“CRACK CONTROL – Are we getting it right?

Dr Liza O’Moore and Dr Peter Dux

The Department of Civil Engineering, the University of Queensland
CIA Presentation
Sydney 1 October 2003

1. INTRODUCTION

What causes concrete to crack and what can we do to control cracking in concrete?

Cracking in concrete arises from numerous causes. Sometimes cracking is significant but in
many instances it is not. Classification is often made into subjective categories such as
structural and non-structural cracks. The cause giving rise to the stress involved in each
instance of cracking can often be readily identified. However, it is more difficult to identify
the underlying reason for significant cracks. For example, cracks in the category ‘drying
shrinkage cracks’ in slabs might be put down to excessive drying shrinkage of the concrete.
The reality is that while the prime mover may be drying shrinkage, activities as compaction
and curing are important, and a slab with relatively low shrinkage concrete may still develop
significant shrinkage cracks.

It is therefore worthwhile to reflect on the basic mechanisms of cracking to shed light on

underlying causes.

In this paper, crack classification and the significance of cracking are reviewed. Some general
comments regarding the appropriate methods of controlling cracks are made and basic
mechanisms of cracking are discussed. Test data showing the influence of compaction and
curing on early and later age concrete properties is presented.

2. TYPES OF CRACKS

Figure 1 (Ref. 1) shows part of a structure with a variety of crack types. Most of the cracks
actually shown could be broadly classified as non-structural cracks, the term taken to mean
cracks which arise from causes not associated with the primary load carrying function of the
structure. This category includes
• Plastic settlement cracks
• Plastic shrinkage cracks
• Thermally induced cracks
• Drying shrinkage cracks
• Corrosion spalling
• Alkali aggregate cracks and cracks due to other chemical effects

Included in the category of structural cracks are bending and shear cracks referred to in the
figure but not shown. Note that cracks in the non-structural category are often the ones of
concern. In many instances these can be prevented by good construction practice.

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 Figure 1: Examples of Crack Patterns (Ref 1)

Cracks initiate at defects in the presence of stress. Provided certain conditions are fulfilled,
the crack may propagate. The propagation may be slow or fast. For example, load added to a
simply supported beam can cause rapid development of flexural cracks. Shrinkage induced
cracking in a slab can be slow to develop, taking many months for propagation across the full
width of the slab. While the effect that produces the tensile stresses necessary for cracking
may be different in each instance, the initiation and propagation of the cracks is governed by
the same concrete properties and crack mechanics. Some crack mechanisms are reviewed in
the section 4.

3. CONTROL OF CRACKS IN CONCRETE SLABS – STANDARD PRACTICE

The following is a brief review of the general approach to controlling cracking in concrete.

The control of cracks in concrete can be divided into three components:

• Reinforcement and Detailing;

• Jointing/ Saw cutting; and
• Prevention, through adequate compaction and curing.

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The provision of adequate reinforcement in a slab will not prevent the formation of cracks. It
will reduce the size and spacing of cracks, so that the cracks that inevitably form are smaller
in width and smaller in number. Detailing issues are more pertinent to suspended slabs and
will not be discussed further.

It is essential that a large expanse of slab-on ground be broken into smaller components
through the provision of construction joints and/or saw cutting. Appropriate aspect ratios for
these slabs segments should lie between 1.5:1 and 1:1. For typical slabs on ground, spacing of
joints should lie somewhere between approximately 6m and 8m. The influence of ambient
conditions (temperature, humidity etc), efficiency of curing and sub-base preparation can also
influence optimal spacing of joints.

Saw cutting generally takes place somewhere within the first 5 to 16 hours after the placement
of concrete. It is generally possible to early age, or “soft” saw cut in approximately half the
time that “green” saw cutting can take place. That is, a slab that can be green cut at 8 hours
may be soft cut at around 5 hours. The essential issues governing the effectiveness of saw
cutting are ensuring adequate depth of the saw cut and ensuring that the saw cut is installed in
a timely manner (ie before the concrete has cooled). A delay in the installation of saw cuts
will usually ensure that cracks will form.

Prevention is always better than cure, and adequate compaction and curing are important
factors in avoiding or minimizing cracking in slabs on ground. Particular care should be taken
when compacting concrete in the vicinity of key and dowel joints. Timely, early and adequate
curing will ensure that the in situ strength of the concrete maximized and the effects of early
age shrinkage minimized.

In the following sections, the reasons behind the importance of compaction, curing and timely
saw cutting will be explored by looking at the mechanisms that lead to the formation of
cracks in slabs.

4. CRACK MECHANISMS

4.1 Fracture Energy

Figure 2 shows the result of a displacement-controlled test on concrete in uniform tension.

The figure plots the applied tensile stress against extension (deformation) of the specimen.
The applied stress has a maximum value equal to the tensile strength of the concrete. Beyond
this point, the stress reduces as a crack gradually opens. The notional width of the crack is
zero when the stress is at its maximum. As the overall deformation increases beyond this
point, the elastic deformation away from the crack reduces and the crack gradually opens.
When the stress finally reduces to zero, the total deformation is present as crack width.

An important observation from the figure is that it takes work for a crack to open or
propagate. The area under the curve in Figure 2 is called the fracture energy and is a material
property. It measures the work that needs to be done per unit new crack surface area (or the
energy that needs to be expended per unit new crack surface area) in order for a crack to fully

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open. Fracture concepts are sometimes useful in design and appear in design codes (e.g.
European Model Code, Ref 3).

