Republic of the Philippines

BILIRAN PROVINCE STATE UNIVERSITY

(formerly NAVAL STATE UNIVERSITY)
ISO 9001:2015 CERTIFIED
SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Facilitating Learner-centered Teaching

Module 2: Lesson 1

Engage

Theories of Intelligence
As mentioned earlier, the definition of intelligence draws from the different theories of
intelligence. To digress, a theory is a tentative statement that tries to explain a
phenomenon which in this case, is the nature of intelligence. Additionally, data or evidence
are needed to lend credence or proof to the veracity of the theory. Thus, one should expect
a lot of research and data-gathering processes, to build up evidence in support of that
theory. Gathering evidence to prove or disprove a theory therefore is the rationale for
research studies and other scientific efforts.

1. Faculty Theory
It is the oldest theory regarding the nature of intelligence. It espouses that the mind is
made up of different faculties, like reasoning, memory, discrimination, imagination,
and the likes. These faculties are independent of each other, and can be developed by
training. However, many psychologists have maintained that independent faculties in
the brain do not exist.
2. One-Factor or Uni-Factor Theory
This theory asserts that all abilities are reduced to a single capacity of general
intelligence or “common sense”. It assumes that the different abilities are correlated
and that they share many things in common. It does not recognize differences among
people. It does not recognize that an individual possesses different abilities if different
levels.

3. Charles Spearman’s Two-factor Theory

This theory asserts that intellectual abilities comprise two factors – one general ability
or the g factor; and the specific abilities also known as the s factor. The g factor is a
universal inborn ability, while the s factor is acquired from the environment.

4. Edward Thorndike’s Multi-factor Theory

This theory asserts that there is no such thing as general ability. It says that each
mental ability requires an aggregate of different sets of abilities. Following are the
attributes of intelligence:
a) Level. It is the level of difficulty of the task that can be solved.
b) Range. Refers to a number of tasks at any given degree or level of difficulty.
c) Area. The total number of situations at each level to which the individual is able to
respond.
d) Speed. The rapidity at which the individual responds to the situation or stimulus.

5. Louis L. Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities/Group Factor Theory

This theory asserts that intelligent activities are not an expression of many highly
specific factors as espoused by Thorndike nor is it the expression of a general factor
that pervades all mental abilities as asserted by Spearman. Thurstone’s theory claims
that certain mental operations have in common a “primary factor” that gives them
functional unity and that differentiates them from other mental operations. A second
group of mental operations has its own unifying factor. There are other groups of
mental operations each having its own unifying primary factor.

The seven primary factors are:

a) Number Factor (N). Ability to do numerical calculations rapidly and accurately.
Ability to solve mathematical problems.
b) Verbal Factor (V). Ability to do tasks involving verbal comprehension/ability to
define and understand words.
c) Space Factor (S). Ability to manipulate imaginary objects in space (spatial
visualization)/ability to visualize relationships.
d) Memory Factor (M). Ability to memorize material quickly and recall (associative
memory).
e) Word Fluency Factor. Ability to think of isolated words at a rapid rate/to produce
words correctly.
f) Reasoning Factor (F). Ability to discover or find a rule or principle governing a series
or group of materials.
g) Perception. Ability to see differences and similarities among objects.
6. Joy Paul Guilford’s Model of the Structure of Intellect
Guilford proposed a 3-dimensional structure of intellect. According to Guilford, every
intellectual task can be classified according to a combination of any of the following:
a) Content. It has five categories namely visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, and
behavioral.
b) Mental operations. It has six categories namely cognition, memory (retention and
memory recording), divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation.
c) Products resulting from operations. The six categories are units, classes, relations,
systems, transformations, and implications.

7. Philip E. Vernon’s Hierarchical Theory

This theory tries to bridge the gap between Spearman’s and Thurstone’s theories which
view intelligence as occurring on the extremes. For example, Spearman asserts that
there are just two abilities, the general ability and the specific abilities; while
Thurstones claims that mental operations can be grouped and are bound by a common
primary factor. On the other hand, Vernon contends that intelligence can be described
as comprising abilities at varying levels of generality, as follows:
a) The highest level: “g” (general intelligence) factor with the largest source of
variance between individuals (Spearman).
b) The next level: major group factors like verbal-numerical-educational ability.
c) The next level: the minor group factors are deduced from major group factors.
d) The bottom level: “s” (specific) factor of Spearman

8. Cattell-Hourn Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Theory

The fluid aspect asserts that intelligence us a basic capacity due to inherited genes
and the crystallized theory is the capacity resulting from experiences, learning, and
environment.

