IM No.

11: Physics 1-2S-2020-2021

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE: Fluids

II. LESSON TITLE:

11.1 Density
11.2 Pressure in a Fluid
11.2.1 Pressure Measurement
11.2.2 Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid of Constant Density
11.3 Buoyancy
11.3.1 Law of Floatation
11.3.2 Pascal’s Law
11.3.3 Archimedes’ Principle

III. LESSON OVERVIEW:

In this lesson we will discuss fluids. In physics, a fluid is a liquid or gas that continually deforms
(flows) under an applied shear stress, or external force. They have zero shear modulus, or, in simpler
terms, are substances which cannot resist any shear force applied to them.
Although the term "fluid" includes both the liquid and gas phases, in common usage, "fluid" is
often used synonymously with "liquid".

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Define density.
2. Explain the relationship between pressure and force.
3. Calculate density given pressure and altitude.
4. Define gauge pressure and absolute pressure.
5. Explain the variation of pressure with depth in a fluid.
6. Understand why objects float or sink.

V. LESSON CONTENT:

11.1 Density
The density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. A homogeneous material has
the same density throughout. The SI unit of density is kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3 ). The cgs unit,
gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm3 ), is also widely used. We use the Greek letter 𝜌 (rho) for density. If
mass 𝑚 of material has volume 𝑉, the density 𝜌 is given by

𝑚
𝜌= , 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉.
𝑉
The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its density to that of water; it is a pure (unitless) number.
“Specific gravity” is a poor term since it has nothing to do with gravity; “relative density” would be
preferable.

Material Densities
(103 kg/m3)
Aluminum 2.7
Brass 8.6
Copper 8.9
Gold 19.3
Ice 0.92
Iron 7.8
Lead 11.3
Platinum 21.4
Silver 10.5
Steel 7.8
Mercury 13.6
Ethyl Alcohol 0.81
Benzene 0.90
Glycerin 1.26
Water 1.00

Page 1 of 8
 IM No.11: Physics 1-2S-2020-2021

Sea Water 1.03

Example 1:
A reservoir has a surface area of 50.0 km2 and an average depth of 40.0 m. What mass of water is held
behind the dam?

Solution:
We can calculate the volume V of the reservoir from its dimensions, and find the density of water ρ in the
Table. Then the mass m can be found from the definition of density

𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝐴ℎ

kg 2×
106 m2
= (1000 ) (50.0 km ) (40.0 𝑚)
m3 km2

= 2.00 × 1012 kg

Example 2:
Gold is sold by the troy ounce (31.103 g). What is the volume of 1 troy ounce of pure gold?

Solution:
From the table, 𝜌𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 19.3 kg/m3 ,

𝑚 0.031103 kg
𝑉= = = 1.61 × 10−3 m3 or 1.61 cm3
𝜌 kg
19.3 3
m

11.2 PRESSURE IN A FLUID

Pressure (P) is defined as the normal force F per unit area A over which the force is applied, or

𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴

To define the pressure at a specific point, the pressure is defined as the force dF exerted by a
fluid over an infinitesimal element of area dA containing the point, resulting in

𝑑𝐹
𝑃=
𝑑𝐴

Note that although force is a vector, pressure is a scalar. Pressure is a scalar quantity because it is
defined to be proportional to the magnitude of the force acting perpendicular to the surface area. The SI
unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), named after the French mathematician and physicist Blaise Pascal
(1623–1662), where

N
1 Pa =
m2

Page 2 of 8
 IM No.11: Physics 1-2S-2020-2021
Pressure Conversion Table
1 pascal = 10 dyne/cm 2 = 9.869 × 10-6 atm
= 7.501 × 10-4 cmHg = 1.450 × 10-4 lb/in2
1 dyne/cm2 = 10-1 Pa = 9.869 × 10-7 atm
= 7.501 × 10-5 cmHg = 1.450 × 10-5 lb/in2
1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa = 1.013 × 106 dyne/cm2
= 76 cmHg = 14.70 lb/in2
1 pound/inch2 = 6.895 × 103 Pa = 6.805 × 10-2 atm
= 6.895 × 104dyne/cm2 = 5.171 cmHg
1 bar = 105 Pa
1 torr = 1 mmHg
1 centimeter mercury* = 1.333 × 103 Pa
= 1.333 × 104 dyne/cm2 = 0.1934 lb/in2

11.2.1 Pressure Measurement

11.2.1A Gauge Pressure

Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure is
positive for pressures above atmospheric pressure, and negative for pressures below it. Fluids push
rather than pull, so the smallest absolute pressure is zero. (A negative absolute pressure is a pull.)

