ET 10203A- Basic Electrical Engineering

Unit 3 – Single Phase Transformers

Disclaimer: Following notes are intended
only as guidelines prepared from various
sources including internet. Learners are
suggested to refer to text books and reference
books mentioned in course structure for
preparation of exams.
• Syllabus for Unit III

Unit III: Transformers

3.1 Magnetic materials, B-H characteristics.
3.2 Single phase transformer: - Ideal and practical transformer, exact equivalent circuit, losses in
transformers, computation of regulation and efficiency.
3.3 Single phase autotransformer: - Concept, advantages, limitations and applications.

• Course Outcome related to unit III:

After completing this unit learners will be able to:

• Compute efficiency, voltage regulation, voltage and current ratios in case of a two-
winding single-phase transformer applying fundamental concepts.
• Unit overview
 • Target skills- Comprehension, application and analysis

• Minimum requirements:

• To determine efficiency, voltage regulation, voltage and current ratio in case of two
winding transformer

• To draw exact equivalent circuit of two winding transformer

• To differentiate between two winding and single winding i.e. auto-transformer

3.1 Basic Concepts of transformer

3.1.1 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction (Working Principle of transformer):

First Law:

• “When the magnetic flux linking a conductor or coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in
that conductor or coil.”

Second Law:

• “The magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a conductor or coil is directly proportional to

the rate of change of flux linkages.”

E α (dø/ dt)

E= -N (dø/ dt) (V)

 Fig. 3.1 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

Points to remember:

i. No change in flux, no e.m.f. induced.

ii. Either rotate coil or move magnetic field for e.m.f. induction.

iii. E.M.F. persists as long as flux linkages keep changing

3.1.2 Definition of Transformer:

• A static device which transforms electric power from one circuit to another

• Step up or step down voltage with a corresponding change in current but with same
frequency

• Working principle: electromagnetic induction

3.1.3 Construction:

Fig. 3.2 Construction of transformer

1. Two Copper windings with no physical connection in between them

2. A magnetic core of material like Silicon Steel

3.1.4 Working:

• Two windings linked through a ‘Core’

• With primary, alternating flux set up in core
• This flux links with secondary and induces e.m.f. in it
• Application of load on secondary, causes electric energy transfer to load

3.1.5 Types:

i. Core type - windings enclose core

ii. Shell type - core enclose windings

iii. Berry type – distributed magnetic circuit

 Fig. 3.3 Core and shell type transformer

Fig. 3.4 Berry type transformer

3.1.6 E.M.F. equation:

When the flux reaches to maximum in first cycle of magnetization of the core,

i. dø= øm-0= øm

ii. dt= 1/4f

 iii. E.M.F. induced in a single turn of coil = E= -N dø/ dt (V)

= øm/ [1/4f]

= 4f øm (V)

iv. Average e.m.f. for number of turns N1= e1= 4f øm N1 (V)

v. As form factor=1.11 for sine wave, R.M.S. value of e.m.f.= E1= 4.44f øm N1 (V)

vi. Similarly, E2= 4.44f øm N2 (V)

3.1.7 Transformation ratio:

From 3.1.6, the e.m.f. equation for primary and secondary winding is,

• E1= 4.44f øm N1 (V)

• E2= 4.44f øm N2 (V)

• E2/E1=N2 /N1

= K = transformation ratio

Points to remember:

i. When N2 > N1 i.e. K>1, transformer is step up

ii. When N2 < N1 i.e. K<1, transformer is step down

iii. When N2 = N1 i.e. K=1, transformer is isolation transformer

3.1.8 Voltage and current ratio:

• E2 /E1 = N2 /N1= V2 /V1= I1 /I2= K

• V1 I1 = V2I2

• V1 /V2= Voltage ratio

• I1 /I2= current ratio

Points to remember:

For a transformer winding:

• High voltage: Low current: High resistance

• Low voltage: High current: Low resistance

3.2 Ideal and practical transformer:

In an ideal transformer:

1. Primary and secondary windings have no resistance.

2. All the flux produced by the primary links the secondary winding i.e. there is no leakage flux.

3. Permeability μr of the core is infinitely large. In other words, to establish flux in the core,
vanishingly small (or zero) current is required.

4. Core loss comprising of eddy current and hysteresis losses are neglected.

In a practical transformer :

1. Some leakage flux is present at both primary and secondary sides. This leakage gives rise to
leakage reactances at both sides, which are denoted as X1 and X2 respectively.

2. Both the primary and secondary winding possesses resistance, denoted as R1 and R2
respectively. These resistances cause voltage drop as, I1R1 and I2R2 and also copper
loss I12R1 and I22R2 (Watts)

3. Permeability of the core cannot be infinite; hence some magnetizing current is needed. Mutual
flux also causes core loss in iron parts of the transformer.

