Engineering Survey 2

SUG200/213

CURVES
RECAP…

LONGITUDINAL
&
CROSS SECTIONS
Chainage points
Intersection (IP) points
LONGITUDINAL SECTION PLAN
MASS HAUL DIAGRAM
CROSS SECTION PLAN
CROSS SECTION PLAN
CURVE
LECTURE CONTENTS

 Introduction
 Circular curves

 Transition curves

 Vertical curves
QUESTION… GIVE A THOUGHT

 What is a CURVE?
 Where doest it apply to?

 Why did we require CURVE?

 How many types of CURVE that u know?

CURVE OR NO CURVE???
 INTRODUCTION
 Routes are chosen after a complete & detailed study of all
possible locations has been completed.

 The proposed center line (CL) is laid out in a series of straight

lines (tangents) beginning & continuing to the route terminal
point.

 Each time the route changes direction, the deflection angle

between the back tangent & forward tangent is measured &
recorded.

 Once the cl location alignment has been confirmed, the tangents

are joined by circular curves that allow smooth vehicle
movements at the speeds for which the highway was designed.
INTRODUCTION

There are two types of curve:

 Horizontal curve

- Circular curve
- Transition curve
 Vertical curve
INTRODUCTION
 Two main types of horizontal curve :
(a) (b)

Circular Curve Transition Curve

Curves with constant radius Curves with varying radius
θ θ

R R
r=R
r=∞ r=∞
 Types:
• Simple

• Compound

• Reverse

CIRCULAR
CURVE
CIRCULAR CURVE
Three types of circular curve:
1. Simple curve
R
 Consist of ONE arc with constant
radius. R
 Most commonly used.

2. Compound curve

 Consist of 2 or more successive simple

circular curve of different radius without
R
any principal straight section. 1
 WHY???
R
To avoid certain points, which would 2
involve great expense and which
cannot be avoid by a simple circular
curve.
 CIRCULAR CURVE
3. Reverse curve
 Consist of 2 successive curves of the same or
different radius without any intervening straight
section
 The centers of the curvature fall on opposite sides of
their common tangent point
 Used to connect two straights which are very nearly
parallel

R
R
CIRCULAR CURVE
Circular Curve Geometry
CIRCULAR CURVE

 I  Intersection point of the two straight TI & IU.

 TPU  Circular Curve which runs around the
arc from T to U.
 Lc  Length of the circular curve around the arc
TPU
 T & U  Tangent Point to the circular curve.
 TI & UI  Tangent Lengths of the circular curve.
 P Mid Point of the circular curve TPU
CIRCULAR CURVE
 TSU  Long chord
 S  mid point of the long chord
 θ  deflection angle = external angle at I = ∡CIU
 Intersection angle = (180° - θ) = ∡ TIU
 R  Radius of the curvature
 O  Centre of the curvature
 Q  any point on the circular curve
 Tangential angle  ∡ITQ = the angle from the
tangent length at T to any point on the circular
curve
 Major offset = PS
CIRCULAR CURVE
Curve Geometry
AB and AC are chords of the
circle subtending angles  and
α respectively at the center O.
ADB and AEC are arcs of the
circle. Their lengths are:

     
0 0

2R  and 2R 

 360   360 

More conveniently their lengths

are R and Rα respectively,
where  and α are expressed in
radians.
CIRCULAR CURVE
Curve Geometry
Lines ABC and ADE are
tangents to the circle at B and
D. AB = AD and angles ABO
and ADO are right angles.

Therefore,

Angles ABO + ADO = 180˚

FAD = BOD = θ
Angle BOG = θ/2
ABG + GBO =90˚
BOG + GBO = 90˚
ABG = BOG = θ/2
BOG = OHB + OBH
OHB = ½(BOG) = θ/4
BHD = θ/2
CIRCULAR CURVE
Curve Elements
CIRCULAR CURVE
Curve Elements
 The centre lines AI and BI of two straight roadways
(straights), meet at a point I called the intersection
point.

 The 2 straights deflect by the angle θ, which is called

deflection angle (a.k.a deviation angle).