11.2.1B Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure, also known as barometric pressure (after the barometer), is the pressure
within the atmosphere of Earth. The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as
101,325 Pa, which is equivalent to 760 mm Hg, 29.9212 inches Hg, or 14.696 psi.

11.2.1C Absolute Pressure

Absolute pressure is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure. Thus,

𝑃0 = 𝑃𝑔 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

11.2.2 Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid of Constant Density

Pressure is defined for all states of matter, but it is particularly important when discussing fluids.
An important characteristic of fluids is that there is no significant resistance to the component of a force
applied parallel to the surface of a fluid. The molecules of the fluid simply flow to accommodate the
horizontal force. A force applied perpendicular to the surface compresses or expands the fluid. If you try
to compress a fluid, you find that a reaction force develops at each point inside the fluid in the outward
direction, balancing the force applied on the molecules at the boundary.
Consider a fluid of constant density as shown in the figure below. The pressure at the bottom of
the container is due to the pressure of the atmosphere (𝑃𝑜 ) plus the pressure due to the weight of the
fluid. The pressure due to the fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid divided by the area. The weight of
the fluid is equal to its mass times the acceleration due to gravity.

The bottom of this container supports the entire weight of the

fluid in it. The vertical sides cannot exert an upward force on
the fluid (since it cannot withstand a shearing force), so the
bottom must support it all. Page 3 of 8
 IM No.11: Physics 1-2S-2020-2021

Since the density is constant, the weight can be calculated using the density:

𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑉𝑔 = 𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔

The pressure at the bottom of the container is therefore equal to atmospheric pressure added to the
weight of the fluid divided by the area:

𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 + = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌ℎ𝑔
𝐴

where 𝑃𝑜 is the normal atmospheric pressure at sea level.

𝑃𝑜 = 101.325 kPa

This equation is only good for pressure at a depth for a fluid of constant density.

Example 1:
Calculate the depth below the surface of water at which the pressure due to the weight of the water
equals 1.00 atm.

Solution:
We begin by solving the equation P = hρg for depth h:

𝑃
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔

N
1.01 × 105
2
= m
kg m
(1000 3 ) (9.81 2 )
m s

= 10.3 m

Example 2:
A household hot-water heating system has an expansion tank in the attic, 12 m above the boiler. If the
tank is open to the atmosphere. What is the pressure in the boiler?

Solution:
Knowing that 𝑃𝑜 = 101.325 kPa, and density of water from the table is equal to 1.00 kg/m 3,

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌ℎ𝑔

kg m
= 101325 Pa + (1000 3 ) (12 m) (9.81 2 )
m s

= 101325 Pa + 117720 Pa

= 219045 Pa
= 219.045 kPa

11.3 Buoyancy
When a body is partially or fully immersed in a fluid, it displaces a certain amount of fluid. The
displaced fluid exerts an upward force on the body. The upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the

Page 4 of 8
 IM No.11: Physics 1-2S-2020-2021

weight of an immersed object in a fluid is called upthrust or buoyant force and the phenomenon is called
buoyancy.

11.3.1 Law of Floatation

It is well-known that boats, ships, and some wooden objects move on the upper part of the water,
we say they float. Floatation can be defined as the tendency of an object to rise up to the upper levels of
the fluid or to stay on the surface of the fluid.
The law of floatation states that a body will float in a liquid if the weight of the liquid displaced by
the immersed part of the body equals the weight of the body. For example, a wooden object weighs 300
kg (about 3000 N) floats in water displaces 300 kg (about 3000 N) of water.

