogonal to v (written u  v ) if (u , v) = 0.
Here note that
(i) If u  v , then (u , v) = 0 and so (v, u )  (u , v )  0 . Hence u  v iff v  u .
(ii) Since (0 , u) = 0 for all u  V so the zero vector is orthogonal to every vector.
(iii) Let u V such that u  u then (u , u) = 0  u = 0 . Hence the zero vector is
the only vector which is orthogonal to itself.
(iv) If (u , v )  0 , then (au, v)  a (u , v)  a.0  0 . Hence if u  v , then any scalar multiple of u is also
orthogonal to v
Def. Orthogonal Set : A subset S of inner product space is said to be orthogonal if (u , v )  0 for all
u , v  S such that u  v i.e. every two distinct vectors of S are orthogonal.
Def. Orthonormal Set : A subset S of an inner product space V(F) is called an orthonormal
set if (i) u  1 for all u  S

(ii) (u , v )  0 for all u , v  S such that u  v

i.e. if every element of S is a unit vector and every two different vectors of S are orthogonal.
0 if i  j
Obviously, if a set {u1 , u2 ,......, un } is orthonormal, then we must have (ui , u j )  
1 if i  j
Result 1 : In an inner product space , an orthogonal set of non – zero vectors is linearly independent.
Result 2 : In an inner product space, an orthonormal set is linearly independent.
Result 3 : Let {u1 , u2 ,........, un } be an orthonormal basis of an inner product space V and u  V be an
n
arbitrary vector , then u   (u, ui )ui = (u , u1 )u1  (u , u2 )u2  .......  (u , un )un
i 1

OR
Let {u1 , u2 ,........, un } be an orthonormal basis of an inner product space V and u  V be an

arbitrary vector , then the coordinates of u relative to this basis are (u , ui ) , 1  i  n .

Result 4 : Let {u1 , u2 ,........, un } be an orthogonal basis of an inner product space V and u  V be an
n
(u, ui ) (u , u1 ) (u , u2 ) ( u , un )
arbitrary vector , then u   2
ui = 2
u1  2
u2  .......  2
un
i 1 ui u1 u2 un

Result 5 : Bessel’s inequality : If {u1 , u2 ,........., un } is any finite orthonormal set in an inner
n
2 2
product space V(F) and if v is any vector in V(F) , then  (v , u )
i 1
i  v .

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Further, the equality holds iff v is in the subspace spanned by {u1 , u2 ,........., un } .

Result 6 : If {u1 , u2 ,.........., un } is an orthogonal set of non zero vectors in an inner product space

V , then for any vector v  V

n 2 2 2 2
(v , ui ) 2 (v, u1 ) (v , u 2 ) (v , u n ) 2

i 1 ui
2
 v i.e.
u1
2

u2
2
 ...... 
un
2
 v .

Result 7 : If V(F) is a finite dimensional inner product space and {u1 , u2 ,.........., un } is an
n
2 2
orthonormal set in V(F) s.t.  (v , u )
i 1
i = v for all v  V then {u1 , u2 ,.........., un } is a basis of V.

Result 8 : Gram-schmidt orthogonalisation process : Every finite dimensional inner product space
has an orthonormal basis.
Result 9 : Construction : If an ordinary basis {u1 , u2 , u3} of an inner product space is given then an

orthonormal basis {v1 , v2 , v3} is constructed in the following manner :

w1
v1 
w1
u1 w1 v1 w1  u1
w2
u2 w2 v2 ; w2  u2  (u2 , v1 )v1 ; v2 
w2
u3 w3 v3 w3  u3  (u3 , v1 )v1  (u3 , v2 )v2
w3
v3 
w3

Example 1 : Construct an orthonormal basis of R3(R) with standard inner product given the basis
{u1 , u2 , u3} , where u1  (1,0,1) , u2  (1,0, 1) , u3  (0,3, 4) .

