IM No.

14: Physics 1-2S-2020-2021

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE: Electricity

II. LESSON TITLE:

15.1 DC Circuit Theory
15.1.1 Electrical Voltage
15.1.2 Electrical Current
15.1.3 Resistance
15.2 Ohm’s Law and Power
15.2.1 Ohm’s Law
15.2.2 Electrical Power in Circuits

III. LESSON OVERVIEW:

In this lesson we will discuss the fundamental principles of direct current electricity and its basic
components. Direct Current or D.C. as it is more commonly called, is a form of electrical current or voltage
that flows around an electrical circuit in one direction only, making it a “Uni-directional” supply.
Generally, both DC currents and voltages are produced by power supplies, batteries, dynamos
and solar cells to name a few. A DC voltage or current has a fixed magnitude (amplitude) and a definite
direction associated with it. For example, +12V represents 12 volts in the positive direction, or -5V
represents 5 volts in the negative direction.
We also know that DC power supplies do not change their value with regards to time, they are a
constant value flowing in a continuous steady state direction. In other words, DC maintains the same
value for all times and a constant uni-directional DC supply never changes or becomes negative unless
its connections are physically reversed.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of direct current electricity.
2. Familiarized with the Ohm’s Law
3. Compute for unknowns circuit components using the Ohm’s Law.

V. LESSON CONTENT:

15.1 DC Circuit Theory

All materials are made up from atoms, and all atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons.
Protons, have a positive electrical charge. Neutrons have no electrical charge (that is they are Neutral),
while Electrons have a negative electrical charge. Atoms are bound together by powerful forces of
attraction existing between the atom’s nucleus and the electrons in its outer shell.

The structure of the atom.

When these protons, neutrons and electrons are together within the atom they are happy and
stable. But if we separate them from each other they want to reform and start to exert a potential of
attraction called a potential difference.
Now if we create a closed circuit these loose electrons will start to move and drift back to the
protons due to their attraction creating a flow of electrons. This flow of electrons is called an electrical
current. The electrons do not flow freely through the circuit as the material they move through creates a
restriction to the electron flow. This restriction is called resistance.
Then all basic electrical or electronic circuits consist of three separate but very much related
electrical quantities called: Voltage, ( V ), Current, ( I ) and Resistance, ( Ω ).

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5.1.1 Electrical Voltage

Voltage, ( V ) is the potential energy of an electrical supply stored in the form of an electrical
charge. Voltage can be thought of as the force that pushes electrons through a conductor and the greater
the voltage the greater is its ability to “push” the electrons through a given circuit. As energy has the
ability to do work this potential energy can be described as the work required in joules to move electrons
in the form of an electrical current around a circuit from one point or node to another.
Then the difference in voltage between any two points, connections or junctions (called nodes) in
a circuit is known as the Potential Difference, commonly called the Voltage Drop.
The Potential difference between two points is measured in Volts with the circuit symbol V, or
lowercase “v“, although Energy, E lowercase “e” is sometimes used to indicate a generated emf
(electromotive force). Then the greater the voltage, the greater is the pressure (or pushing force) and the
greater is the capacity to do work.
A constant voltage source is called a DC Voltage with a voltage that varies periodically with time
is called an AC voltage. Voltage is measured in volts, with one volt being defined as the electrical pressure
required to force an electrical current of one ampere through a resistance of one Ohm. Voltages are
generally expressed in Volts with prefixes used to denote sub-multiples of the voltage such as microvolts
( μV = 10-6 V ), millivolts ( mV = 10-3 V ) or kilovolts ( kV = 103 V ). Voltage can be either positive or
negative.
Batteries or power supplies are mostly used to produce a steady D.C. (direct current) voltage
source such as 5v, 12v, 24v etc in electronic circuits and systems. While A.C. (alternating current) voltage
sources are available for domestic house and industrial power and lighting as well as power transmission.
The mains voltage supply in the United Kingdom is currently 230 volts a.c. and 110 volts a.c. in the USA.
General electronic circuits operate on low voltage DC battery supplies of between 1.5V and 24V
dc. The circuit symbol for a constant voltage source usually given as a battery symbol with a positive, +
and negative, – sign indicating the direction of the polarity. The circuit symbol for an alternating voltage
source is a circle with a sine wave inside.

Voltage Symbols

A simple relationship can be made between a tank of water and a voltage supply. The higher the
water tank above the outlet the greater the pressure of the water as more energy is released, the higher
the voltage the greater the potential energy as more electrons are released.
Voltage is always measured as the difference between any two points in a circuit and the voltage
between these two points is generally referred to as the “Voltage drop“. Note that voltage can exist across
a circuit without current, but current cannot exist without voltage and as such any voltage source whether
DC or AC likes an open or semi-open circuit condition but hates any short circuit condition as this can
destroy it.