Figure 2: Stress – extension curve for concrete in tension (Ref. 2)

4.2 Defects

Figure 3 shows the relationship between the presence and size of voids and the development
of flexural tensile strength.

Stress concentrations caused by large defects will assist in the initiation of cracking. When
stresses at the tip of a void exceed the tensile strength of the concrete, a crack is initiated.
Concrete stresses in front tip of the crack increase under load until the tensile stress is again
exceeded and the crack propagates. Concrete failure will finally occur when the rate at which
the damaged concrete sheds stress is greater then the ability of the concrete in front of the
crack to accept increased tensile stresses.

By achieving good compaction of a slab, the number and size of voids will be decreased.
Figure 3 shows that the larger the void and the closer the void is to the surface, the greater the
reduction in flexural tensile strength. With a reduction in the flexural tensile strength, the
tensile stresses required to initiate cracking are reduced. Hence the likelihood of the formation
of cracks increases.

Page 4
 5

f't/Gf = 4/100
4.5
Void diameter = 10 mm
4
30 mm
Flexural tensile strength (MPa))

3.5 50 mm 3/75
10 mm
3 30 mm
50 mm 2.5/62.5
10 mm
2.5 30 mm
50 mm
2

1.5
f't = nominal uniform tensile strength (MPa)
Gf = fracture energy (N/m)
1

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Distance from edge of void to tensioned face (mm)

Figure 3: Effect of Void Size and Location on Flexural Tensile Strength

The impact of figure 3 is to confirm that poor compaction will increase the chance of cracking
in the concrete. Standard laboratory tests for flexural tensile strength may not provide an
accurate indication of in situ values. These results will be exacerbated if curing is inadequate.

4.3 Early Age – Plastic shrinkage

If drying of freshly placed concrete proceeds at an excessive rate, then the plastic concrete
within the surface zone will shrink and eventually crack. As noted in section 2, these cracks
may form in roughly diagonal and/or parallel pattern, or in a random “crazed” pattern.

Figure 4 is relevant to early age cracking. The figure shows how the capacity of concrete to
deform in tension varies with time. During the first hours, the concrete loses its semi-fluid
properties and enters the semi-solid or plastic state in which it is possible for cracks to form.
The figure can be interpreted as indicating either the imposed strain or the prevented strain
required for cracking.

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Plastic shrinkage cracking is caused by capillary tension in pore water within the upper
concrete. If atmospheric conditions are such that the rate of evaporation of bleed water is
greater than the rate of production, the upper concrete becomes partially saturated, while the
lower concrete may remain fully saturated. The resultant moisture suction places the concrete
into compression. If volume reduction is resisted (eg locally by reinforcement or globally by
differential suction) it becomes possible for cracks to form in the upper concrete, sometimes
random, sometimes following reinforcement or prestressing ducts.

Once a crack of reasonable length and depth has formed, it is sometimes possible for the
crack to propagate through the full depth of the concrete. As the upper concrete on either side
of the crack tends to contract, tension is created at the crack tip. The crack propagates
downwards. A typical full-depth plastic shrinkage crack is not fully formed at the base and
much wider at the top. Full depth cracks can widen later under the effects of drying
shrinkage or temperature. The same effects combined with the fracture behaviour of the
concrete can cause some partial depth cracks to propagate to full-depth at a later stage.

It is generally accepted that if the ambient conditions (temperature, humidity and wind
velocity) combine to generate an evaporation rate in excess of 0.5kg/m2 /hr, then protective
measures to control excessive moisture loss should be instigated. A better measure of the
possible risk of plastic shrinkage is the bleed rate of the concrete. This is particularly true for
large expanses of higher strength concrete. The increased fines content in higher strength
concretes significantly reduces the bleed rate. This leaves higher strength concrete at
increased risk of high moisture loss from the top surface of the concrete and the critical
evaporation rate will be significantly lower than normally expected.

Figure 4: Tensile strain capacity variation with time (Ref. 1)

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4.4 Early Age - Hydration

The following section discusses the early age shrinkage/volumetric change behaviour of
concrete slabs as measured in various field and laboratory experiments. The set of
experiments considered involves instrumented slabs with a normal slump concrete.

4.4.1 Experiments with Normal Slump Concrete - Laboratory Slab Details and
Instrumentation

Experiments on laboratory slabs have been underway for 3 years. These experiments have
been conducted on two different sizes of slab, large slabs measuring 1510 x 2655 x 250(H)
and smaller box slabs measuring 350 x 350 x 250(H). Commercial mixes of 32 MPa concrete
with specified slump of 80mm were used. Slabs with a free base condition were cast on a
50mm layer of sand in moulds lined with plastic while those with a fixed base condition were
cast on a layer of 5mm aggregate bonded to a concrete floor. While experiments were
conducted to consider the effects of curing, base friction and temperature on early strain
development, the findings will only be briefly outlined to give an overall picture of the
identified mechanisms behind experimental observations.