Solution : If u = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) and v = ( y1 , y2 , y3 )  R3 then standard inner product is given by

(u , v)  x1 y1  x2 y2  x3 y3

Now the given basis of R3 is u1 , u2 , u3  where u1  (1,0,1) , u2  (1,0, 1) , u3  (0,3, 4)

Step I : We have :
u1 1  1 1 
v1   (1,0,1) =  ,0, 
u1 2 2
1  0 12
 2 2

Step II : Now let w2  u2  (u2 , v1 )v1 ......(1)

1 1
Now , (u2 , v1 )  1.  0.0  (1). 0
2 2
So , by (1) , w2  u2  (1, 0, 1)

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1 1  1 1 
 v2  w2 = (1,0, 1) =  , 0,  
w2 2
1  0  (1) 2
 2 2

Step III : Again let

w3  u3  (u3 , v1 )v1  (u3 , v2 )v2 ......(2)

1 1
Now , (u3 , v1 )  0.  3.0  4. = 2 2
2 2
1 1
and (u3 , v2 )  0.  3.0  4. = 2 2
2 2
Thus , by (2) , we obtain :
 1 1   1 1 
w3  (0,3, 4)  2 2  ,0, 2 2 ,0,   = (0 , 3 , 0)
 2 2  2 2
1 1
 v3  .w3  (0,3,0) = (0,1,0)
w3 3

Hence the orthonormal basis is {v1 , v2 , v3}

 1 1   1 1 
where v1   , 0,  , v2   ,0,   , v3 = (0 , 1 , 0).
 2 2  2 2

Exercise 11.3
1. Construct an orthonormal basis of 3 () with standard inner product given the basis {u1 , u2 , u3}

where
(i) u1  (1,1,1) , u2  (1, 2,1) , u3  (1, 2,3)

(ii) u1  (3,0, 4) , u2  (1,0, 7) , u3  (2,9,11) .

2. Construct an orthonormal basis of 3 () with standard inner product given the basis {u1 , u2 , u3}

where u1  (1  i, i,1) , u2  (2,1  2i, 2  i) , u3  (1  i ,0, i ) .

3. Construct an orthonormal basis w.r.t. standard inner product for the subspace of  4 generated by
(1,1, 1,1) and (1,0,1, 2) .
4. Let V be the vector space over  of all real polynomials of degree  2. Define an inner product on
1
V as ( f , g )   f ( x) g ( x) dx for f , g  V . Construct an orthonormal basis of V.
0

d2y dy
5. Let V be the vector space of real functions satisfying 2
 5  6 y  0 . In V , inner product is
dx dx
0
defined as (u , v)   u.v dx u , v  V . Find an orthonormal basis of V.


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d3y d2y dy
6. Let V be the vector space of real functions satisfying 3
 6 2
 11  6 y  0 . In V , inner
dx dx dx
0
product is defined as (u , v)   u.v dx u , v  V . Find an orthonormal basis of V.


7. Prove that two vectors u and v in a real inner product space V are orthogonal if
2 2 2
and only if uv  u  v (This is known as Pythagoras theorem)
2 2 2
8. Let V be a complex inner product space. If u and v are orthogonal , then u  v  u  v .

However, the converse need not be true.

9. Show that if V is a complex inner product space , then u , v  V are orthogonal if and only if
2 2 2
au  bv  au  bv for all a, b   .

10. If {u , v} is an orthonormal set in an inner product space V , then u  v  2 .

Answers
 1 1 1   1 2 1   1 1   3 4   4 3  
1. (i)  , ,  , , ,  ,  ,0,  (ii)  , 0,  ,   ,0,  ,  0,1,0  
 3 3 3   6 6 6   2 2   5 5   5 5  

1 i 1   1 1  5i 3  3i   7  i 5 6  3i 
2.  (1  i ), ,  ,  , , , , ,
2 2 2   2 3 4 3 4 3   2 30 2 30 2 30 


 1 1 1 1   1 1 3 3     1 
3.  , ,  ,  ,  ,  , ,   4. 1, (2 x  1) 3 ,  x 2  x   3 20 
 2 2 2 2   2 2 2 2     6 


5. 2e 2 x , 6  5e3 x  4e2 x   6.  2e x ,6e 2 x  4e x , 6 10e3 x  12e 2 x  3e x 
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11.4 Orthogonal complement

Def. Orthogonal subspaces : Let V(F) be an inner product space. Two subspaces
W1 and W2 of V are said to be orthogonal to each other if ( w1 , w2 )  0 for all w1  W1 and w2  W2

Def. Orthogonal complement : Let V(F) be an inner product space and W be a subspace of V.
The orthogonal complement of W , denoted by W  , is given by
W  = {v  V : (v, w)=0 for all w  W} i.e. orthogonal complement of W is collection of all
those vectors of V which are orthogonal to every element of W. Clearly , we have
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( w1 , w2 )  0 for all w1  W and w2  W  .