 To avoid having a junction at I, the straights are joined

by a circular curve of radius R. Before setting the curve
on the ground, the exact location of the tangent points
must be known.
 CIRCULAR CURVE

 If the 2 straights are existing roadways, to locate the

tangent points, a theodolite is set at point I and the
deviation angle θ is measured together with the lengths
of the lines AI and IB.
 If the roadway scheme exists only on a development
plan, the angle θ and the distances AI and IB must be
measured by protractor and scale ruler or by
calculation from the coordinates A, I and B.
 In either case, station A is the start of the curve
calculation and is therefore the point of zero chainage.
The chainage of point I is the distance AI.
CIRCULAR CURVE
 The radius R is usually multiple of 50 metres.
 From the deflection angle and radius, the tangent lengths and
curve length are derived :
T1OT2  
T1OI  IOT2   2
1. Tangent lengths IT1 and IT2
from triangle IT1O,

IT1
 tan( 2)
R
therefore IT1 = R tan (θ/2)
chainage of T1 = chainage of I - IT1
CIRCULAR CURVE
2. Length of curve T1T2
curve T1T2 = R x θ radians
chainage of T2 = chainage T1 + curve length

The chainage of the second tangent point is always derived via the
curve.

3. Long chord T1T2 In triangle T1CO,

T1C
 sin( 2)
R
therefore T1C = R sin(θ/2)
and T1T2 = 2R sin(θ/2)
CIRCULAR CURVE
Exercise
 From a diagram, the whole circle bearings and
lengths of AI and IB are:

Line WCB Length (m)

AI 20˚ 450.30
IB 70˚ 275.00

The radius of the curve joining the straights is 300m.

Calculate the chainage of the tangent points.
CIRCULAR CURVE
4. Major offset, CV
a.k.a mid ordinate or versine, the CV is the greatest offset from the
long chord to the curve:
CV = R – OC
in triangle T1CO,

CO
 cos( 2)
R
therefore CO = R cos (θ/2)
and CV = R - R cos (θ/2)
= R(1-cos (θ/2))
CIRCULAR CURVE
5. External distance, VI
the length of VI is the shortest distance from the intersection point
to the curve:

VI = IO – R

in triangle IT1O,

IO
 sec( 2)
R
therefore IO = R sec (θ/2)
and VI = R sec (θ/2) - R
= R(sec (θ/2) – 1)
CIRCULAR CURVE
Exercise
Two straights AI and IB deflect to
the left by 80˚ 36’. They are to be
joined by a circular curve such
that the shortest distance
between the curve and
intersection point is 25.3m.
Calculate:
a) The radius of the curve
b) The length of the long chord
and major offset.
CIRCULAR CURVE
Designation of Curves
 In UK, curves are selected by the length of the radius
(multiple of 50 meters).
 The curve can also be selected by the degree of
curvature which is defined as the number of degrees
subtended at the center by an arc 100m long.
 The degree of curvature is given as a number of
whole degrees.
 Example, the angle θ = 5˚, thus the degree of
curvature is 5˚.
CIRCULAR CURVE
Designation of Curves
 The relationship between radius and degree of curvature is as
follows:
arc _ length _ AB  R   (radians)

arc _ length _ AB  R    (in _ deg rees )
180
100 180
therefore , R  m
 
5729 .8
 m

 1145 .96m
CIRCULAR CURVE
Chainage
 Distance usually in metres.

 Measure of the length from the starting point of the

scheme to a particular point.

 Tangent point, T is known as the entry tangent point

because it is the point which the curve is entered in the
direction of increasing chainage.

 Tangent point, U is known as exit tangent point because

it is point at which the curve is exited in the direction of
increasing chainage.
CIRCULAR CURVE
Setting Out Curves (Calculation)
 Purpose; to enable the curve to be set out in its
predetermined position on the ground.

 The center line of the curve is positioned by a series of

pegs, set at intervals chosen by the surveyor.

 Where curves are long and of large radius (>100m), a

theodolite/EDM/TS are used to obtain the desired
accuracy.

 Curves of small radius are set out on site by tape.

CIRCULAR CURVE
Setting Out Curves (Calculation)
 The following 3 methods are the most commonly used on
site because of their simplicity, accuracy and speed.

