entropy

Article
A Chaotic-Based Encryption/Decryption Framework
for Secure Multimedia Communications
Ibrahim Yasser 1 , Mohamed A. Mohamed 2 , Ahmed S. Samra 2 and Fahmi Khalifa 2, *
1 Communications and Electronics Engineering Department, Nile Higher Institute for Engineering
and Technology, Mansoura 35524, Egypt; [email protected]
2 Electronics and Communications Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University,
Mansoura 35516, Egypt; [email protected] (M.A.M.); [email protected] (A.S.S.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 10 September 2020; Accepted: 28 October 2020; Published: 4 November 2020


Abstract: Chaos-based encryption has shown an increasingly important and dominant role in
modern multimedia cryptography compared with traditional algorithms. This work proposes
novel chaotic-based multimedia encryption schemes utilizing 2D alteration models for high secure
data transmission. A novel perturbation-based data encryption for both confusion and diffusion
rounds is proposed. Our chaotification structure is hybrid, in which multiple maps are combined
combines for media encryption. Blended chaotic maps are used to generate the control parameters
for the permutation (shuffling) and diffusion (substitution) structures. The proposed schemes not
only maintain great encryption quality reproduced by chaotic, but also possess other advantages,
including key sensitivity and low residual clarity. Extensive security and differential analyses
documented that the proposed schemes are efficient for secure multimedia transmission as well
as the encrypted media possesses resistance to attacks. Additionally, statistical evaluations using
well-known metrics for specific media types, show that proposed encryption schemes can acquire
low residual intelligibility with excessive nice recovered statistics. Finally, the advantages of the
proposed schemes have been highlighted by comparing it against different state-of-the-art algorithms
from literature. The comparative performance results documented that our schemes are extra
efficacious than their data-specific counterpart methods.

Keywords: chaotic maps; multimedia cryptosystems; audio data; image encryption; chaos encryption;
security analysis

1. Introduction
Rapid and increased growing of multimedia data exchange over open networks and the Internet
necessitates reliable and robust security means to provide confidentiality and to prevent unauthorized
access to the transferred content. Among several solutions is the employment of data encryption [1].
Encryption sachems are algorithms that modify data (such as text, image, sound, etc.) so that they
are unreadable, invisible or impenetrable during transmission. Nowadays, data encryption plays an
immense role in various applications and various encryption schemes have been developed with the
ultimate goal to protect sensitive data by increasing its security and confidentiality [2].
Most of the research work aims at providing improved encryption quality, less execution,
and security robustness against attacks. Compared with traditional encryption schemes, chaos-based
schemes have demonstrated outstanding performance with proven ability of increased security and
privacy needed by utilizing variable keys [3–7]. The basis is to use many components of chaos to
decorate confusion and diffusion abilities of a given scheme [8]. In literature, chaos-based encryptions