Embedment strain gauges were used to instrument the slabs. The gauges have steel ends
connected by an epoxy composite cylinder within which resides a vibrating wire (Fig. 5).
Each gauge has a thermistor for temperature measurement. The gauges are very flexible and
are able to follow early strains in the concrete. Gauges were placed centrally and near edges
in clusters of two or three at varying depths at each location. Where two gauges were used,
bottom and top gauges were located at 85mm and 165 mm respectively from the slab soffit.
Where three gauges were used, bottom, middle and top gauges were located above the soffit
at 40mm, 125mm and 210mm respectively.

Figure 5 Cluster of 3 gauges being installed in highway pavement.

The strain gauges have an error in recording thermal strains of the order of 10x10-6/Co in fresh
concrete reducing to -3x10-6/o C in hardened concrete. Variation of temperature through the
depth of specimens was small, as seen in several subsequent figures. The coefficient of

Page 7
thermal expansion of very young concrete is quite high (Ref 4) and allowance can be made
for the gauge error. Data presented in subsequent figures have not been thus adjusted.

4.4.2 Initial data from laboratory slabs

Figure 6 shows typical strain and temperature data gathered during the first day following a
pour. The data acquisition registers compressive strain as positive. This convention has been
retained in Figure 6 and subsequent figures.

The uppermost curve shows that during the first 3-4 hours, the temperature remained largely
unchanged. The effects of hydration are later seen as temperatures rise over the following 8-
10 hours. The remaining curves in the figure show strains registered by the embedment
gauges. Note that differential strains establish rapidly within the small box specimen as well
as between small and large specimens.

Figure 6 Strain versus time for six strain gauges

(80mm slump, free base, cast June 2001)

4.4.3 Experiments with Normal Slump Concrete - Field Slab Details and Instrumentation

The field experiment involved an industrial slab 190mm thick, with 32Mpa and 80mm slump
concrete from the same supplier as for the laboratory slabs. The slab which is in an external

Page 8
environment, was cast in one pour on a sandy base without a moisture barrier. It was sawn
into 6.1 x 6.1m panels during the first day. A curing agent was applied some time after the
finishing operation. Bottom, middle and top gauges were placed at elevations 40mm, 95mm
and 150mm above the base in the centre of a panel.

4.4.4 Initial data from field experiment

Initial data for temperature and strain are presented in Figure 7. Note again the strain
differentials between large and small specimens.

Figure 7 Strain versus time for five strain gauges

(80mm slump, field slab, cast August 2000)

4.4.5 Normal Slump Concrete - Strain Development Mechanism

• Immediately following casting the concrete enters a dormant period typically lasting a few
hours. Concrete strains in the test specimens during this period tend to be small and
tensile and are caused by consolidation and the reduction of positive pore pressures;
• As bleed water slowly dries and as hydration commences, internal suction is established
primarily in the upper concrete. This occurs when voids become partially rather than fully
saturated. This is seen in Figures 6 and 7 in particular, for small box slabs which have
close, free boundaries. Larger contraction occurs in these specimen especially in the
upper concrete;

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• In large specimens, restraint prevents the growth of these strains to the same degree,
depending on the location within the specimen;
• Internal restraint in large specimens is due to differential suction arising from differential
desiccation, combined with the absence of close, free boundaries. This is seen in the
lesser strains for large specimens in Figures 6 and 7.
• The large compressive strains are suction driven. In Figure 8, strains in two small box
slabs are compared, one uncured the other continuously moist cured from the time of
casting. The strains in the fully cured specimen are much less. A strain differential
between upper and lower concrete is established for both specimens, but that in the
uncured specimen is substantially the greater.

Figure 8 Strain versus time for four strain gauges

(80mm slump, free base, cast June 2002)

Page 10
4.5 Drying shrinkage & restrained slabs

4.5.1 Interior Slabs – Shrinkage Testing

Shrinkage test results

Figures 9 and 10 show the strain versus time recorded by the embedment strain gauges
located at the centre (top/middle/bottom) as well as the edge (top/middle/bottom) of a fixed
and a free slab respectively. Figure 11 shows the strain versus time recorded by the three
gauges located at the centre (top/middle/bottom) of the box slab. Internal temperature plots
recorded by thermistors in the box slab and the centre of the free slab are plotted in Figure 12.

There is a noticeable difference in the behaviour of the slabs with fixed and free base
conditions at age of 8 months. The fixed slab strains at the centre are only marginally
compressive (38 µε), indicating that base restraint has largely prevented shrinkage movement.
The concrete is in a state of tensile stress. Near the slab edge, concrete away from the base
has been able to undertake shrinkage strain due to proximity to the free boundary. Strains
near the edge showed differential shrinkage through the thickness – compressive strains at the
top/middle/bottom were 354, 193 and 0 µε (Figure 9).

Figure 9: Strain versus time for six embedment strain gauges- fixed base slab.

Page 11
Figure 10: Strain versus time for six embedment strain gauges – free base slab.

Figure 11: Strain versus time for three embedment strain gauges – box slab

Page 12
Figure 12: Temperature versus time from thermistors within five embedment strain gauges –
two in the box, three at the centre of the free slab.

For the free slab there seems no significant difference in shrinkage patterns. Both center and
edge gauges showed differential shrinkage throughout the thickness of the slab. As can be
seen in Figure 10, strain at the top gauge is the same for centre and edge slab locations.

Similarly, bottom centre gauge and bottom edge gauge recorded the same strain. However
gauges at the middle location recorded different values, 156 and 114 µε for the edge and
centre locations respectively at 8 months. The difference between these values was
established within the first day and has remained constant since that time.