5.1.2 Electrical Current

Electrical Current, ( I ) is the movement or flow of electrical charge and is measured in Amperes,
symbol i, for intensity). It is the continuous and uniform flow (called a drift) of electrons (the negative
particles of an atom) around a circuit that are being “pushed” by the voltage source. In reality, electrons
flow from the negative (–ve) terminal to the positive (+ve) terminal of the supply and for ease of circuit
understanding conventional current flow assumes that the current flows from the positive to the negative
terminal.
Generally, in circuit diagrams the flow of current through the circuit usually has an arrow
associated with the symbol, I, or lowercase i to indicate the actual direction of the current flow. However,
this arrow usually indicates the direction of conventional current flow and not necessarily the direction of
the actual flow.

5.1.2A Conventional Current Flow

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Conventionally this is the flow of positive charge around a circuit, being positive to negative. The
diagram at the left shows the movement of the positive charge (holes) around a closed circuit flowing
from the positive terminal of the battery, through the circuit and returns to the negative terminal of the
battery. This flow of current from positive to negative is generally known as conventional current flow.
This was the convention chosen during the discovery of electricity in which the direction of electric
current was thought to flow in a circuit. To continue with this line of thought, in all circuit diagrams and
schematics, the arrows shown on symbols for components such as diodes and transistors point in the
direction of conventional current flow.
Then Conventional Current Flow gives the flow of electrical current from positive to negative and
which is the opposite in direction to the actual flow of electrons.

5.1.2B Electron Flow

The flow of electrons around the circuit is opposite to the direction of the conventional current flow
being negative to positive. The actual current flowing in an electrical circuit is composed of electrons that
flow from the negative pole of the battery (the cathode) and return back to the positive pole (the anode)
of the battery.
This is because the charge on an electron is negative by definition and so is attracted to the
positive terminal. This flow of electrons is called Electron Current Flow. Therefore, electrons actually flow
around a circuit from the negative terminal to the positive.
Both conventional current flow and electron flow are used by many textbooks. In fact, it makes no
difference which way the current is flowing around the circuit as long as the direction is used consistently.
The direction of current flow does not affect what the current does within the circuit. Generally, it is much
easier to understand the conventional current flow – positive to negative.
In electronic circuits, a current source is a circuit element that provides a specified amount of
current for example, 1A, 5A 10 Amps etc., with the circuit symbol for a constant current source given as
a circle with an arrow inside indicating its direction.
Current is measured in Amps and an amp or ampere is defined as the number of electrons or
charge (Q in Coulombs) passing a certain point in the circuit in one second, (t in Seconds).
Electrical current is generally expressed in Amps with prefixes used to denote micro amps ( μA =
10-6A ) or milliamps ( mA = 10-3A ). Note that electrical current can be either positive in value or negative
in value depending upon its direction of flow around the circuit.
Current that flows in a single direction is called Direct Current, or D.C. and current that alternates
back and forth through the circuit is known as Alternating Current, or A.C.. Whether AC or DC current
only flows through a circuit when a voltage source is connected to it with its “flow” being limited to both
the resistance of the circuit and the voltage source pushing it.
Using the tank of water relationship, current is the equivalent of the flow of water through the pipe
with the flow being the same throughout the pipe. The faster the flow of water the greater the current.
Note that current cannot exist without voltage so any current source whether DC or AC likes a short or
semi-short circuit condition but hates any open circuit condition as this prevents it from flowing.

5.1.3 Resistance
Resistance, ( R ) is the capacity of a material to resist or prevent the flow of current or, more
specifically, the flow of electric charge within a circuit. The circuit element which does this perfectly is
called the “Resistor”.
Resistance is a circuit element measured in Ohms, Greek symbol ( Ω, Omega ) with prefixes used
to denote Kilo-ohms ( kΩ = 103Ω ) and Mega-ohms ( MΩ = 106Ω ). Note that resistance cannot be negative
in value only positive.