Entropy 2020, 22, 1253; doi:10.3390/e22111253 www.mdpi.com/journal/entropy

Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 2 of 23

span a wide spectrum of multimedia types, i.e., text, audio, image, and video. Next, an overview of
the recent literature work on a chaotic maps-based multimedia encryption application is provided.
Chaotic maps have been utilized by several groups for textual content encryption. In particular,
Ekhlas et al. [9] proposed a textual content-encryption approach based on block cipher and
chaotic maps. Their algorithm encrypted/decrypted an 8 × 8 bytes block primarily based on
permutation and substitution the byte in S-box. Although their method employs large key space,
it demonstrated low entropy and low security. A symmetric text cipher set of rules based totally
on chaos was proposed by Murillo et al. [10]. Their scheme combined a mystery key of 128-bit
length, optimized logistic maps with pseudo-random sequences, plain text characteristics, and optimal
permutation diffusion spherical. The method demonstrated fast encryption speed; however, it has a
small parameter space. Volos et al. [11] devised a textual content encryption process that is realized
with a chaotic pseudorandom bit generator. The latter is based on two logistic maps with specific
preliminary conditions and system parameters, running facet-by way of-side. The main advantage of
the method in [11] is its simple realization using the X-OR function in the bit sequences.
Speech cryptography literature has recently shown an increased utilization of chaos theory
as well. For example, a speech cryptographic method -based on a combination of permutation and
substitution of speech samples using a chaotic Zaslavsky map was developed by Yousif et al. [12].
Their scheme demonstrated high-security features with low correlation. Jawad et al. [13] presented a
two-level chaotic verbal encryption exchange system. Namely, a chaotic scrambling and protecting.
Their algorithm provided stronger encryption with a very long key space; however, the scheme
complexity was very high. Mahdi et al. [14] presented a voice chaotic-based protection model.
Their technique utilized digital scrambling, using a duffing map, in which each speech sample is
divided into eight bits. Similar to [13], the algorithm has a longer key space, but it showed reduced
security performances.
On the other hand, chaotic-based image encryption has been investigated thoroughly in literature.
For example, Wang et al. [15] offered a picture encryption technique utilizing hash function and
cyclic shift. First, mask and diffusion operations were employed to exchange the pixel’s values.
The final vicinity and value of pixels are altered by a bit cycle shift. Resistances to common attacks
was the characteristic advantage of the method proposed in [15]. Wu et al. [16] introduced a photo
encryption technique based totally on two-dimensional (2D) chaotic maps generated through the
combining Henon and Sine maps. Amina et al. [17] proposed a new chaotic cipher approach specialized
for medical images. Their technique included two stages: pixel diffusion and chaotic confusion.
Both the methods in [16,17] reported less encryption/decryption time; however, they also exhibit
reduced compression capabilities. Another scheme was developed by Lou et al. [18] to shield picture
contents while transferred over the internet. Their approach utilized Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
approach and a 2D Henon-Sine map (2D HSM) for pixels’ diffusion and permutation. Although their
method demonstrated low entropy analysis, it was highly compressible. Alwadi et al. [19] proposed a
fast and hybrid system that cascades and combines chaotic maps. However, their method showed low
robustness against some attacks. Yousif et al. [6] developed an encryption framework that utilizes a
bank of chaotic maps, from which a correlation-based criterion is employed to select the candidate
map for encryption. Their correlation analysis used all image pixels compared with literature schemes,
which randomly chose a predefined number of neighboring pixel pairs (≈1000). Due to the nature of
the initial map selection, their approach is more efficient for image encryption.
Video encryption has been also explored by various researchers. Particularly,
Ganeshkumar et al. [20] provided a three-level chaos-video cryptosystem. They employed
permutation and diffusion rounds, where the preliminary encryption parameters are obtained using a
combination of logistic and tent (LTS) maps. Their method showed good time competency; however,
compression reduction was its drawback. Valli et al. [21] presented video encryption pipeline that
utilized S-Box and has two alternative schemes. The first is a higher-dimensional (i.e., 12D) chaos
structure, and the second uses the Ikeda Delay Differential Equation (DDE). The latter was designed
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 3 of 23

for real-time video encryption. The main limitations of their method are the increased encryption time
and key complexity.
The overview of the related work revealed that chaotic systems have been exploited for efficient
for multimedia data encryption. Traditional chaos-based cryptographic systems may be effective for
text data; however, they fail in providing the same security level for the voice data. This is mainly
due to the high redundancy and bulk data capacity of voice signals. Also, some chaos-based image
encryption methods have security liabilities, such as resistance to chosen–plaintext attack, sensitivity to
chaotic secret keys, the first pixel in the cipher image cannot be correctly restored, and there are
additional restrictions on parameters selection for the inverse rectangular transform system.
To partially overcome the above-stated limitations and security defects, the work presented
in this manuscript proposes improved multimedia encryption algorithms utilizing 2D alteration
models. The main contributions of this work are: (i) novel multiple chaotic maps that depict high
chaotic behavior for all parameter settings (i.e., different control parameter selections will lead to
optimal chaotic behavior as no single chaotic region outperforms the others); (ii) perturbation-based
data encryption are employed in both the confusion and diffusion rounds to outdo deficiencies of
traditional architectures; (iii) the proposed chaotic techniques have high sensitivity to any change in its
initial conditions, in addition to the other properties such as random behavior, ergodicity, and the long
periodicity; (iv) the proposed chaotic systems combine both faster and secure encryption/decryption
compared to conventional literature systems; (v) our pipeline is a comprehensive multimedia (textual
content, voice, image, and video) security system.
The remainder of this paper is prepared as follows. In Section 2, the proposed scheme of
multimedia security machine is clearly defined and the proposed chaotic maps of the cryptosystems
are detailed. In Section 3, quantitative performance measurements that are used for evaluation are
provided. Experiments and the associated results of the proposed cryptosystem, the comparisons with
other well-known approaches, and security analysis results are detailed and discussed in Section 4.
Eventually, the concluding remarks and venues for future research are given is Section 5.