1. Small radius curves

- Finding The Center
- Offsets From The Tangent
- Offsets From The Long Chord
2. Curve composition
3. Large radius curve
- Setting Out By Tangential Angles
- Setting Out By Coordinates
1. SMALL RADIUS CURVES
a. Finding The Center
 Value of R is given, deviation angle (α ) is measured from the
plan and the tangent lengths IT1 and IT2 (R tan(α/2)) are
calculated.
 Procedure for setting the curve is then as follows:
- From I, measure distances
IT1 and IT2.
- Mark positions of T1 and T2
- Mark the center 0 at the
point where the tapes
Intersect when reading R.
- Any point on the curve is
established by hooking the tape over the peg 0 and
swinging the radius. (R < 30m)
1. SMALL RADIUS CURVES
b. Offsets From The Tangent
When deflection angle is small (< 50˚) the curve is short
and the center inaccessible.
The curve can be set out by measuring offsets from the
tangent.
From the diagram, y is an offset from the tangent at a
distance x meter from tangent point T1. Line AB is
drawn parallel to the tangent until it cuts the radius.
length AT1 = y ; length AO = (R-y)
in triangle OAB, OA  OB 2  AB 2
( R  y)  R 2  x 2
therefore, y  R  R2  x2
1. SMALL RADIUS CURVES
b. Offsets From The Tangent
Thus the offset y can be
calculated for any distance
x along the tangent and
can be set by eye or by
optical square.
1. SMALL RADIUS CURVES
Exercise
Given that the
deviation angle θ = 50˚
and the radius,
R = 60m, calculate the
offsets from the
tangent at 5 meter
intervals.
1. SMALL RADIUS CURVES
c. Offsets From The Long Chord
 Suitable for curves up to 100m radius.
 The curve is established by measuring offsets y at right
angles to the long chord T1T2 at selected distances from
the tangent points.
 From diagram, VC is the major offset y at the mid-point C
of the long chord and OC is constant, k.
major _ offset , y  ( R  k )
in _ triangle _ OT1C , k  R 2  x 2
therefore , y  R  R 2  x 2
any _ other _ offset , yn  ( AB  k )
in _ triangle _ ABO, AB  R 2  xn2
therefore , yn  R 2  xn2  k
1. SMALL RADIUS CURVES
c. Offsets From The Long Chord
 Any other offset, y can be calculated for any distance
along the long chord, and can be set out by eye or optical
square.
1. SMALL RADIUS CURVES
Exercise
 A roadway kerb in figure below has a radius of
curvature of 40m. The length of the long chord is
60m. Calculate the offsets from the chord at
10m intervals.
 2. CURVE COMPOSITION

 In setting out large radius curves, pegs are set at

running chainage intervals of 5m, 10m, or 20m
around the curve from the zero chainage point of
the survey.
 It would therefore be unlikely that either tangent
point of the curve would occur at an exact
chainage interval.
 2. CURVE COMPOSITION
 From figure below, deflection angle at point I is 13˚, where chainage
is 171.574m.
Tangent lengths (IT1 and IT2) = 400 tan 6.5 ˚ = 45.574m
Therefore chainage T1 = 171.574 – 45.574
= 126.000m
Curve length = 2πR x 13/360
= 90.757m
Therefore chainage T2 = 126.000 + 90.757
= 216.757
2. CURVE COMPOSITION

 The last peg was measured at 20m intervals from A,

occurs at chainage 120m.
 The first peg on the curve, at chainage 140m, lies at
14m from tangent point T1. This short chord is known as
‘initial sub-chord’.
 Other Pegs was placed at standard chord intervals of
20m occur at chainages 160, 180 and 200m.
 The final tangent T2 is reached at 216.750m, therefore
the final chord is 16.757m. This short chord is called the
‘final sub-chord’.
 In setting out large radius curves, the chord must be
almost equal to the arcs that they subtend.
 The chord length, chord<R/20.
2. CURVE COMPOSITION
3. LARGE RADIUS CURVES
a. Setting Out By Tangential Angles
 This is the traditional method of setting out curves and
involves the use of tape and theodolite.
 From the figure below, T1B is the initial sub-chord, the
rest (BC & CD) are the standard chords and DT2 is the
final sub-chord.
 Angles α1, α2, α3 and α4 are the angles by which the
curve deflects to the right or left.
 They are called tangential angles, though the terms
chord angles and deflection angles are commonly used.
 Their value must be calculated in other to set out the
curve.
3. LARGE RADIUS CURVES
3. LARGE RADIUS CURVES
a. Setting Out By Tangential Angles
Calculation of tangential angles
 Angle IT1B = ½(angle T1OB) = α