Example:
A cube of wood floating in water supports a 300 g mass at the center of its top face. When the mass is
removed, the cube rises by 3 cm. Determine the volume of the cube.

Solution:
Let each side of the cube be s. The volume occupied by 3 cm depth of cube,

𝑉 = 3 cm × s 2

According to the principle of floatation, we have

𝑉𝜌𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑉𝜌 = 𝑚

kg
(0.03 m × s 2 ) (1000 ) = 0.3 kg
m3

s 2 = 0.01 m2
s = 0.1 m = 10 cm

𝑉 = 3 cm × (10 cm)2

𝑉 = 1000 cm3

11.3.2 Pascal’s Principle

Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Can pressure be increased in a fluid by pushing directly
on the fluid? Yes, but it is much easier if the fluid is enclosed. The heart, for example, increases blood
pressure by pushing directly on the blood in an enclosed system (valves closed in a chamber). If you try
to push on a fluid in an open system, such as a river, the fluid flows away. An enclosed fluid cannot flow
away, and so pressure is more easily increased by an applied force. What happens to a pressure in an
enclosed fluid? Since atoms in a fluid are free to move about, they transmit the pressure to all parts of
the fluid and to the walls of the container. Remarkably, the pressure is transmitted undiminished. This
phenomenon is called Pascal’s principle, because it was first clearly stated by the French philosopher
and scientist Blaise Pascal (1623–1662): A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the walls of its container.
Pascal’s principle, an experimentally verified fact, is what makes pressure so important in fluids.
Since a change in pressure is transmitted undiminished in an enclosed fluid, we often know more about
pressure than other physical quantities in fluids. Moreover, Pascal’s principle implies that the total
pressure in a fluid is the sum of the pressures from different sources.
Blaise Pascal had an interesting life in that he was home-schooled by his father who removed all
of the mathematics textbooks from his house and forbade him to study mathematics until the age of 15.
This, of course, raised the boy’s curiosity, and by the age of 12, he started to teach himself geometry.
Despite this early deprivation, Pascal went on to make major contributions in the mathematical fields of
probability theory, number theory, and geometry. He is also well known for being the inventor of the first
mechanical digital calculator, in addition to his contributions in the field of fluid statics.

Page 5 of 8
 IM No.11: Physics 1-2S-2020-2021

One of the most important technological applications of Pascal’s principle is found in a hydraulic
system, which is an enclosed fluid system used to exert forces. The most common hydraulic systems are
those that operate car brakes. Consider the simple hydraulic system shown in the figure below.

A typical hydraulic system with two fluid-filled cylinders, capped with pistons
and connected by a tube called a hydraulic line. A downward force F1 on the
left piston creates a pressure that is transmitted undiminished to all parts of the
enclosed fluid. This results in an upward force F2 on the right piston that is
larger than F1 because the right piston has a larger area.

We can derive a relationship between the forces in the simple hydraulic system by applying
Pascal’s principle. Note first that the two pistons in the system are at the same height, and so there will
be no difference in pressure due to a difference in depth. Now the pressure due to F 1 acting on area A1
is simply

𝐹1
𝑃1 =
𝐴1

According to Pascal’s principle, this pressure is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid and
to all walls of the container. Thus, a pressure P2 is felt at the other piston that is equal to P1. That is P1 =
P2. But since

𝐹2
𝑃2 =
𝐴2

we see that

𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2

This equation relates the ratios of force to area in any hydraulic system, providing the pistons are
at the same vertical height and that friction in the system is negligible. Hydraulic systems can increase
or decrease the force applied to them. To make the force larger, the pressure is applied to a larger area.
For example, if a 100-N force is applied to the left cylinder in the figure and the right one has an area five
times greater, then the force out is 500 N. Hydraulic systems are analogous to simple levers, but they
have the advantage that pressure can be sent through tortuously curved lines to several places at once.

Example:
Two pistons of a hydraulic lift have diameters of 60 cm and 5 cm. What is the force exerted by the larger
piston when 50 N is placed on the smaller piston?