2. The Proposed Multimedia Security System

Unlike overall encryption techniques, careful strategies encrypt the most effective part of records
to make the complete multimedia content material impenetrable. Our cryptosystem is depicted in
Figure 1. The data portion that needs encryption is typically the essential/important records from
either the very last bitstream or the intermediate steps. Encrypting this small quantity of critical records
consumes less computational assets in comparison to the encryption of a huge quantity of unnecessary
statistics, for attaining an identical stage of deterioration. Even though the identical principle is carried
out in all approaches, they still differ on the basis of the encrypted information, followed standards
to choose the important data, encryption approaches, and the domain and bitstream used. Here,
several multimedia strategies are introduced for various data types (audio, image, etc.) and are
thoroughly explained next.

2.1. The Proposed Cryptosystems

We developed a novel chaotic pipeline for enhancing encryption satisfaction and execution.
Our machine is a 2D dynamical, nonlinear, discrete-time approach. For optimization algorithms in
stochastic searching, the methodologies using chaotic factors rather than arbitrary factors are called
chaotic optimization algorithm. Because of the non-repeatability and chaos ergodicity in these schemes,
it can achieve overall searches at higher speeds than stochastic counterparts [22]. The chaotic sequence
are derived from the Chirikov standard map model. Traditional chaotic maps are afflicted by low
control parameters that cause a constrained chaotic range. On contrary, higher dimensional maps
(like the proposed ones) may be used to increase the key space, immoderate complexity, and enhances
the randomness of pseudo series. The characteristics of the four proposed maps are analyzed below.
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 4 of 23

Figure 1. Schematic structure of the encryption and decryption processes of the proposed pipeline.

In brief, the introduced maps have appealing characteristics, such as high sensitivity to initial
conditions changes, ergodicity, random behavior, and the long periodicity. Those traits are comparable
to the necessities of good encryption algorithms. Further, the proposed maps preserve the authentic
structure of the classical maps in their parameter variety. In this work, we utilized four novel
distinct maps. Namely, the finance, the modified logistic, the eye, and the galaxy maps. In those maps,
an original position ( xn , yn ) is mapped to a new position ( xn+1 , yn+1 ) using a set of dynamical
nonlinear equations, that are mathematically defined as follows:

y n +1 = yn − α tan xn
(1)
x n +1 = sin xn + yn+1

y n +1 = b2 x n
(2)
x n +1 = x n + y n 2 − a2
2

y n +1 = tan yn − α sin xn
(3)
x n +1 = sin xn + tan yn+1

y n +1 = sin yn − α tan xn
(4)
x n +1 = tan xn + sin yn+1 ,
where x and y are the simulated time series, α represents the external control parameter, and n is the
iteration number. Equation (1) represents a new 2D discrete-time, dynamical, nonlinear finance model
that reveals chaotic behavior. Moreover, Equation (2) is considered as 2D evolution of the logistic
map that is similar to Henon map. This new map cogitates chaotic nature that is controlled with the
external parameters a and b. As the name implies, Equation (3) represents a chaotic model that has the
same shape of an eye. Finally, the fourth map is generated using the iterative function in Equation (4).
It is worth mentioning that xn and yn are both deterministic time series and are ∈ [0, 1]. To create
such maps, the steps outlined in Algorithm 1 should be followed.
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 5 of 23

Generally, distribution uniformity of chaotic behavior and the span of the parametric space of
given chaotic maps can be examined using specific diagrams (i.e., bifurcation diagrams) to assure their
suitability for the field of multimedia encryption [8]. Moreover, chaotic maps dynamics are specified by
orbits, which are characterized via a non-smooth and discontinuous movement, see Figure 2. As may
be effectively seen from the plots, each map exhibits a unique signature. The balance focuses on the
introduced finance model are gotten via fathoming the above structures of equations. The characteristic
types of the modified finance models can be achieved by Algorithm 1 using the control parameters,
α = 0.9, and x(0) = y(0) = 0.1. The above maps are used for various multimedia encryption (image,
video, audio, and text), which are discussed in the following subsections.