3.3 Equivalent Circuit

The equivalent circuit of a machine is the circuit representation in terms of standard circuit
elements which truly represents the performance of the particular equipment.
 • Equivalent Circuit of a single phase Transformer

Equivalent circuit diagram of a transformer is basically a diagram which can be resolved into an
equivalent circuit in which the resistance and leakage reactance of the transformer are imagined
to be external to the winding.

The equivalent circuit diagram of transformer is given below:-

Fig. 3.5 Total Equivalent circuit of transformer

Where,
R1 = Primary Winding Resistance (Ω)
R2= Secondary winding Resistance (Ω)
X1 = Primary Winding Reactance (Ω)
X2= Secondary winding Reactance (Ω),

I0= No-load or exciting current (A)

Iµ = Magnetizing component of exciting current (A)
Iw = Wastage or core loss component of exciting current (A),

R0= Core loss equivalent resistance (Ω)

X0= Magnetizing reactance (Ω),
V1= Primary voltage source (V)
V2= Secondary Terminal voltage (V).

The no load current I0 is divided into, pure inductance X0 (taking magnetizing component Iμ) and
non-induction resistance R0 (taking working/loss component IW) which are connected into
parallel across the primary. The value of E1 can be obtained by subtracting I1Z1 from V1. The
value of R0 and X0 can be calculated as, R0 = E1/ IW and X0 = E1 / Iμ.
The load component I2′ flows through the primary winding of transformer and induced voltage
across the winding is E1 as shown in the circuit diagram. This induced voltage E1 transforms to
secondary and it is E2 and load component of primary current I2′ is transformed to secondary as
secondary current I2. Current of secondary is I2. So the voltage E2 across secondary winding is
partly dropped by I2Z2 or I2R2 + j. I2X2 before it appears across load. The load voltage is V2.

3.3.1 Exact Equivalent Circuit of a single-phase Transformer

The exact equivalent circuit of transformer is shown below.

Fig. 3.6 Exact Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary

In the exact equivalent circuit,

We know that, E2 / E1 = N2 / N1= K, (transformation Ratio)

Z2 can be referred to primary as Z2'

where, Z2' = (N2/N1)2Z2 = K2Z2. ............where K= N2/N1.
that is, R2'+jX2' = K2 (R2+jX2)
equating real and imaginary parts,
R2' = K2R2 and X2' = K2X2
3.4 Voltage Regulation

• “Change in magnitude of secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load expressed
as percentage of rated terminal voltage by keeping primary voltage constant”

• % reg.= [E2- V2/ E2] *100

• Similarly, %Reg.= [E1- V1/ E1] X 100

3.5 Magnetic materials:

Followings are the basic types of magnetic materials:

1. Paramagnetic materials

The materials which are not strongly attracted to a magnet are known as paramagnetic material.
For example: aluminium, tin magnesium etc. Their relative permeability is small but positive.
For example: the permeability of aluminium is: 1.00000065. Such materials are magnetized only
when placed on a super strong magnetic field and act in the direction of the magnetic field. The
magnetization is very small.
 Fig. 3.7 Magnetic field through a paramagnetic material

2. Diamagnetic materials

The materials which are repelled by a magnet such as zinc, mercury, lead, sulphur, copper,
silver, bismuth, wood etc., are known as diamagnetic materials. Their permeability is slightly
less than one. For example, the relative permeability of bismuth is 0.00083; copper is 0.000005
and wood is 0.9999995. They are slightly magnetized when placed in a very strong magnetic
field and act in the direction opposite to that of applied magnetic field. Diamagnetic materials
have very little to no applications in electrical engineering.

Fig. 3.8 Magnetic field through a diamagnetic material

3. Ferromagnetic materials

The materials which are strongly attracted by a magnetic field or magnet is known as
ferromagnetic material e.g. iron, steel , nickel, cobalt etc. The permeability off these materials is
very high (ranging up to several hundred or thousand).
For the purpose of electrical engineering it will suffice to classify the materials as simply
ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials. The non-ferromagnetic materials have relative
permeability practically equal to unity while the ferromagnetic materials have relative
permeability many times greater than unity. Paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials fall in the
non-ferromagnetic materials.