Thus W and W  are orthogonal to each other.

Result 1 : Let W be a subspace of an inner product space V(F) , then W  is a subspace of V. i.e.
orthogonal complement of a subspace is also a subspace.
Result 2 : Let V(F) be any inner product space , and W be a subspace of V , then prove that
(i) {0}  V (ii) V  = {0} (iii) W  W   {0} (iv) W1  W2  W2  W1

Result 3 : Let W be a subspace of an inner product space V(F). If {u1 , u2 ,......., un } is a basis of W ,

then w  W  iff (w, ui ) = 0 1  i  n . In other words, w is orthogonal to each element of W iff w is

orthogonal to all the elements in a basis of W.
Result 4 : If W is a subspace of a finite dimensional inner product space V, then V= W  W  i.e. V is
a direct sum of W and W  .
Result 5 : Let V(F) be a finite dimensional inner product space and W be a subspace of V. If
{u1 , u2 ,.........., un } is an orthonormal basis of W and {v1 , v2 ,.........., vm } is an orthonormal basis of W 

then {u1 , u2 ,.........., un , v1 , v2 ,.........., vm } is an orthonormal basis of V.

Result 6 : Let V be an inner product space and W be a subspace of V , then

(i) W  W  (ii) W  W  , if V is finite dimensional (iii) W   W 
Result 7 : If W1 and W2 are subspaces of a finite dimensional inner product space , then
 
(i)  W1  W2   W1  W2 (ii)  W1  W2   W1  W2

Def. Orthogonal projection : If W is a subspace of a finite dimensional inner product space V , then
we know that V = W  W  . By definition of direct sum , every element v  V can be uniquely
expressed as v  w  w , where w  W and w W  .
The vectors w and w are called orthogonal projections of v on the subspaces W and W  .
Result 8 : Let V(F) be an inner product space and S be a subspace of V. If L(S) denotes the
linear span of S, then

(i) S   L(S)

(ii) L(S)  S

(iii) L(S) = S if V is finite dimensional.
Result 9 : Let W1 , W2 ,.........., Wn be pairwise orthogonal subspaces of an inner product space
n n
2 2
V(F). If w =  wi where wi  Wi for i  1, 2,........, n , then w   wi .
i 1 i 1

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Exercise 11.4
1. Let W be a subspace of  4 () generated by the vectors u1  (1,2,3,  2) and u2  (2,4,5,  1) .

Obtain a basis for W  .

2. Consider 3 () with standard inner product defined in it. Let W be a subspace of  3 spanned

by the vector w = (2 ,  1 , 6) . Find the projection of the vector v = (4 , 1 , 2) on W and W  .

Answers
19 2
1. {(2,1, 0,0), (7,0,3,1)} 2. (2, 1,6) and (63,30, 16)
41 41

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Chapter 11 Inner product spaces 361

True false exercise 2 2 2

11. If x  y  x  y , then the vectors x
and y are mutually orthogonal.
1. Let V be the span of these two vectors :
u  (1, 0, 1) and w  (0,1, 0) . Then the
12. x  y  x  y , for all x and y.
vector v  (1,0,1) is in the orthogonal
complement of V.
13. If x, y  x, z , then y  z .
2. In an inner product space, the norm of a
vector x is defined to be x, x . 14. If x, y  0 , then x  0 or y  0 .

3. The orthogonal projection of a vector y 15. If either x  0 or y  0 , then x, y  0 .

onto a nonzero vector x is the point
 1 
p  y, x  2  x . 16. If x, y  0 , then x  y  y .
 x 
  17. If x  y  y , then x, y  0 .

4. If an n-dimensional inner-product space 18. If u  (1,3, 2) and v  (2,1,0) , then

contains an orthonormal set of n vectors,
u , v  1 .
then the orthonormal set is a basis for the
space.
19. A sufficient condition for orthogonality (or
5. In an inner-product space (using real perpendicularity) of the pair u , v is
numbers as scalars) these are correct : u v  vu .
2 2 2
x,  y   x, y , x  y  x  y ,
x, y  z  z , x  y , x . 20. Consider the subspace
W  span (1,3, 2),(0,1, 2) , then (4,–2,1) is
6. The orthogonal projection of (1, 3) onto orthogonal to W .
(–2, 2) is (–1, 1).
21. The orthogonal projection of (5, 3) onto
7. If x and y are real unit vectors in an inner  14 7 
2 (–2, 1) is  ,  .
product space, then x  y  2(1  x, y ) .  5 5