Strains at the centre of the box slab show differential shrinkage (see Figure 11). The box slab
represents the closest approximation to free concrete. Strain development in box slab and the
free slab shows very similar trends after the first day.

Figure 12 shows a small difference in internal temperatures between the large (free) slab and
small (box) slab in the first month after casting. As the time goes by, the difference
disappears.

Page 13
Conclusions

• Free shrinkage has an approximately linear variation with depth within the interior slabs
which have sealed bases and sides (see box & free slab results).
• Base shear resistance can lead to suppression of shrinkage strain (see centre gauges, fixed
base slab) with corresponding tensile stresses.
• Values of drying shrinkage since 2 days after casting have a maximum of around 240µε at
the surface of the free base slab and box slab. The code predicts the average (mid-depth)
strain reasonably well in the box and free-base slabs but not the total strain or the strain
differential.

4.5.2 Exterior Industrial Slab

Field shrinkage monitoring – observations and conclusions

Strain versus time plots are presented for box, edge and centre gauges in Figures 13, 14 and
15. Measurements have been recorded over a 15 months time period. Data from different
periods of recording have been compressed along the time axis to create generally piecewise
continuous graphs. The following observations and conclusions can be made:

• Significant compressive strains are recorded in the hours following casting, the highest
registration being at the top gauge of the box slab (Fig. 13).
• During the first week the strain differential between top and bottom gauges in the uncured
box slab became fully established and has remained essentially constant following 15
months (Fig. 14).
• The edge gauges show rapid growth of a strain differential following deterioration of the
curing agent and possibly with cracking at the saw cut over the dowels (Fig. 14). This
differential has remained essentially constant over the following 15 months.
• Strains at the centre of the slab have remained reasonably uniform with depth, indicating
compatibility restraint of differential shrinkage and hence differential shrinkage stresses
(Fig. 15).
• The average strains at 15 months in the box gauge, edge gauges and centre gauges were
around 370, 190, and 225 microstrain respectively. Increases in average strains since the
first day are around 150, 130 and 110 microstrain respectively. Increases in average
strains since the first week are around 75, 100 and 80 microstrain respectively. Increases
in average strains since the first month are negligible at all locations.

The code model (AS3600 Ref 5) does not predict the observed growth of shrinkage strains to
date. The model addresses only drying shrinkage and hence makes no prediction of early age
shrinkage due to suction and hydration effects. The trend of all readings suggests that the code
model is likely to substantially overestimate long-term drying shrinkage for the slab. Over the
period reported, the code model using the standard shrinkage test result for the concrete (685
microstrain), predicts gradually increasing strains to the order of 280 microstrain following
commencement of drying by the atmosphere. This approximately aligns with the period when
the recorded slab shrinkage has been nominal.

Page 14
It is likely that the magnitude of very early shrinkage strains are not related to the drying
shrinkage properties of the concrete; if so, it follows that they can not be controlled by the
specification of drying shrinkage.

Figure 13: Strain versus time for box-slab – industrial pavement.

Figure 14: Strain versus time at a joint of the exterior slab-strain perpendicular to the
dowelled joint adjacent to the joint.

Page 15
 Figure 15: Strain versus time at the centre of the exterior slab – strain perpendicular to the
control joint.

The difference between the strains in the box slab and the other slabs during the first few days
is due to internal restraint. The stresses that results have the potential to initiate cracks that
may then grow over time and eventually be incorrectly blamed on long-term drying
shrinkage.

5. EFFECT OF ALIPHATIC ALCOHOL ON SUCTIONS AND TENSILE

STRENGTH OF EARLY AGE CONCRETE

Figure 16 (Ref 6) shows the variation with age (time after mixing) of the total Ψ at the
exposed surfaces of two specimens of early-age cement mortar with an initial water-cement
ratio of 0.5. Here, Ψ is taken to denote the (moisture) suction expressed in MPa.

The surface of one specimen was left unprotected, while aliphatic alcohol was applied to the
other to retard evaporation. The protected specimen did not crack, but the unprotected
specimen cracked at an age of 4.9 hr. Because the Ψ shown in Figure 16 include osmotic Ψ,
they might overstate the Ψ contributing to crack formation. Figure 16 clearly shows that
aliphatic alcohol reduces tension in the surface layer of the concrete. This is why it is
important to ensure that aliphatic alcohol is applied as soon as possible, and is re-applied
when the surface is re-finished.

Page 16
 2.0

1.5
Total Ψ (MPa )

1.0 Without aliphatic alcohol

With aliphatic alcohol

0.5

0.0
0 2 4 6 8
Age (hr)

Figure 16 : Variation with age of total Ψ in early-age cement mortar (Ref 6)

6. EFFECT OF EARLY AGE STIFFNESS AND TENSILE STRENGTH

DEVELOPMENT

In this section, the development of early age tensile strength and stiffness is reviewed (Ref 7).

A dog-bone specimen of dimension 145 mm wide, 372 mm long and 100 mm deep as shown
in Figure 17 was chosen for the direct tension test. Specimens were cast inside two mould
halves connected by a removable middle panel, A, as identified in Figure 18. The specimens
were tested horizontally with one mould half fixed via a load cell and the other half being
moved by a screw crank with a constant displacement rate. The mould encased the sample
completely except for a straight central test length of dimension 70x70x100 mm. To
minimise frictional resistance, two linear bearing plates were used to support the two halves
of the specimen, as shown in Figure 18. Frictional resistance was negligible (78 – 106 Pa).