Fig. 3.9 Magnetic field through a ferromagnetic material

Ferromagnetic materials can be further classified into two types which are listed below:

a. Soft Ferromagnetic materials

They have high relative permeability, low coercive force, easily magnetized and demagnetized
and have extremely small hysteresis. Soft ferromagnetic materials are iron and its various alloys
with materials like nickel, cobalt, tungsten and aluminium. Ease of magnetization and
demagnetization makes them highly suitable for applications involving changing magnetic flux
as in electromagnets, electric motors, generators, transformers, inductors, telephone receivers,
relays etc. They are also useful for magnetic screening. Their properties may be greatly enhanced
through careful manufacturing and by heating and slow annealing so as to achieve a high degree
of crystal purity. Large magnetic moment at room temperate makes soft ferromagnetic materials
extremely useful for magnetic circuits but ferromagnetic materials are conductors also and suffer
energy loss from eddy current produced within them. There is additional energy loss due to the
fact that magnetization does not proceed smoothly but in minute jumps. This loss is called
magnetic residual loss and it depends purely on the frequency of the changing flux density and
not on its magnitude.

b. Hard Ferromagnetic materials

They have relatively low permeability, and very high coercive force. These are difficult to
magnetize and demagnetize. Typical hard ferromagnetic materials include cobalt steel and
various ferromagnetic alloys of cobalt, aluminium and nickel. They retain high percentage of
their magnetization and have relatively high hysteresis loss. They are highly suited for use as
permanent magnet as speakers, measuring instruments etc.

3.6 Hysteresis and B-H characteristics:

The dictionary meaning of hysteresis is ‘delayed’, here it is the magnetic flux density B, which is
lagging the magnetizing force H.

The magnetic flux generated by an electromagnetic coil is the amount of magnetic field or lines
of force produced within a given area and that it is more commonly called “Magnetic Flux
Density” given the symbol B with the unit of flux density being the Tesla, T.

The magnetic strength of an electromagnet depends upon the number of turns of the coil, the
current flowing through the coil or the type of core material being used, and if we increase either
the current or the number of turns we can increase the magnetic field strength or magnetizing
force symbol H.
If an unmagnified piece of iron is placed in a magnetizing field H and if the value of H is
increased gradually, the magnetic induction B of the iron piece also increases. If a graph is
plotted between B and H curve as shown in figure 1 above can be obtained in the following
way:-

1. At O, when H is zero, B is also zero. When H increases B also increases but not linearly
till the point A is reached. Beyond A if H is further increased, B remains constant. This
point A is called the saturation point.
2. If the value of H is now decreased, the value of B decrease along the different route AC,
but at a much lower rate and when H is zero the value of B is not zero but has a finite
value represented by OC. The value of B at this point is called retentivity or remanance
(residual magnetism).
3. If the value of H is now increased in the opposite direction, the value of B decreased and
falls to be zero, when the value of the magnetizing field H is equal to CD. The value of
magnetizing force at this point is called coercivity of the material. The coercivity
represents the reversed magnetizing force needed to demagnetize the specimen.
4. If the value of H is further increased in reversed direction the value of B increases in the
opposite direction along DE till a point E is obtained. Again, at this point E, the specimen
acquires saturation values. If the distance of A from point O is HS, then the distance of E
from O, will be -HS.
5. If the value of H is decreased to zero to the original direction, the value of B decreases
and a portion OF is obtained. This proves that B has certain values even when H is zero.
6. While increasing the value of H in the positive direction the original saturation point A is
again obtained along EFGA.

The whole graph ABDEFGA thus forms a closed loop and called ‘Hysteresis loop’. The whole
process described above is called Hysteresis. Thus, the process of lagging of B behind H is called
hysteresis.
 Fig. 3.10 Magnetic Hysteresis Loops for Soft and Hard Materials

3.6.1 Importance of hysteresis curve

The area of the hysteresis curve gives the hysteresis loss of energy while a ferromagnetic
substance is taken over a complete cycle of magnetization. The hysteresis curve gives all the
information about magnetic properties of magnetic materials: permeability, susceptibility,
retentivity, coercivity.

a) Permeability: The magnetic induction for unit magnetizing field i.e. B/H of a hysteresis
curves gives the permeability.
b) Susceptibility: The hysteresis curve also can be drawn for variation of intensity of
magnetization with the magnetizing force (H). The ratio of the intensity of magnetizing to
the magnetizing field i.e. I/H gives the susceptibility.
c) Retentivity: When a piece of magnetic substance is magnetized at the beginning and its
magnetizing field is reduced to zero, some magnetic induction (intensity of
magnetization) is still remains in the substance. This magnetic induction is known as
retentivity.
 d) Coercivity: A negative magnetizing field should be applied to a magnetic specimen to
demagnetize it completely. This value of the reverse H required to reduce the intensity of
magnetization to zero is known as coercivity.
3.6.2 Method of choosing magnetic material ( based on B-H characteristics)
i. For Permanent magnet:

The material for a permanent magnet should have high retentivity so that the magnet may be
strong and large coercivity because we need the magnetization should be permanent and not
easily destroyed. It must possess ability to withstand the mechanical ill treatment and
temperature changes because; permanent magnet must be able to retain its magnetism.