Solution:
Let d = diameter of smaller piston, and D the larger piston,

𝐹𝑑 𝐹𝐷
=
𝐴𝑑 𝐴𝐷

𝜋 2
𝐴𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 2
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹𝑑 = 𝐹𝑑 4
𝜋 2 = 𝐹𝑑 ( )
𝐴𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
4
Page 6 of 8
 IM No.11: Physics 1-2S-2020-2021

60 cm 2
= (50 N) ( )
5 cm

= 7200 N

11.3.3 Archimedes’ Principle

According to this principle the buoyant force on an object equals the weight of the fluid it displaces.
In equation form, Archimedes’ principle is

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑊𝐹𝑙

where FB is the buoyant force and W Fl is the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

11.3.3A Floating and Sinking

Drop a lump of clay in water. It will sink. Then mold the lump of clay into the shape of a boat, and
it will float. Because of its shape, the boat displaces more water than the lump and experiences a greater
buoyant force. The same is true of steel ships.

11.3.3B Density and Archimedes’ Principle

Density plays a crucial role in Archimedes’ principle. The average density of an object is what
ultimately determines whether it floats. If its average density is less than that of the surrounding fluid, it
will float. This is because the fluid, having a higher density, contains more mass and hence more weight
in the same volume. The buoyant force, which equals the weight of the fluid displaced, is thus greater
than the weight of the object. Likewise, an object denser than the fluid will sink. The extent to which a
floating object is submerged depends on how the object’s density is related to that of the fluid. The fraction
submerged is the ratio of the volume submerged to the volume of the object, or

𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑉𝐹𝑙
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 = =
𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗

The volume submerged equals the volume of fluid displaced, which we call V Fl. Now we can obtain the
relationship between the densities by substituting

𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

into the equation

𝑉𝐹𝑙 𝑚𝐹𝑙 /𝜌𝐹𝑙

=
𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑗 /𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗

where 𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗 is the average density of the object and 𝜌𝐹𝑙 is the density of the fluid. Since the object floats,
its mass and that of the displaced fluid are equal, and so they cancel from the equation, leaving

𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 =
𝜌𝐹𝑙

11.3.3C Specific Gravity

We use the last relationship from above to measure densities. This is done by measuring the
fraction of a floating object that is submerged—for example, with a hydrometer. It is useful to define the
ratio of the density of an object to a fluid (usually water) as specific gravity:

𝜌
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝜌𝑊

Page 7 of 8
 IM No.11: Physics 1-2S-2020-2021

where 𝜌 is the average density of the object or substance and 𝜌𝑊 is the density of water at 4.00°C.
Specific gravity is dimensionless, independent of whatever units are used for ρ. If an object floats, its
specific gravity is less than one. If it sinks, its specific gravity is greater than one. Moreover, the fraction
of a floating object that is submerged equals its specific gravity. If an object’s specific gravity is exactly 1,
then it will remain suspended in the fluid, neither sinking nor floating. Scuba divers try to obtain this state
so that they can hover in the water. We measure the specific gravity of fluids, such as battery acid,
radiator fluid, and urine, as an indicator of their condition. One device for measuring specific gravity is
the hydrometer.

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Suppose you have a coffee mug with a circular cross section and vertical sides (uniform radius). What
is its inside radius if it holds 375 g of coffee when filled to a depth of 7.50 cm? Assume coffee has the
same density as water.
2. A rectangular gasoline tank can hold 50.0 kg of gasoline when full. What is the depth of the tank if it
is 0.500-m wide by 0.900-m long?
3. What depth of mercury creates a pressure of 1.00 atm?
4. In a hydraulic system, a piston with a cross-sectional area of 21 square centimeters pushes on an
incompressible liquid with a force of 38 newtons. The far end of the hydraulic pipe connects to a
second piston with a cross-sectional surface area of 100 square centimeters. What is the force on
the second piston?
5. Assuming bicycle tires are perfectly flexible and support the weight of bicycle and rider by pressure
alone, calculate the total area of the tires in contact with the ground. The bicycle plus rider has a mass
of 80.0 kg, and the gauge pressure in the tires is 3.50 × 10 5 Pa.

Page 8 of 8