8. The three vectors u  (3,3,1), 22. Let W be a subset of  n . If a vector x is

v  (2, 1, 3) and w  (8, 11,9) form an orthogonal to W and to W  , then x  0 .
orthogonal set.
23. The null space of a matrix is the orthogonal
9. The vector (1,3,7) is orthogonal to the two complement of its row space.
vectors (2, –3,1) and (8,2,–2).
24. Let v, u and x be three vectors in  n such
10. Because the inner product is linear, we that x  (v  u ) and x  (v  u ) . It follows
have these two rules for computation :
that x  v and x  u . (The notation x  v
a. x, u  v  x, u  x, v means that x is orthogonal to v.)
b. x  y, u  v  x, u  y, v

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362 Linear Algebra
25. The orthogonal projection of a vector v  1 6 6 
onto a vector z is v, z v / z , z .  3 8 3 
38. Let A   
 1 2 6 
26. An orthogonal set of non-zero vectors is  
necessarily linearly independent.  1 4 3
Applying the Gram-Schmidt process to the
27. If the columns of a square matrix form an  1 3 1 
orthonormal set, then the same is true of its 3 1 1
rows. columns, we obtain  
 1 1 3
 
28. If the components of the vector v are not  1 1 1 
integers, then the length of v is not an
integer. 39. The rows in a unitary matrix are vectors of
norm one.
29. An orthonormal set of vectors is
necessarily linearly independent. 40. Let A be a real symmetric matrix. If
Ax  2 x and Ay  3 y , then we are justified
30. If the columns of a 9  7 matrix form an in concluding that x, y  0 .
orthonormal set, then the same is true of its
rows.
41. Let A be a symmetric and real matrix.
31. In an inner-product space, zero is the only Suppose that Ax   x and Ay   y ,
where    , x  0 and y  0 . Then we
vector that is in W and W  . Here W is a
subspace of the inner-product space. can conclude that x  y .

32. If V is a subspace of an inner-product space 42. For x and y in  n , x, y  y, x .

X, then every point x in X can be expressed
as x  u  v , where v is in V and u is in V  .
Assignment
4
33. The space  , with its usual inner product, ---------------------- S C Q ---------------------
has many different orthonormal bases.
1. Let V be the inner product space consisting
34. Let v  (1,0, 2,1) and w  (1,1, 1,1) . The of linear polynomials, p : 0,1   (i.e., V
projection of x  (1,0,1, 0) on the span of
consists of polynomials p of the form
1
v, w is v .
2 p  x   ax  b, a, b   ), with the inner
1
35. If u1, u2 ,...., un  spans an inner-product product defined by p, q   p  x  q  x  dx
space V, and if x  V and x, ui  0 for 0

i  1, 2,...., n , then x  0 . for p, q V . An orthonormal basis of V is

36. If W is a subspace in a finite-dimensional 1. {1, x} 

2. 1, x 3 
inner-product space V, then V  W  W  .
 1
37. In a finite-dimensional inner-product space,
3. 1,  2 x 1 3 4. 1, x  
 2
every subspace is the orthogonal
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
complement of some other subspace.

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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 11 Inner product spaces 363

2. Consider the subsequences W1 and W2 of ----------------------- M C Q ------------------------

 3 given by
1. Let J be the 3  3 matrix all of whose
W1   x, y , z    3 : x  y  z  0 and
entries are 1. Then :
W2   x, y, z    3 : x  y  z  0 . If W is 1. 0 and 3 are the only eigenvalues of A.

a subspace of  3 such that 2. J is positive semidefinite, i.e.,

(i) W  W2  span  0,1,1 Jx, x  0 for all x   3 .

3. J is diagonalizable.
(ii) W  W1 is orthogonal to W  W2 with
4. J is positive definite, i.e., Jx, x  0
respect to the usual inner product of  3 ,
then for all x   3 with x  0

1. W  span  0,1, 1 ,  0,1,1 (CSIR NET Dec 2011)

2. W  span 1,0, 1 ,  0,1, 1

2. Let y be a non zero vector in an inner
3. W  span 1, 0, 1 ,  0,1,1 product space V. Then which of the
4. W  span 1, 0, 1 , 1,0,1 following are subspaces of V ?