Figure 17: Plan view of tensile test specimen, showing mould, semi-elliptical transitions and
removable side panels A.

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Figure 18 shows the full test arrangement. The sample ends are supported on horizontal
linear bearing plates. The right hand side mould is restrained through a load cell. The load
cell records the tensile force exerted by the crank at the left hand end and transmitted through
the specimen. Top-hat strain gauges mounted on the sides of the test length record extension.
One such gauge with its lead can be seen between two mounting bars at the center of the
figure. Figure 19 shows a typical crack pattern that emerged in the straight section. Note that
the fracture occurs well away from the transitions in shape.

Figure 18: Full test arrangement

Figure 19: Typical failure mode.

Two nominally 32 MPa mixes were adopted with slumps 25 mm and 80 mm. Because of the
limited dimensions of the test length cross-section, a maximum aggregate size of 10 mm was

Page 18
used. Actual 28 day average compressive strengths were 47 MPa and 36.6 MPa for 25 mm
and 80 mm slump concretes respectively. A total of 28 tensile tests were carried out.

The early age tensile test results for tests 5-20 are shown in Figure 20. The tests were carried
out in the months of August to October 2001. Two distinct patterns emerge. Tests 5-10 (full
circular test points) were conducted in August and the cooler ambient and material
temperatures are reflected in the slower growth of tensile strength. The remaining tests 11-20
were conducted in warmer days towards the end of the test period and more rapid strength
gain is evident, with a dormant period of 4 to 5.5 hours and a rapid tensile strength gain from
about 5.5 hours.

Figure 20: Tensile strength gain versus age

The square and triangular test points refer respectively to 80 and 25 mm slump concretes.
There appears little difference in their rates of gain of strength

Tensile modulus is plotted against age in Figure 21. Early age modulus increases quickly to
significant values. For example, at 7 hours in warm weather, the modulus for both test
concretes is of the order of 3000 MPa, or about 10% of the 28 day value. At the same age, the
tensile strength is around 150 kPa which is about 4% of the 28 day strength. The relationship
between modulus growth and strength growth is further examined in Figure 22 where a linear
relationship is evident.

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 Figure 21: Modulus versus age.

Figure 22: Tensile strength versus modulus

Compressive strength via uncapped 100mm diameter cylinders was determined prior to and
after each tensile test.

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The relevance of this data to the cracking of concrete is the relationship between the
development of tensile strength and stiffness. The rate of increase of stiffness is much greater
than the rate of increase of strength (either tension or compression) ie. an appreciable fraction
of the 28 day modulus develops within the first 7~8 hrs in warm weather, indicating that
restraint can lead to rapid development of stress at a time when strength is very low.

7. EFFECT OF COMPACTION AND CURING ON THE PROPERTIES OF

HARDENED CONCRETE

In this section, the effect of compaction and curing on the properties of hardened concrete is
reviewed (Ref 8).

Figure 23 shows compressive strength versus density for samples with standard as well as
non-standard compaction/curing. Strength and density have been normalised with average 28
day strength of standard specimens takes as 1.0 and average density at 28 days of standard
cured specimens also taken as 1.0. In Figure 23, the compaction rates 90-100% relate to
compactive effort and do not represent actual compaction achieved. Specimens were aged 28
days at testing.

The following observations are made:

• The standard specimens have the highest compressive strength and density when
compared with non-standard specimens.
• Density increases with increased time in the mould.
• As density reduces through ineffective compaction, the compressive strength reduces
significantly, e.g., a 4% increase in voids caused by ineffective curing, poor compaction
or both, is sufficient to reduce compressive strength by 30%.

Compressive Strength Ratio Vs Density Ratio

( φ100x200 Cylinder)

1.1
Standard
1 1 Day 100%
1 Day 95%
0.9 1 Day 90%
3 Day 100%
Strength Ratio

0.8
3 Day 95%
3 Day 90%
0.7
7 Day 100%
0.6 7 Day 95%
7 Day 90%
0.5
0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01
Density Ratio

Figure 23: Normalised compressive strength versus density for specimens with standard and
non-standard compaction/curing.

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The relationship between Modulus of Rupture and the density is shown in Figure 24. The
following observations hold:

• Modulus of Rupture (flexural tensile strength) and density were the highest for the
standard moist cured specimens.
• As the volume of voids increased, the tensile flexural strength reduced rapidly. This
facilitates cracking.
Modulus of Rupture Ratio Vs Density Ratio
(150x150x500 Beam)

1.1
Standard
Modulus of rupture Ratio

1 1 Day 100%
1 Day 95%
0.9 1 Day 90%
3 Day 100%
0.8 3 Day 95%
3 Day 90%
0.7 7 Day 100%
7 Day 95%
0.6
7 Day 90%
0.5
0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01
Density Ratio

Figure 24: Modulus of rupture versus density for specimens with standard and non-standard
compaction/curing.