Resistor Symbols
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The amount of resistance a resistor has is determined by the relationship of the current through
it to the voltage across it which determines whether the circuit element is a “good conductor” – low
resistance, or a “bad conductor” – high resistance. Low resistance, for example 1Ω or less implies that
the circuit is a good conductor made from materials such as copper, aluminum or carbon while a high
resistance, 1MΩ or more implies the circuit is a bad conductor made from insulating materials such as
glass, porcelain or plastic.
A “semiconductor” on the other hand such as silicon or germanium, is a material whose resistance
is half way between that of a good conductor and a good insulator. Hence the name “semi-conductor”.
Semiconductors are used to make Diodes and Transistors etc.
Resistance can be linear or non-linear in nature, but never negative. Linear resistance obeys
Ohm’s Law as the voltage across the resistor is linearly proportional to the current through it. Non-linear
resistance, does not obey Ohm’s Law but has a voltage drop across it that is proportional to some power
of the current.
Resistance is pure and is not affected by frequency with the AC impedance of a resistance being
equal to its DC resistance and as a result cannot be negative. Remember that resistance is always
positive, and never negative.
A resistor is classed as a passive circuit element and as such cannot deliver power or store
energy. Instead resistors absorbed power that appears as heat and light. Power in a resistance is always
positive regardless of voltage polarity and current direction.
For very low values of resistance, for example milli-ohms, ( mΩ ) it is sometimes much easier to
use the reciprocal of resistance ( 1/R ) rather than resistance ( R ) itself. The reciprocal of resistance is
called Conductance, symbol ( G ) and represents the ability of a conductor or device to conduct electricity.
In other words, the ease by which current flows. High values of conductance imply a good
conductor such as copper while low values of conductance imply a bad conductor such as wood. The
standard unit of measurement given for conductance is the Siemen, symbol (S).
The unit used for conductance is mho (ohm spelt backward), which is symbolized by an inverted
Ohm sign ℧. Power can also be expressed using conductance as: P = I2/G = V2G.
The relationship between Voltage, ( V ) and Current, ( I ) in a circuit of constant Resistance, ( R )
would produce a straight line i-v relationship with slope equal to the value of the resistance as shown.

15.2 Ohm’s Law and Power

15.2.1 Ohm’s Law

The relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance in any DC electrical circuit was firstly
discovered by the German physicist Georg Ohm. Georg Ohm found that, at a constant temperature, the
electrical current flowing through a fixed linear resistance is directly proportional to the voltage applied
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across it, and also inversely proportional to the resistance. This relationship between the Voltage, Current
and Resistance forms the basis of Ohms Law and is shown below.

𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= , 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅, 𝑅=
𝑅 𝐼
where I = current in amps, V = voltage in volts, and R = resistance in ohms This same formula can be
also be written in order to calculate for the voltage or the resistance.
By knowing any two values of the Voltage, Current or Resistance quantities we can use Ohms
Law to find the third missing value. Ohms Law is used extensively in electronics formulas and calculations
so it is “very important to understand and accurately remember these formulas”.
It is sometimes easier to remember this Ohms law relationship by using pictures. Here the three
quantities of V, I and R have been superimposed into a triangle (affectionately called the Ohms Law
Triangle) giving voltage at the top with current and resistance below. This arrangement represents the
actual position of each quantity within the Ohms law formulas.

Ohm’s Law Triangle

DC Circuit Diagram

Example 1:
An electronic device has a resistance of 20 ohms and a current of 15 A. What is the voltage across the
device?
R=20Ω
I=15 Amp

Solution:
Resistance, current, and voltage are related together by Ohm's law as 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅. Thus, the voltage of the
device is obtained as

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = (15 𝐴)(20 Ω) = 300 Volts

Example 2:
A 3-V potential difference is applied across a 6-Ω resistor. What is the current that flows into the resistor?
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R=6Ω
I

V=3 V

Solution:
Ohm's law states the potential difference across a resistor is resistance times the current so we get

𝑉 3V
𝐼= = = 0.5 Ampere
𝑅 6Ω

15.2.2 Electrical Power in Circuits

Electrical Power, ( P ) in a circuit is the rate at which energy is absorbed or produced within a
circuit. A source of energy such as a voltage will produce or deliver power while the connected load
absorbs it. Light bulbs and heaters for example, absorb electrical power and convert it into either heat,
or light, or both. The higher their value or rating in watts the more electrical power they are likely to
consume.
The quantity symbol for power is P and is the product of voltage multiplied by the current with the
unit of measurement being the Watt ( W ). Prefixes are used to denote the various multiples or sub-
multiples of a watt, such as: milliwatts (mW = 10-3W) or kilowatts (kW = 103W).
Then by using Ohm’s law and substituting for the values of V, I and R the formula for electrical
power can be found as:

𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉 · 𝐼, 𝑃= , 𝑃 = 𝐼2 · 𝑅
𝑅
Again, the three quantities have been superimposed into a triangle this time called a Power Triangle with
power at the top and current and voltage at the bottom. Again, this arrangement represents the actual
position of each quantity within the Ohms law power formulas.

The Power Triangle

So, we can see that there are three possible formulas for calculating electrical power in a circuit. If the
calculated power is positive, (+P) in value for any formula the component absorbs the power, that is it is
consuming or using power. But if the calculated power is negative, (–P) in value the component produces
or generates power, in other words it is a source of electrical power such as batteries and generators.

Example 1:
How much is the output voltage of a power supply if it supplies 75 W of power while delivering a current
of 5 A?