The material for permanent magnets usually have large hysteresis loop, so that the energy stored
in the material be large, as the material in this case is never put to a cyclic change of
magnetization e.g. steel is more suitable for a permanent magnet than soft iron.

ii. For Electromagnet:

The material for the construction of electromagnet should have high magnetic flux density for
low magnetizing force due to which with even a small magnetizing field it can produce the
magnetization of the substance. It should have low coercivity as an electromagnet is a temporary
magnet and has to lose magnetism when the current is switched off. An electromagnet has to go
many electromagnetic cycles, so, if the hysteresis loss is high, a large amount of energy will be
spent. Hence, there must be a narrow hysteresis loop. These requirements mentioned above are
found in soft iron, therefore, soft iron is a suitable material to construct the electromagnet.

iii. For cores of transformers and chokes, Armature of dynamos and motors:

The substance used in these cases is taken through several cycles of magnetization in every
second. Thus, the essential requirement for the selection of these material purposes should have:

i. High Permeability of the substance so that it gives large B for low value of
magnetizing field H, (since, B = µH).
ii. Low hysteresis loss which produces a small effect on the material used. So, soft iron
is better for this purpose than steel.
For ferromagnetic materials the ratio of flux density to field strength ( B/H ) is not constant but
varies with flux density. However, for air cored coils or any non-magnetic medium core such as
woods or plastics, this ratio can be considered as a constant and this constant is known as μo, the
permeability of free space ( μ0 = 4π X 10-7 H/m )

By plotting values of flux density, ( B ) against the field strength, ( H ) we can produce a set of
curves called Magnetization Curves, Magnetic Hysteresis Curves or more commonly B-H
Curves for each type of core material used as shown below.

Fig. 3.11 Magnetization or B-H Curve

The set of magnetization curves above represents an example of the relationship

between B and H for soft-iron and steel cores but every type of core material will have its own
set of magnetic hysteresis curves. The flux density increases in proportion to the field strength
until it reaches a certain value were it cannot increase any more becoming almost level and
constant as the field strength continues to increase.
By adding additives to the iron metal such as silicon, materials with a very small coercive force
can be made that have a very narrow hysteresis loop. Materials such as silicon steel having
narrow hysteresis loops are easily magnetized and demagnetized and known as soft magnetic
materials. Silicon steel is preferred in manufacturing of cores of transformers.

Magnetic Hysteresis results in the dissipation of wasted energy in the form of heat with the
energy wasted being in proportion to the area of the magnetic hysteresis loop. Hysteresis losses
will always be a problem in AC transformers where the current is constantly changing direction
and thus the magnetic poles in the core will cause losses because they constantly reverse
direction.

Rotating coils in DC machines will also incur hysteresis losses as they are alternately passing
north the south magnetic poles. The shape of the hysteresis loop depends upon the nature of the
iron or steel used and in the case of iron which is subjected to massive reversals of magnetism,
for example transformer cores, it is important that the B-H hysteresis loop is as small as possible.

3.7 Losses:

1. Core losses or Iron losses: only in magnetic core

i. Hysteresis loss

ii. Eddy current loss

2. Copper loss: only in windings

 Hysteresis Loss

“Loss of power due to hysteresis effect”

Ph= KhBm1.67f V (Watts)

Where,

Kh= hysteresis constant which depend on material

Bm= Maximum flux density in core (T)

f= frequency of magnetization (usually 50 Hz)

V= Volume of core (m3)

How to reduce Hysteresis Loss?

• Use core material with low hysteresis loop e.g. ‘Silicon Steel’

 Eddy current Loss

“Loss of power due to circulation of eddy currents set up by e.m.f. induced in core”

Pe= KeBm2f2 t2 (Watts)

Ke= eddy current constant

Bm= Maximum flux density in core (T)

f= frequency of magnetization ( usually 50 Hz)

t= Thickness of core (m)

How to reduce Eddy current Loss?

• Manufacture core in form of laminations

Why Iron Losses are constant?

• As V1 is constant at rated f, Bm is constant

• Both Ph and Pe depend on Bm

• constant from no load to full load

• Core or Iron loss=Pi= Ph+Pe (Watts)

 Copper/ Variable Losses

• Total copper loss= Pcu= I12R1 + I22R2 (Watts)

= I12R1e = I22R2e (Watts)

 Where,

R1e = Equivalent Resistance referred to primary

R2e = Equivalent Resistance referred to secondary

Why transformer rating in KVA?