In Figure 25, the relationship between Young’s modulus (tensile) and density is shown for
specimens with standard and non-standard compaction and curing. There appears to be no
well-defined trend with regard to modulus and voids over the range of densities in test
specimens. This may be due to the fact that modulus is measured over the lower part of the
elastic range of stress and strain. In comparison, strength testing goes beyond the elastic
range and progressively damages the specimen. Voids, even individual voids, are likely to be
more significant at higher stresses and hence lead to consistent trends of strength reduction.
Young's Modulus Ratio Vs Density Ratio
(φ150x300 Cylinder)

1.3
Standard
1.2 1 Day 100%
1 Day 95%
1.1
Strength Ratio

1 Day 90%
1 3 Day 100%
3 Day 95%
0.9
3 Day 90%
0.8 7 Day 100%
7 Day 95%
0.7 7 Day 90%
0.6
0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01
Density Ratio
Figure 25: Young’s modulus versus density for specimens with standard and non-standard
compaction/curing.

Page 22
8. CONCLUSIONS

CRACK CONTROL – Are we getting it right?

In this paper the basic mechanisms of cracking have been reviewed and research into the
effect of age, compaction and curing on basic concrete properties has been presented.

The findings in this paper support the argument that the most effective approach to
controlling cracks in concrete requires:

• Good quality preparation of sub-grade;

• Adequate compaction – This can be achieved through good construction practices on site;
• Early and adequate curing – Again, this can be achieved through good construction
practices. “Policing” of this requirement is an issue;
• Timely saw-cutting – This is also an issue for good construction practice.

Specification of low 56-day drying shrinkage strains will not necessarily ensure adequate
control of cracks (Ref 9). Whilst drying shrinkage may be the “driver” behind cracks in slabs
and pavements, the “initiator” of the cracks will be early-age activities (curing, compaction,
saw-cutting) and early-age tensile strains.

The code model does not incorporate the effects of early age shrinkage due to suction and
hydration and the trend of all readings suggests that the code model is likely to substantially
overestimate long-term drying shrinkage for the slab.

Further work is required to establish an analytical approach to saw cutting. This needs to
include the influence of the age of the concrete and its early age properties, ambient
conditions and slab restraint and their relationship to saw cut spacing, depth and timing. The
issue of the specification of the bleed rate of concrete in certain circumstances requires further
clarification.

9. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was funded by the University of Queensland, the Queensland Department of
Main Roads, the Australian Premixed Concrete Association, and the Co-operative Research
Centre for Sustainable Tourism.

10. REFERENCES

1. CEB, “Durable Concrete Structures”, Bulletin D’Information No. 183, May 1982.
2. Elfgren L (Ed.), “Fracture Mechanics of Concrete Structures”, Report of Technical
Committee 90, RILEM, 1989
3. CEB, “CEB-FIP Model Code 1990”, Bulletin D’Information Nos. 213/214, Thomas
Telford, London, 1993
4. Yamakawa H, Nakauchi H, Kita T and Onuma H,, 1986, "A study of the coefficient of
thermal expansion of concrete", Transactions of the Japan Concrete Institute Vol. 8..

Page 23
5. Standards Australia, “Concrete structures – AS 3600’, 1994
6. Dux PF, Morris PH and Rebibou SJ, “Early And Later Age Shrinkage Of Concrete”,
Invited Paper, Annual Conference New Zealand Ready Mixed Concrete Association,
Napier, New Zealand, 12-13 September 2003.
7. McEvoy A, Grant K and Saba M, “Early Age Strength and Stiffness Development in
Concrete”, Undergraduate Thesis, UQ, 2001.
8. Cheng HF, Cheung E and Liau WL, “Effect of Compaction and Curing on Properties of
Hardened Concrete”, Undergraduate Thesis, UQ, 2001.
9. Dux PF, “Mechanisms and Significance of Cracking in Concrete”, CIA Cymposium,
Brisbane, September 2000.