0.02 0.03

0.015
0.02

0.01

0.01
0.005

0 0

-0.005
-0.01

-0.01

-0.02
-0.015

-0.02 -0.03
-0.02 -0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

(a) (b)
0.15 0.3

0.1 0.2

0.05 0.1

0 0

-0.05 -0.1

-0.1 -0.2

-0.15 -0.3
-0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

(c) (d)

Figure 2. Two-dimensional ( x, y) phase plot showing the dynamics of the proposed maps: (a) using
Equation (1); (b) using Equation (2), a = 1.4, and b = 0.3, (c) using Equation (3), and (d) using
Equation (4). Note that for all simulated maps x(0) = 0.1, y(0) = 0.1, α = 0.9, and the number of
iteration (n) is 1000.

Algorithm 1 Chaotic maps generation pseudocode.

1. Select one of the models defined by Equations (1) through (4).

2. Define model parameters: maximum number of iteration, upper and lower boundaries,
population size, number of dimensions and the fitness function.
3. Initialize map positions randomly (i.e., x(0) and y(0) ).
4. Iterate n times: update xn+1 and yn+1
5. End iteration.
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 6 of 23

2.2. The Proposed Text Encryption/ Decryption Scheme

In recent times, text encryption is recommendable when it is transmitted or saved on insecure
channels as internet. By the opposite hand, the chaotic structures have outstanding traits as mixing
data, ergodicity, sensitivity to initial conditions, manipulate parameters, and so forth. In this phase, we
present a symmetric text cipher algorithm primarily based on chaos. Numerous protection analysis
is presented as a mystery key length, key sensitivity, frequency with histograms, auto-correlation
evaluation, information entropy evaluation, differential evaluation, classic assaults evaluation,
and encryption/decryption time. Structure of the our text encryption/decryption is given in Figure 3.
Primarily based on numerical simulation outcomes, the proposed encryption algorithm offers excessive
safety, a tremendous encryption time, and it could face up to an effective selected/regarded undeniable
textual content assault; therefore, it can be implemented in real-time applications.

(a)

(b)
Figure 3. Schematic illustration of the (a) encryption and (b) decryption processes of the proposed text
encryption scheme.

The design tools of the proposed textual content encryption are primarily based on more than
one chaotic map with non-linear transformation capabilities. The main steps of the proposed text
encryption scheme are presented in Algorithm 2.
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 7 of 23

Algorithm 2 Key steps of the proposed text encryption scheme.

• Input: Plain-text file Pt .

• Output: Cipher text file Ct .
• Begin

1. Convert the plaintext file into a one-dimensional (1-D) array, SPt .

2. Generate the chaotic sequence by selecting two of the proposed maps (Equations (1)–(4):
α = 0.9, x(0) = 0.1, and y(0) = 0.1).
3. Change the chaotic sequence into a uniformly distributed sequence by changing the initial
values and parameters.
4. Permute SPt using the proposed chaotic map for the secret key
5. Create the new vector as: SPt = SKt (index).
6. Adjust and change SPt utilizing the proposed chaotic map and the accompanying condition:
SPt (i ) = mod(round(1012 SPt (i )), 256).
7. Create the diffused vector SDt = SPt ⊕ SKt , where ⊕ denotes the bit-by-bit exclusive
OR operation.
8. Create the final cipher text matrix Ct = reshape (SDt , Pt ).
• End

2.3. The Proposed Voice Encryption /Decryption Scheme

The structure of the proposed scheme for voice encryption is schematized in Figure 4 and
consists of two operations: permutation and masking of the speech signal using the proposed maps.
The encrypted speech signal will then be sent to the receiver over a channel, which will be decrypted
to recover the original speech signal according to the chaotic map.
The input to the proposed scheme is an audio file and a key. The sound file viewed as a progression
of bytes. The audio header can be leaved without change so the sound data can be played again and
the users still hear the scrambled sounds. Only the audio data array may be utilized as an input to
the encryption strategy. The encryption set of rules scrambles and unscrambles a square length of
625 (25 × 25) bytes. The fundamental strides of the proposed encryption calculation are presented in
Algorithm 3.

(a)

(b)
Figure 4. Overview of the proposed voice (a) encryption and (b) decryption steps.
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 8 of 23

Algorithm 3 Step-wise voice encryption scheme.

• Input: Plain audio file Pa .