 From figure above, OX is the

perpendicular bisector of chord T1B.
Therefore angle T1OX = angle XOB
=α
T1 X
 In triangle T1OX: sin T1OX 
TO
1

c1 2
sin T1OX 
R
c1
sin T1OX 
2R
3. LARGE RADIUS CURVES

Calculation of tangential angles

 The value of any tangential angle (α1, α2, α3 and α4) can
similarly be found and the formula can be written in
general terms:
c
sin  
2R

 Any tangential angle to a point on a curve is simply the

summation of the tangential angles to that point. Thus,
the tangential angle to point C = α1 + α2 and to point
D = α 1 + α 2 + α 3.
 Finally, α1 + α2 + α3 + α4 = θ/2
 SETTING OUT INFORMATION IS
PRESENTED IN TABULAR TABLE
3. LARGE RADIUS CURVES
Exercise
 Two straights AI and IB have bearings of 80˚ and 110˚
respectively. They are to be joined by a circular curve of 300m
radius. The chainage of IP I is 872.485m. Calculate the data
for setting out the curve by 20m standard chord.
3. LARGE RADIUS CURVES
b. Setting Out By Coordinates
 Setting out using total station has therefore become
standard practice on construction sites, since these
instruments enable horizontal distances to be set out
without difficulty.
 Setting out by EDM methods requires that the coordinates
of every proposed point to be determined, usually by
calculation.
 Figure below shows a curve of 572.96m radius, connecting
two straights AI and IB which have bearings of 40˚00’00”
and 44˚30’00” respectively.
3. LARGE RADIUS CURVES
b. Setting Out By Coordinates
 The curve is to be set out from a station S by the method of
coordinates, the coordinates of all chainage points of the
roadway scheme must first be calculated.
 Easiest method to compute those coordinates:
1. Calculate the coordinates of points A, T1, I, T2 and B as
a traverse.
2. Calculate T1, O and T2 as traverse.
3. Calculate the coordinates of the remaining curve
chainage points, X and Y.
4. Calculate the bearings and distances that will required
to set out the various CP from station S.
 The Data
Required
To Set Out
The Curve
Coordinates For Every Chainage Points
Calculated Bearings And Distances
OBSTRUCTIONS
 Often it is impossible to set out all the points on the curve
from the tangent point because of some obstruction
 The third point E on the curve has been set out by the
tangential angle (α1 + α2 + α3) = 5˚.
 Owing to the trees, point F cannot be seen from T1. in such
a case, the theodolite is removed to E and sight taken back
to the tangent point T1 with the horizontal circle of the
theodolite reading 180 – (α1 + α2 + α3)= 175˚.
 If a tangent is drawn to the circle at E, angle XT1E equals
angle T1EX.
 The theodolite is then set to read (175˚ + T1EX) = (175˚ +
5˚)=180˚, in which case the line of sight is along tangent
EX.
 OBSTRUCTIONS
 The telescope is swung through a further 180 to point
along the continuation of the tangent EY and the
horizontal circle reads zero.
 Point E is then treated as being a tangent point and F is
set out by setting the circle to read α2 degrees and
measuring the standard chord length EF.
Important Terms:
Centrifugal Force
Superelevation
Shift
Deviation Angles

TRANSITION CURVE
TRANSITION CURVE
WHAT IS TRANSITION CURVE???
 Definitions:
 A horizontal curve of varying radius
 A curve where the radius changes from infinity to a particular value

 Provides a gradual change from straight line to a circular curve and

again from the circular curve to the straight line.

 There are two types of transition curves

1. Composite curves
 Transition curve – in
 Circular curve – middle
 Transition curve - out
2. Whole transition curves
 Transition curve – in
 Transition curve - out
TRANSITION CURVE
WHY TRANSITION CURVE IS IMPORTANT???
 Due to radial force acting on a vehicle as it travels round
the curve.
 Vehicles travelling along a curve are subjected to a radial
force which is trying to make them travel in straight line.
 Radial force is inversely proportional to radius of
curvature:
 The smaller the radius, the greater the force, the greater the
passenger discomfort
TRANSITION CURVE
WHY DO WE NEED TRANSITION CURVES

 Provide path for vehicle to move from straight to a circular

curve.