Page 24
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r s s u e sg o v e r n i n gt h e e f f e c t r v e n e sosf s a w c u t t r n c
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l h e s a w c u t t r n gr s u n d e r l a k e nt o o e a r [ y ,r a v e I r n go f t h e u p p e r c o n c r e t eo n e r t h e rs r d eo f t h e c r a c k l e n d s
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A d e q u a t ec o m p a c t r o na n d c u r r n ga r e r m p o r t a n t t h e b a s e ,a n d m u c h w r d e ra t t h e t o p F u t t - d e p l h
f a c t o r sr n a v o r d r n go r m r n r m r s r n cg r a c k r n gr n s t a b s - c r a c k sc a n w r d e n l a t e r u n d e r t h e e f f e c t so f d r y r n g
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c o m b r n e dw r t h t h e f r a c t u r eb e h a v r o u or f t h e
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C r a c kM e c h a n i s m s p r o p a g a t et o f u t t - d e p t hc r a c k sa t a l a t e r s t a g e
l m m e d r a t e l ya f t e r p t a c r n gt.h e c o n c r e t ee n t e r sa
d o r m a n t p e r r o dt y p r c a t l yl a s t r n ga { e w h o u r s . Defects
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t h e c o n c r e t er e s u t t sr n a r e d u c t r o no f t h e o o s r t r v e o f c r a c k r n gI n t h e c o n c r e t e a
. s t h e a v e r a g el e n s r l e
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t h e c e m e n t a n d a g g r e g a t ep a r t r c l e sl n a c o n c r e t e F i g u r e 1 p r e s e n t st h e e f f e c t so f v o r d so n t h e
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p o s r t r v ep r e s s u r eo n t h e p a r t r c t e sw r t h r nt h e m r x [ o a d s l t s h o w st h a t t h e [ a r g e rt h e v o r da n d t h e
l f c o n d r t r o na sre suchthat the rateof c t o s e rt h e v o r dr s t o t h e t e n s r o ns u r f a c e ,t h e g r e a t e r
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a t w h r c h r t r s p r o d u c e d t. h e u p p e r l a y e r o l t h e W h e n s t r e s s e sa t t h e t r p o f a v o r da p p r o a c ht h e
c o n c r e t eb e c o m e sp a r t r a [ [ ys a t u r a t e d T h r sr e s u l t s t e n s r [ es t r e n g t ho f t h e c o n c r e t e a. crack rs rnrtrated
r n c a p r t t a r yt e n s r o nI n t h e p o r e w a t e r , c r e a t r n ga C o n c r e t es t r e s s e sr n f r o n t o f a c r a c k I n c r e a s eu n o e r
s u c t r o nf o r c e ,w h r c h d r a w s t h e s o l r dp a r t r c t e s l o a d u n t r It h e t e n s r [ es t r e n g t hr s a g a r na p p r o a c h e d
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p a r t r c [ e sa r e I n c o m p r e s s r o nT h r sr s s r m r t a rt o t h e o f t h e c r a c k w r t I o c c u r w h e n t h e r a t e a t w h r c ht h e
s u r f a c et e n s r o nm e c h a n r s mt h a t r e s u l t sr n t h e d a m a g e dc o n c r e t es h e d s s t r e s sr s g r e a t e rt h a n t h e
w a t e r a t t h e e d g e o f a g [ a s sc u r v r n gu p t h e s u r f a c e a b r t r t yo 1t h e c o n c r e t er n f r o n t o f t h e c r a c k t o a c c e n t
o { t h e g [ a s s l f t h e c o n c r e t er s r e s t r a r n e df r o m r n c r e a s e dt e n s r t es t r e s s
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l a y e r o f c o n c r e t ea r e r n d u c e d . n u m b e r a n d s r z eo f v o r d s T h r sw r t t d e c r e a s et h e
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a t e a r l ya g e s r s c a u s e db y r e s t r a r n tw , h r c hm a y b e t h e c o n c r e t er s m a r n t a r n e d .
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t o c a l t yb y r e r n f o r c e m e n tF o r t h r n n e rp a v e m e n t s I t r s g e n e r a I t ya c c e p t e dt h a t r f t h e a m b r e n t
a n d t o p p r n g st,h e I n f t u e n c eo f e x t e r n a Ir e s t r a r n t c o n d r t r o n lst e m p e r a t u r e h, u m r d r t ya n d w r n d
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b e l o ww r t [ I n c r e a s e S o m e t r m e sa s l r p l a y e r r s e x c e s so f 0 5 k g / m z / h r , t h e n p r o t e c t r v em e a s u r e st o
p r o v r d e db e t w e e nt h e b a s e a n d s u b b a s et o r e d u c e c o n t r o Ie x c e s s t v em o r s t u r el o s s s h o u t db e I n s t r g a t e d
t h r s r e s t r a r n ta. n d I o w e r t h e d r f f e r e n t r at Ie n s r [ e t o r e d u c et h e r r s k o f p l a s t r cs h r r n k a g ec r a c k r n g
s t r e s s e sb e t w e e nt h e t o p s u r f a c ea n d b o t t o m o f a W h r l et h e r e a r e b o t h n o m o g r a p h sa n d l o r m u t a s f o r
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t e n s r t es t r e n g t h ,c r a c k r n gc o m m e n c e s A s t h e c r a c k T h e r n c r e a s e df r n e sc o n t e n to f h r g h e rs t r e n g t h
f o r m s , t h e c o n c r e t eo n e l t h e r s r d ec o n t r a c t s . c o n c r e t e ss r g n r f r c a n t lrye d u c e st h e b l e e d r a t e .
c o n s r s t e nw t r t h t h e r e d u c r n qt e n s r l es t r e s sa c r o s s I e a v r n gt h e c o n c r e t ea t r n c r e a s e dr r s k o 1h r g h

Page13
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l a r g e a r e a s o f h r g h e rs t r e n g t hc o n c r e t e , F i g u r e2 s h o w st h e v a r r a t r ow n r t h a g e l t r m ea f t e r
p r e c a u t r o n s h o u [ dl h e r e f o r eb e t a k e n t o c o n t r o lt h e m r x r n g lo f t h e m o r s t u r es u c l r o n ,v e x p r e s s e dr n
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s t r e n g i ht o r e s r s tt h e t e n s r [ es t r e s s e s s p e c r m e nc r a c k e da f t e r 4 . . 9h r A s a l r p h a t r ca t c o h o t
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0 2 4 6 h r g h e s tc o m p r e s s r v se t r e n g t ha n d d e n s r t yA s
Age lhrl d e n s r t yr e d u c e st h r o u g ha c o m b r n a t r o n of
r n e f { e c t r vceo m p a c t r o na n d r n a d e q u a t ec u n n g . t h e
F r g u r e2 V a r r a t i o nw r t h a g e o l t o t a l V r n e a r l y a g e c e m e n t m o r t a r l