Solution:

𝑃 75 W
𝑉= = = 15 Volts
𝐼 5A

Example 2:
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Solution

15.2.2A Electrical Power Rating

Electrical components are given a “power rating” in watts that indicates the maximum rate at which
the component converts the electrical power into other forms of energy such as heat, light or motion. For
example, a 1/4W resistor, a 100W light bulb etc.
Electrical devices convert one form of power into another. So, for example, an electrical motor will
covert electrical energy into a mechanical force, while an electrical generator converts mechanical force
into electrical energy. A light bulb converts electrical energy into both light and heat.
Also, we now know that the unit of power is the WATT, but some electrical devices such as electric
motors have a power rating in the old measurement of “Horsepower” or hp. The relationship between
horsepower and watts is given as: 1hp = 746W. So, for example, a two-horsepower motor has a rating
of 1492W, (2 x 746) or 1.5kW.

Ohms Law Pie Chart

To help us understand the relationship between the various values a little further, we can take all
of the Ohm’s Law equations from above for finding Voltage, Current, Resistance and of course Power
and condense them into a simple Ohms Law pie chart for use in AC and DC circuits and calculations as
shown.

Power within an electrical circuit is only present when BOTH voltage and current are present. For
example, in an open-circuit condition, voltage is present but there is no current flow I = 0 (zero), therefore
V*0 is 0 so the power dissipated within the circuit must also be 0. Likewise, if we have a short-circuit
condition, current flow is present but there is no voltage V = 0, therefore 0*I = 0 so again the power
dissipated within the circuit is 0.
As electrical power is the product of V*I, the power dissipated in a circuit is the same whether the
circuit contains high voltage and low current or low voltage and high current flow. Generally, electrical
power is dissipated in the form of Heat (heaters), Mechanical Work such as motors, Energy in the form
of radiated (Lamps) or as stored energy (Batteries).

15.2.2B Electrical Energy in Circuits

Electrical Energy is the capacity to do work, and the unit of work or energy is the joule ( J ).
Electrical energy is the product of power multiplied by the length of time it was consumed. So, if we know
how much power, in Watts is being consumed and the time, in seconds for which it is used, we can find
the total energy used in watt-seconds. In other words, Energy = power x time and Power = voltage x
current. Therefore, electrical power is related to energy and the unit given for electrical energy is the watt-
seconds or joules.

𝐽 =𝑃·𝑡

Electrical power can also be defined as the rate of by which energy is transferred. If one joule of
work is either absorbed or delivered at a constant rate of one second, then the corresponding power will
be equivalent to one watt so power can be defined as “1Joule/sec = 1Watt”. Then we can say that one
watt is equal to one joule per second and electrical power can be defined as the rate of doing work or the
transferring of energy.

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Electrical Power and Energy Triangle

Example 1:
How much does it cost to light a 300-W light bulb for 30 days if the cost of the electricity is P8.4/kWh?

Solution:

1 kW 24 hr
𝐽 = 𝑃 · 𝑡 = (300 W × ) (30 days × ) = 216 kWh
1000 W day

P8.4
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = × 216 kWh = P1814.4
kWh

If the electrical power consumed (or generated) is measured in watts or kilowatts (thousands of
watts) and the time is measure in hours not seconds, then the unit of electrical energy will be the kilowatt-
hours, (kWhr).
1 kWhr is the amount of electricity used by a device rated at 1000 watts in one hour and is
commonly called a “Unit of Electricity”. This is what is measured by the utility meter and is what we as
consumers purchase from our electricity suppliers when we receive our bills.
Kilowatt-hours are the standard units of energy used by the electricity meter in our homes to
calculate the amount of electrical energy we use and therefore how much we pay. So if you switch ON
an electric fire with a heating element rated at 1000 watts and left it on for 1 hour you will have consumed
1 kWhr of electricity. If you switched on two electric fires each with 1000-watt elements for half an hour
the total consumption would be exactly the same amount of electricity – 1kWhr.
So, consuming 1000 watts for one hour uses the same amount of power as 2000 watts (twice as
much) for half an hour (half the time). Then for a 100-watt light bulb to use 1 kWhr or one unit of electrical
energy it would need to be switched on for a total of 10 hours (10 x 100 = 1000 = 1kWhr).

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Find the current I through a resistor of resistance R = 2 Ω if the voltage across the resistor is 6 V.
2. A potential difference across 24 Ω resistor is 12 V. What is the current through the resistor?
3. A frying pan is connected to a 110-volt circuit. If the resistance of the frying pan is 10 ohms, how
many amperes does the frying pan draw?
4. A lightbulb carries 0.5 A when 4 volts is impressed across it. What is the resistance of the filament in
the lightbulb?
5. When a current of 3 amperes is run through the coiled heating element of a stove, the resistance of
the element is 80 ohms. What is the voltage of the stove?
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