Hunt (1995, in Theories of Intelligence, n.d.) contends that human intellectual

competence is divided into three dimensions which he derived from the works of Cattell
in 1971 and Horn. They are:
a) Fluid Intelligence. It is the mental efficiency ad reasoning ability associated woth
brain development. It has neurophysiological underpinnings related to changes in
volume of the brain. Fluid intelligence increases until late adolescence and declines
gradually with age.
b) Crystallized Intelligence. Ability to bring previously acquired often culturally defined
problem solving methods to bear on the current problem. It is the ability to apply
problem-solving methods appropriate in the cultural context. In there, the problem
solver knows the methods and recognizes they are relevant to the current situation.
Crystallized intelligence can increase throughout the life span.
c) Visual-Spatial Reasoning. A somewhat specialized ability to use visual images and
visual relationships in problem-solving.

9. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory

Gardner asserts that we are all born with the potential to develop a multiplicity of
intelligences. He argues that these intelligences are distinct from each other, and that
each person has some level of each of these intelligences. He asserts that these
intelligences are most often overlooked and tested by researchers and psychologists,
like those skills and abilities valued in different cultures.
 The theory of Gardner has implications for teaching using project-based approach. For
example in creating teams to do a project, a teacher may select the team whose
members comprise the “highest” or the biggest pool of talents or abilities as identified,
and thereafter encourage dividing specific tasks in line with specific high levels of
talents found in the group. That way, each member of the group will have a specific
contribution to the accomplishment of the project. Another strategy would be allow
those with highest levels of intelligence in a certain component to work in another area,
to encourage development of knowledge and skills in other areas.

10. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

The triarchic theory of intelligence proposes that there are three distinct types of
intelligence: practical, distinct, and analytical. It was formulated by Robert J. Sternberg,
a well-known psychologist whose research often focuses on human intelligence and
creativity.

The triarchic theory is comprised of three subtheories, each of which relates to a

specific kind of intelligence: the contextual subtheory, which corresponds to practical
intelligence, or the ability to successfully function in one’s environment; the
experiential subtheory, which corresponds to creative intelligence, or the ability to deal
with novel situations or issues; and the componential subtheory, which corresponds to
analytical intelligence, or the ability to solve problems.

The triarchic theory of intelligence originated as an alternative to the concept of general

intelligence factor, or g.

The theory, proposed by psychologist Robert J. Sternberg, contends that there are three
types of intelligence: practical (the ability to get along in different contexts), creative
(the ability to come up with new ideas), and analytical (the ability to evaluate
information and solve problems).

The theory is comprised of three subtheories: contextual, experiential, and

componential. Each subtheory corresponds to one of the three proposed types of
intelligence.

Sternberg broke his theory down into the following three subtheories:

Contextual subtheory: The contextual subtheory says that intelligence is intertwined

with the individual’s environment. Thus, intelligence is based on the way one functions
in their everyday circumstances, including one’s ability to a) adapt to one’s
environment, b) select the best environment for oneself, or c) shape the environment
to better fit one’s needs and desires.

Experiential subtheory: The experiential subtheory proposes that there is a continuum

of experience from novel to automation to which intelligence can be applied. It’s at the
extremes of this continuum that intelligence is best demonstrated. At the novel end of
the spectrum, an individual is confronted with an unfamiliar task or situation and must
come up with a way to deal with it. At the automation end of the spectrum, one has
become familiar with a given task or situation and can now handle it with minimal
thought.
 Componential subtheory: The componential theory outlines the various mechanisms
that result in intelligence. According to Sternberg, this subtheory is comprised of three
kinds of mental processes or components:

 Metacomponents enable us to monitor, control, and evaluate our mental

processing, so that we can make decisions, solve problems, and create plans.
 Performance components are what enable us to take action on the plans and
decisions arrived at by the metacomponents.
 Knowledge-acquisition components enable us to learn new information that will
help us carry out our plans.