Page14
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F r g u r e3 N o r m a l r s e d( o m p r e s s r v eS t r e n g t hV e r s u sd e n s r t yf o r s p e ( r m e n sw r t h s t a n d a r da n d n o n " s t a n d a r dC o m p a C t , o n / C u r r n g

compressrvestrength reduces srgnrfrcanttylte a lro/o c o n d r t r o n sH a v r n ga q u a n t r t yo f e v a p o r a t r v ree t a r d e r

! n c r e a s er n v o r d sc a u s e db y p o o r c o m p a c t r o n o n s r t e r s a l w a y sg o o d r n s u r a n c er f c o n d r t r o n s
c o m b r n e dw r t h r n e f f e c t r vceu n n g , w a s s u f f t c l e nt o c h a n g ed u r r n gp [ a c e m e n tA s a g e n e r a Ir u t e . r t r s
r e d u c et h e c o m p r e s s r v e s t r e n g t hb y 3 0 % l e s s e n t r atl o c o n t r o lt h e e v a p o r a t r o fnr o m [ o w - b l e e d
C o m p a c t r o nm u s t b e t h o r o u g h ,a n d a p a r t f r o m m r x e st y p r c a Io f h r g h - s t r e n g t hc o n c r e t e s
e a r l y - a g ep r o t e c t r o no f t h e c o n c r e t ea s d r s c u s s e d
a b o v e ,l o n g e r - t e r mc u n n g m u s t b e a p p t r e dd r r e c t l y
a l t e r f r n r s h i n gt o e n h a n c et h e c o n c r e t e ' sa b r t r t yt o
References
r e s r s tc r a c k r n g 1 D u x P F , M o r r r sP H a n d R e b r b o uS J E a r l y a n d
Later Age Shrrnkageol Concrete,Invrtedpaper,
A n n u a IC o n f e r e n c eN e w Z e a [ a n dR e a d yM r x e d
Conctusions C o n c r e t eA s s o c r a t r o nN, a p r e r .N e w Z e a t a n d ,
T h e p a p e r c o n c l u d e st h a t t h e m o s t e f f e c t r v e 1 2 -1 3 S e p t e m b e 2r 0 0 3
a p p r o a c ht o c o n t r o l t r n gc r a c k s r n c o n c r e t eg e n e r a [ [ y 2 DuxPF Mechantsmsand Stgnrfrcanceol
r n v o l v e sl o o k r n ga f t e r t h e c o n c r e t eI n t h e r m p o r t a n t Cracktngrn Concrete,CIA Symposrum,
e a r l y a g e G o o dc o n s t r u c t r o np r a c t r c e sf o r c o n c r e t e B r r s b a n eS
, e p t e m b e r2 0 0 0
o a v e m e n t si n c I u d e
I P r e p a r a t r o no f t h e s u b g r a d et o r e d u c er e s t r a t n t
t A d e q u a t ec o m p a c t r o nt o r e d u c ev o r d sa n d
F u r t h e rI n f o r m a t i o n
I n c r e a s es t r e n g t h a C o n t a c tr n f o l t l c c acao m a u t o r e q u e s la c o p yo f
n P r o t e c t r o na g a r n s tr r s k o f p l a s t r cs h r r n k a g e the futI paper
I E a r l ya n d a d e q u a t ec u r r n gt o r e d u c et e n s r t e fi Gurdeto Concrete Constructton- Cement and
s t r e s s e sa n d l m p r o v et e n s t l es t r e n g t h C o n c r e t eA s s o c r a t r oonf A u s t r a t r a / S t a n d a r d s
n T r m e l ys a w c u t t r n g n AAHB 64 - 2002,
A u s t r a l r ap u b t r c a t r oS
D u x 2s h o w e dt h a t t h e s p e c rrf c a t r o no { [ o w - avarlabte t h r o u g hS t a n d a r d sA u s t r a t r a
s h n n k a g ec o n c r e t em r x e sw r t I n o t , o n r l s o w n , I C e m e n ta n d C o n c r e t eA s s o c r a t r oonf A u s l r a I r a
n e c e s s a r r l ey n s u r e a d e q u a t ec r a c k c o n t r o l W h r l s t web stte at www concrete net au
d r y r n gs h r r n k a g em a y b e t h e d r r v e r ' b e h r ncdr a c k s
r n s t a b sa n d p a v e m e n t st.h e I n t t r a t t o o nf the cracks
r s m o r e l r k e l yt o b e r e t a t e dt o r e s t r a r n ta n d e a r l y -
a g e a C t r v r t r el cs u r r n g ,C O m p a c t t o nS.a w c u t t r n g l
B a s e do n t h e w o r k t h a t h a s b e e n c o m o l e t e dt o
d a t e .r t r s e v i d e n tt h a t b y c o n t r o t I r n gc o n s t r u c t r o n
condrtrona s n d p r a c t r c e st.t r s p o s s r b l et o a v o r do r
m r n r m t s ep r o b t e m sa s s o c t a t e dw t t h c r a c k r n g S o m e
c o n d r t r o n s u c h a s h r g hw r n d s o n h o t d a y sa r e
r m p o s s r b t teo c o n t r o lo n [ a r g e e x p o s e da r e a s o f
pavementa , n d c o n s r d e r a t r osnh o u t db e g r v e nt o
d e t a y r n gt h e p t a c e m e n to f c o n c r e t eu n d e r t h e s e

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