 To compliment the limitations of circular curves due to the

forces that act on vehicles as they travel around the curves.
 Used to introduce the radial force gradually and uniformly, to
increase the safety of passengers in the vehicles.

 Introduce superelevation

 Pavement widening
TRANSITION CURVE
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE & DESIGN SPEED
A vehicle traveling with a constant speed v along a curve of radius r is
subjected to centrifugal force P such that :

P = (mv2 / r) m = mass of the vehicle

On a straight road, r = infinity, thus P = 0

On a circular curve of radius R, r = R, thus P = (mv2/R)

Road are design for particular speeds: v, and the design speed (v) is constant
for any given road.
V is determined by consideration of :
• The road alignment
• Road layout
• Generally selected to be equivalent to the 85 percentile speed
TRANSITION CURVE
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE & DESIGN SPEED
 The mass (m) of the vehicle can be assumed to be
constant.

 P ≈ 1/r  The smaller the radius of a road curve,

the greater the force acting on the vehicle
traveling along it.

 Any vehicle leaving a straight section of road and entering

a circular curve section of radius R will experience the full
centrifugal force (mv2 / R) instantaneously.
TRANSITION CURVE
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE & DESIGN SPEED
 For vehicles travelling from T to U, the force, P gradually increases
from 0 along the 1st transition curve to its maximum value on circular
curve and then decreases to 0 again along the 2nd transition curve.

U
T
P = max
r=R
P=0
P=0 r=∞
r=∞
TRANSITION CURVE
SUPERELEVATION

 Superelevation is tilting the roadway to enable the

effect of the radial force be reduced.
 Along with friction they are what keeps a vehicle from going off
the road.
 A super-elevated section is proceeded by a transition section.

 The effect of the radial force can be greatly reduced by

raising the outer side of the route.
TRANSITION CURVE
The figure shows a route
(radius R) where the
S.E P=mv²/R
outer part has been
θ Radius (R) raised by the maximum
Resultant superelevation amount
Force
mg
(E).
G

E max happen when radius, R is minimum.

Tan θ = ( mv2 / R ) / mg
therefore Tan θ = ( v2 / gR )
But E = G tan θ
therefore E max = ( G v2 / gR )
TRANSITION CURVE
 The transitions of
superelevation are
illustrated in the
sketch as follows.
TRANSITION CURVE
Exercise
 Calculate the required superelevation on a
railway line where radius R = 500m, the rail
gauge is 1.520m and the average vehicle
speed is 72kph.
R = 500m G=1.520m V=72kph g=9.815 m/s

Convert kph to m/s 72 kph= 72x1000/60x60 = 20 m/s

E = ( G v2 / gR )
E = ( 1.520 (20)2 / 9.815(500))
TRANSITION CURVE
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE SUPERELEVATION

 Department of Transport rules have stated that SE

normally balance out only 45% of the radial force.
 The steepest angle should not exceed 4°.
TRANSITION CURVE
LENGTH OF TRANSITION CURVE, (LT)
 Radial acceleration at T1= v2/R & at T = 0
 The increase of radial acceleration from T → T1 = v2/R
 The time taken to complete transition curve, t = Lt/v
 Therefore, rate of increase of radial acceleration,
c= (v2/R)/(LT/v) → c = (v3/Lt.R)
 Thus, LT = (v3/c.R) meter, if v in m/s
LT = (v3/3.63 c.R) meter, if v in km/h
TRANSITION CURVE
Exercise
 Calculate the length of transition curve
required for a rate of gain of radial
acceleration of 0.305 m/s3 on a 500m radius
curve, if vehicles travel at an average speed
of 72 km/h.
TRANSITION CURVE
THE CUBIC PARABOLA AND SHIFT
 The ideal transition curve is clothoid but
because the calculations are complex,
many engineers prefer the cubic
parabola transition.
 But the cubic parabola cannot be used
when the deviation angle exceeds
12°(θ<12°)
 The equation of the cubic parabola
(derived from clothoid) is:
y = x3/6RL
 Where,
R = radius of circular curve
L = length of transition curve
x = distance along the straight from the start of
the curve
y = offset to the curve at distance x
TRANSITION CURVE
THE CUBIC PARABOLA AND SHIFT