Kinds of Intelligence
Each subtheory reflects a particular kind of intelligence or ability:
 Practical intelligence: Sternberg called one’s ability to successfully interact with the
everyday world practical intelligence. Practical intelligence is related to the
contextual subtheory. Practically intelligent people are especially adept at behaving
in successful ways in their external environment.
 Creative intelligence: The experiential subtheory is related to creative intelligence,
which is one’s ability to use existing knowledge to create new ways to handle new
problems or cope in new situations.
 Analytical intelligence: The componential subtheory is related to analytical
intelligence, which is essentially academic intelligence. Analytical intelligence is
used to solve problems and is the kind of intelligence that is measured by a
standard IQ test

Sternberg observed that all three kinds of intelligence are necessary for successful
intelligence, which refers to the ability to be successful in life based on one’s abilities,
personal desires, and environment.

11. David Perkin’s Analysis of Research Studies on the Measurement of IQ and Programs
for Developing Better IQ
In his 1992 book, Smart Schools, David Perkins analyzes a number of different
educational theories and approaches to education. His analysis is strongly supportive
of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.

Perkins (1995) examines a large number of research studies both on the measurement
of IQ and of programs of study designed to increase IQ. He presents detailed arguments
that IQ has three major components or dimensions.

1. Neural intelligence. This refers to the efficiency and precision of one’s neurological
system.
2. Experiential intelligence. This refers to one’s accumulated knowledge and
experience in different areas. It can be thought of as the accumulation of all of
one’s expertise.
3. Reflective intelligence. This refers to one’s broad-based strategies for attacking
problems, for learning, and for approaching intellectually challenging tasks. It
includes attitudes that support persistence, systemization, and imagination. It
includes self-monitoring and self-management.
 There is substantial evidence to support the belief that a child’s neural intelligence can
be adversely affected by the mother’s use of drugs such as alcohol and cocaine during
pregnancy. Lead (such as from lead-based paint) can do severe neural damage to a
person. Vitamins, or the lack thereof, can affect neural intelligence.

Moreover, there is general agreement that neural intelligence has a “use it or lose it”
characteristic. It is clear that neural intelligence can be maintained and, indeed,
increased, by use.

Experiential intelligence is based on years and years of accumulating knowledge and

experience in both informal and formal learning environments. Such knowledge and
experience can lead to a high level of expertise in one or more fields. People who live
in “rich” learning environments have a significant intelligence advantage over people
who grow up in less stimulating environments. Experiential intelligence can be
increased by such environments.

Reflexive intelligence can be thought of as a control system that helps to make

effective use of neural intelligence and experiential intelligence. A person can learn
strategies that help to make more effective use of neural intelligence and experiential
intelligence. The habits of mind included under reflexive intelligence can be learned
and improved. Metacognition and other approaches to reflecting about one’s cognitive
processes can help.

12. Jean Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding
how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.
Piaget's stages are:

 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much
like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about
the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new
knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to
accommodate new information.

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object
permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire
knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire
experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses,
and motor responses.

It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth
and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new
discoveries about how the world works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively
short period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to
perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal
about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage
down into a number of different sub-stages. It is during the final part of the
sensorimotor stage that early representational thought emerges.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the

understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an
important element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an
existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin
to attach names and words to objects.

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think
about things in very concrete terms.

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous
stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the
preoperational stage of development.

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development,
yet continue to think very concretely about the world around them.

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the
point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of
constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces,
and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of
clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape.
Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece
even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in
a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the
previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other
people might view a situation.

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it
can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract
and hypothetical concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how
other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to
understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else
necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use
deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people
become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more
scientifically about the world around them.
 The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the
formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan
for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that
emerge during this stage.

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a
quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to
their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is
a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four
stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did
at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.

Classroom Implications of Theories of Intelligence on Learning

1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling factual
information to drawing implications and making value judgments.
2. Provide a general overview of material to be learned such as structured overviews,
advance organizers, etc., so that students’ past experiences will be associated with the
new ideas.
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate using both the
right-and and left-brain hemispheres.
4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing, or reading experience.
5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction, etc.
6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information (Write
directions on the board and give them orally).
7. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning (writing
summaries, creating opinion surveys, etc.)
8. Use descriptive and constructive feedback rather than simply praising.