• Total loss= Pi+ Pcu (Watts)

• Pi depend on voltage

• Pcu depend on current

• total loss depend on voltage and current only (not on load power factor )

3.8 Efficiency:

• η = Power Output/ Power input

= Power output/ (power output+ losses)

• % η= n[V2I2cosø]/{n[V2I2cosø]+ Pi+n2 Pcu} *100

Where, n= fraction of load

Points to remember

• % η= n[V2I2cosø]/{n[V2I2cosø]+ Pi+n2 Pcu} *100

• = n[KVA*103cosø]/{n[KVA*103cosø]+ Pi+n2 Pcu} X 100

• Nature of power factor does not affect efficiency value

3.9 Autotransformer:

Working principle and construction

Fig. 4.5 Construction of auto transformer

• Working principle: same as two winding transformer

• Only one winding on a laminated iron core

• Part of winding common to H.V. and L.V.

• Variable knob for stepping up or down voltage

Advantages

• Superior voltage regulation

• Higher efficiency

• More VA rating

• Smooth and continuous voltage variation

Saving in Copper
 • Saving in Copper; reduced cost

• for step up= (1/K) * weight of 2 winding transformer for step down =K * weight of 2
winding transformer

Limitations/ Disadvantages

• Risky to use at high voltages

• Danger of accident

Earthing needed at Common connection point between primary and secondary section to avoid a
serious shock

Applications

• For Safely starting rotating machines such as 3 phase induction motor, synchronous
motor
• As a Variac in experiments
• As a dimmer stat in cinema halls
• In various control systems

3.10 Sample Solved problems:

1. A single-phase transformer has 500 turns in primary and 1200 turns in secondary.
Cross sectional area of core is 80 square cm. If primary winding is connected to 500
V, 50 Hz; calculate e.m.f. induced in secondary and maximum flux density.

Solution:

Given Data;

Primary turns= N1 = 500

Secondary turns= N2 = 1200

Cross sectional area =A= 80 cm2= 80 X 10-4m2

Primary rated voltage= V1=500 V,

Frequency=f = 50 Hz

e.m.f. induced in secondary=Secondary rated voltage= E2=?

maximum flux density= Bm =?

i. K= N2 /N1= V2 /V1 hence,1200/500= V2 /500

Secondary rated voltage=V2 =E2 =1200 (V)

ii. E1= 4.44f øm N1 (V)

500= 4.44X 50 X øm X 500

øm= 1/222 (wb)

iii. Bm = øm/A= 0.563 (T)

2. A 200 KVA, single phase transformer has voltage ratio 2000V/500V. Frequency is 50
Hz. Equivalent resistance and reactance referred to primary are 0.5 Ω and 2 Ω
respectively. Calculate % regulation at full load unity power factor.

Solution:

Given Data;

Primary rated voltage= V1 = 2000 V

Secondary rated voltage= V2 = 500 V

Equivalent primary resistance= R1e= 0.5 Ω

Equivalent primary reactance= X1e= 2 Ω

Frequency= 50 Hz

Power factor= cos ø =1

 % regulation=?

i. Rated primary current= I1= KVA X 103/ V1 = 100 Amperes

ii. % regulation= [E1- V1/ E1] X 100

= (I1[R1e cos ø+ X1e sin ø]/ E1) X 100

= 2.5%

3. An Iron loss of a 100 KVA, single phase transformer is 1.5 KW and full load copper
loss is 1 KW. Calculate % efficiency at full load unity power factor and half load 0.8
power factor.

Solution:

Given Data;

Power rating= Q= 100 KVA

Iron loss= Pi = 1.5 KW= 1.5 X 103 W

Full load copper loss=Pcu = 1 KW= 1 X 103 W

% efficiency at full load unity p.f. =?

% efficiency at half load 0.8 p.f. =?

i. % η= {n[KVA X 103 cosø]/n[KVA X 103 cosø]+ Pi +n2 Pcu} X100

ii. For full load unity power factor, % η= 97.5%

iii. For half load 0.8 power factor, % η= 95.81%

Suggested reading:

1. A Textbook of Electrical Technology Volume II –B. L. Theraja, S. Chand and Company

Ltd., New Delhi.
2. Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering - S. K. Bhattacharya, Pearson Education.
3. Electrical and electronics Technology- Edward Hughes, Seventh Edition, Pearson
Education.
4. Basic Electrical Engineering- I. J. Nagrath and Kothari, Tata McGraw Hill.
5. D. C. Kulshreshtha, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, McGraw Hill.