• Output: Cipher audio file Ca .
• Begin

1. Load audio data SPa and Set the control parameters (x(0) , y(0) , n, and α) to generate the
key block.
2. Generate the chaotic sequence.
3. Execute Equations (1) and (2) to change the chaotic sequence (different chaotic maps in
Figure 2 can be used).
4. Change the chaotic sequence into a uniformly distributed sequence by change the initial
values and parameters.
5. Permute SPa using the proposed chaotic map for the secret key
6. Make the new vector as: SPa = SKa (index).
7. Adjust and changes tSPa utilizing the proposed chaotic map and the accompanying
condition: SPa (i )= mod(round(1012 SPa (i )), 256).
8. Create the diffused vector with SDa = SPa ⊕ SKa , where ⊕ denotes the bit-wise
XOR operation.
9. Create the final cipher audio matrix Ca = reshape (SDa , Pa ).
• End

2.4. The Proposed Image Encryption/ Decryption Scheme

The structure of the proposed image encryption and decryption scheme is established in Figure 5.
Before the predominant round, in a columns-wise direction, the pixel values in an undeniable
photograph is converted into a 1D array.The latter
 is partitioned into two halves, the foremost and
second components, each has a length of M× 2
N
; where M and N are the image sizes. After finishing
the principal spherical, an intermediate cipher photograph is gotten and is then modified into a 1D
array for the next encryption round by perusing pixel values in a row-wise manner. Upon completion
of the 2nd round, the final cipher photograph is obtained.
In the presented cryptosystem, two of the proposed maps are utilized. The maps are given in
Equations (1)–(4) where xi+1 and yi+1 are state values with i = 0, 1, 2, · · · n; and α is the parameter
deciding chaotic behavior of the maps and utilized as a part of the keys within the cryptosystem.
Concurring to Figure 5, the encryption details and steps are given in Algorithm 4.

(a)

(b)
Figure 5. Step-wise illustration of the proposed image encryption (a) and decryption (b) scheme.
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 9 of 23

Algorithm 4 A step-by-step image encryption scheme.

• Input: Plain image Pi .

• Output: Cipher image Ci .
• Begin

1. Examine the dimensions of Pi (i.e., M, N, grayscale or RGB color image) and Change
it into a 1-D vector of pixels (length = M × N or 3 × M × N for grayscale and
color images, respectively)
2. Alter the intensity values into the range (0, 1) by mathematical operation included into the
arrangement as the state values of the proposed mapping.
3. SplitPi into two vectors (P1 and P2 of lengths M × N/2 each.
4. Generate the chaotic sequence by selecting two of the proposed maps (e.g., Execute
Equations (1) and (2))
5. Change the chaotic sequence (different maps in Figure 2 can be used for each half of Pi ).
6. Iterate the chaotic sequence for P1 for scrambling P1p row by row and column by column
(starting from the first row and the first column).
7. Compute the next quantized chaotic pair using the 2nd proposed map to scramble P2p for
P2 with the second chaotic sequence, and reiterate this step n times1
8. Combine the two encrypted image halves (each half has its own encryption parameters) and
mix the pixels of the combined image.
9. Permute Ski using the 3rd proposed map for the secret key.
10. Construct the new vector of mistook pixels SPi = SKi (index, size = M × N).
11. Adjust and changes the vector SPi realizing that every component of level gray ranges
in [0,255] utilizing the 4-th proposed chaotic map and the accompanying condition:
SPi (i ) = mod(round(1012 SPi (i )), 256), where 1 ≤ i ≤ M × N.
12. Create the diffused vector SDi = SPi ⊕ SKi , where ⊕ denotes the bit-wise exclusive OR
13. Create the final matrix with cipher image Ci = reshape (SDi , M, N)
14. Determine the encryption image matrix and spare as Ci .
• End

2.5. The Proposed Video Encryption / Decryption Scheme

The steps of the proposed technique for video encryption is schematized in Figure 6. In general,
video files consists of a sequence of image frames each of which is represented as a 2D array of pixels.
Video files exhibit high correlation not only for the adjacent pixels in each frame but also between
successive frames. Therefore, the basis of a good cryptosystem is to devise effectual key generation
procedures to decorrelate adjacent image locations. The analysis starts with separating a given video
file into two parts: a sequence of image frames and voice. This image sequence is processed using
the proposed image encryption (see Algorithm 4) to produce the cipher sequence. On the other
hand, the voice files are processed using the proposed voice encryption method (see Algorithm 3).
Then, both ciphered image and voice data are combined to produce the cipher color video frame. In
total, Algorithm 5 summarizes the step-wise scheme for video encryption.
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 10 of 23

(a)

(b)
Figure 6. Schematic of the proposed video encryption (a) and decryption (b) stages.