 2 straights AI and IB are to be joined by a circular arc AB of

radius R.
 In order to accommodate the transitions which start at radius
infinity and end at radius R, it is necessary to either :
a) move the circular curve inwards, or
b) move the straights outwards.
 Since the method (b) would alter the course of the road,
method (a) is always adopted.
 The amount by which the circular curve is moved
inwards is known as the ‘shift’.
TRANSITION CURVE
TRANSITION CURVE
THE CUBIC PARABOLA AND SHIFT
 The shift (s) is AC and since the radius of the curve CD = R, then
the radius of curve AB = (R + s).
 The lengths of transitions, FG = HK = L
 For the small deflections to which the curves usually apply, curve
length (FG) = straight length (FX)
 The new tangent point F at the start of the transition curve is
therefore located at distance FA = (L/2) from A.
 Calculation of shift,
y=(1/2)shift (full shift at X)
applying the formula y = (x3/6RL)

 L 2
3
L38 L2 L2
y   hence, shift(s)  2y 
6 RL 6 RL 48 R 24R
TRANSITION CURVE
TANGENT LENGTH
 The deflection angle of the circular curve is ‘∆’.
 The tangent points at the beginning and end of the transition
occur at F and K, hence the tangent lengths are IF and IK.
AC = shift (s)
AO = (Radius + shift) = (R + s)
in triangle AIO,
IA = AO tan (∆/2)
= (R + s) tan (∆/2)
also AF = ½ transition length = L/2
and IF = (IA + AF)
therefore IF = (R + s) tan (∆/2) + L/2
TRANSITION CURVE
TANGENTIAL AND DEVIATION ANGLES
 Point P is any point (offset y) on the transition curve at distance x
from the tangent point F.
 The small angle QFP (α) which is the angle formed by the straight
and the chord to point P is called the ‘tangential’ angle.
In triangle QFP,
tan α = y/x
also known, y = x3/6RL
therefore, tan α = x3/6RLx = x2/6RL

 At the junction point G, where x = L, the tangential angle will equal

L2/6RL, which is L/6R.
 At point G, if a tangent is drawn, it will strike straight FI at
point R, thus forming an angle IRG = with the straight.
 this angle is called ‘deviation’ angle. (tan = x2/2RL)
TRANSITION CURVE
TANGENTIAL AND DEVIATION ANGLES
 Therefore, α = 1/3( )
 Since both tangential and deviation angles are small in
transition curve calculations, the tangent of any angle
equals (without error) the angle in radians.
tan α = x2/6RL
therefore α = x2/6RL radians
α = (x2/6RL) x (180/π) degrees
TRANSITION CURVE
LENGTH OF CIRCULAR CURVE
 Angle GOI = (∆ /2 - ) degrees
Angle GOH = 2 (angle GOI)

Therefore;
Angle GOH = 2(∆ /2 - ) degrees
= (∆ - 2 ) degrees

Length of arc GH = 2πR x [(∆ - 2 )/360] degrees

= R x (∆ - 2 ) radians
TRANSITION CURVE
FORMULA IN TRANSITION CURVE
CALCULATION
 Superelevation, E

E = ( G V2 / gR )
 Maximum allowable superelevation, E(allowable)
E(allowable) = 0.45 ( G V2 / gR )
 Length of transition curve, LT
LT = (v3/c.R)meter, if v in m/s
LT = (v3/3.63 c.R)meter, if v in km/h
 Shift, s
s = LT2/24R
TRANSITION CURVE

 Tangent Lengths
Tangent Length = (R + s) tan (∆/2) + LT/2
 Tangential angles, α
α = x2/6RL radians
α = (x2/6RL) x (180/π) degrees
 Deviation angle,
= x2/2RL, or = 3 α
 Length of circular curve, LC
LC = 2πR x [(∆ - 2 )/360] degrees
LC = R x (∆ - 2 ) radians
TRANSITION CURVE
Exercise
 Two roadway straights meet at point I (chn
50m) where they deviate to the right by 30
degrees. They are to be joined by a circular
curve of 100m radius, with 25m transitions at
either end.

Question.
compute all the data required to set out the
first transition curve and the circular curve by
tangential angles with chords at 5m intervals of
through chainage.