(CSIR NET Dec 2018) 1.  x V | x, y  0

3. Let V be the vector space of polynomials in 2.  x V | x, y  1

the variable t of degree at most 2 over  .
3. {x V | x, z  0 for all z such that
An inner product on V is defined by
1 z , y  0}
f , g   f  t  g  t  dt for f , g V . Let
0 4. {x V | x, z  1 for all z such that
W  span 1  t 2 ,1  t 2  and W  be the z , y  1}
orthogonal complement of W in V. Which (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
of the following conditions is satisfied for
all h W  ? 3. Let T1 ,T2 be two linear transformations
1. h is an even function, i.e., h  t   h  t  from  n to  n . Let  x1 , x2 ,...., xn  be a
2. h is an odd function, i.e., h  t    h  t  basis of  n . Suppose that T1 xi  0 for
3. h  t   0 has a real solution every i  1, 2,..., n and that xi  Ker T2 for

4. h  0   0 (CSIR NET June 2019)

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364 Linear Algebra

every i  1, 2,..., n . Which of the following 6. Let A be a real n  n orthogonal matrix,

is/are necessarily true ? that is, At A  AAt  I n , the n  n identity
1. T1 is invertible. matrix. Which of the following statements
2. T2 is invertible. are necessarily true ?

3. Both T1 ,T2 are invertible. 1. Ax, Ay  x, y  x, y   n

4. Neither T1 nor T2 is invertible. 2. All eigenvalues of A are either +1 or –1

3. The rows of A form an orthonormal
(CSIR NET Dec 2013)
basis of  n

4. Let V denote the vector space of all 4. A is diagonalizable over 

polynomials over  of degree less than or (CSIR NET Dec 2014)

equal to n. Which of the following defines

a norm on V ? 7. Let A be an n  n matrix with real entries.

2 2 2 Define x, y : Ax, Ay , x, y   n . Then

1. p  p 1  ....  p  n  1 , p  V A

x, y A
defines an inner-product if and only
2. p  supt 0,1 p  t  , p V
if
1
3. p   p  t  dt , p  V 1. Ker A  0
0
2. rank A  n
4. p  supt 0,1 p '  t  , p V
3. All eigenvalues of A are positive.
(CSIR NET June 2014)
4. All eigenvalues of A are non-negative.
(CSIR NET June 2016)
5. Let u , v, w be vectors in an inner product

space V, satisfying u  v  w  2 and 8. Suppose v1 ,...., vn  are unit vectors in  n

 u , v  0,  u, w  1,  v, w  1 . Then n
2
2
such that v   vi , v , v  n
which of the following are true ? i 1

1. w v u  2 2 Then decide the correct statements in the

following
1 1 
2.  u , v  forms an orthonormal basis
2 2  1. v1 ,...., vn are mutually orthogonal.
of a two dimensional subspace of V. 2. v1 ,..., vn  is a basis for  n .
3. w and 4u  w are orthogonal to each
3. v1 ,...., vn are not mutually orthogonal.
other.
4. Atmost n  1 of the elements in the set
4. u , v, w are necessarily linearly
v1 ,..., vn  can be orthogonal.
independent.
(CSIR NET June 2016)
(CSIR NET June 2014)
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 RISING STAR ACADEMY
Chapter 11 Inner product spaces 365

9. Consider the vector space V of real True false key

polynomials of degree less than or equal to
n. Fix distinct real numbers a0 , a1,...., ak . 1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T
For p V 5. F 6. T 7. T 8. T

  
max p a j : 0  j  k  9. T 10. F 11. T 12. F

Defines a norm on V 13. F 14. F 15. T 16. T

1. only if k  n 17. F 18. F 19. T 20. T
2. only if k  n
3. if k  1  n 21. F 22. T 23. T 24. T
4. if k  n  1 25. F 26. T 27. T 28. F
(CSIR NET June 2017)
29. T 30. F 31. T 32. T
33. T 34. F 35. T 36. T
37. T 38. F 39. T 40. T
41. T 42. T

Assignment key
SCQ
1. 3 2. 1 3. 3

MCQ
1. 1,2,3 2. 1,3 3. 2
4.1,2,3 5. 1,2,3,4 6. 1,3
7. 1,2 8. 1,2 9. 2,4

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