Algorithm 5 Summary of the proposed video encryption process.

• Input: Plain Video Pv .

• Output: Cipher video file Cv .
• Begin

1. Separate the image frames and voice components of the input plain video file.
2. Execute Algorithm 3 for voice file encryption.
3. Execute Algorithm 4 for image frames encryption.
4. Reverse the operation for the decryption process to obtain Pv .
• End

3. Performance Evaluation
The quantitative performance of both traditional as well as proposed techniques
could be measured through different evaluation parameters, including statistical, differential,
and efficiency metrics.

3.1. Statistical Metrics

Good encryption should possess strong resistance against any measurable tests. The first
set of these tests are statistical examinations, such as (i) histogram (ii) correlation, and (iii)
information entropy analyses, should be performed [23]. Particularly, an image histogram describes
the distribution of gray-levels of a given image. The redundancy of plaintext should be concealed in
the distribution that logically needed to be uniform [23]. For a given M × N image with integer pixel
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 11 of 23

intensities, q ∈ [0, L − 1] and L is the number of possible grey values (usually 256), the normalized
histogram (Pq ) can be written by [24] as:

# of pixels with intensity q

Pq = , q = 0, 1 · · · , L − 1. (5)
M×N

Cross-correlation coefficient, termed as R, is another statistical metric that can quantify the
randomness of encrypted images quantitatively. Mathematically, R between an original (Io ) and a
decrypted (Id ) image can defined as [25]:

∑ M ∑ N ( Io − Io )( Id − Id )
R= q , (6)
(∑ M ∑ N ( Io − Io )2 )(∑ M ∑ N ( Id − Id )2 )

where Io and Id are the mean intensity values of original and decrypted images, respectively. Ideally,
R value should be “1”. In addition to R, information entropy is a perfect metric for the evaluation of
randomness degree. The entropy of a message source could be computed by [26] as:

2Nb −1
H (m) = − ∑ p(mi ) log2 ( p(mi )), (7)
i =0

where p(m) is the probability of symbol mi and Nb is the number of bits/symbol.

3.2. Differential Metrics

Encrypted images needed to be sensitive to miniature modifications in the original image.
The attacker can change some features in the plain image to get changes within the encrypted one.
Therefore, small disturbing changes in the plain-image that induce significant changes in the encrypted
version, make differential attacks useless and less effective [27]. To assess this, several metrics can
be used, such as (i) mean square error (MSE) and normalized MSE [28,29]; (ii) peak signal-to-noise-ratio
(PSNR) [30]; (iii) number of pixels change rate (NPCR) [30,31]; and (iv) unified average changing
intensity (UACI) [32].
While the PSNR is used to measure the debasement between Io and Id [30]; NPCR is used to
evaluate Id pixels change rate after a single pixel modification in Io . The higher the NPCR is the
more effective the performance is [29]. Practical NPCR value ought to be approximately 0.99 [32].
UACI is used to measure the average intensity of difference between plain and decrypted images [32].
Those metrics are described by Equations (8)–(11):

f M N
1
MSE =
M×N× f ∑ ∑ ∑ ( Io (i, j, k) − Id (i, j, k)) (8)
k =1 i =1 j =1
 2
Imax

PSNR = 10 log10 dB (9)
MSE

f M N
1
NPCR = 100 ×
M×N× f ∑ ∑ ∑ Di (i, j, k) (10)
k =1 i =1 j =1
(
0 if Io (i, j, k) = Id (i, j, k)
Di (i, j, k) =
0 if Io (i, j, k) 6= Id (i, j, k)

f M N
1 Io (i, j, k) − Id (i, j, k)
U ACI = 100 ×
M×N× f ∑∑∑ 2l − 1
, (11)
k =1 i =1 j =1
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 12 of 23

where f represents the number of frames, Imax represents the maximum possible pixel value of the
original image, and l is the number of bits per pixel of the original image. Please note that the
normalized mean square error (NMSE) is the MSE divided by its maximum, i.e., N MSE = maxMSE ( MSE)
.
For audio encryption evaluation, various other metrics have been used, such as (i) signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR); (ii) time-domain segemntal SNR (SNRseg); (iii) segmental spectral SNR (SSSNR) [33,34];
(iv) linear predicative code measure (LPC) [35]; and (v) cpestral distance measure (CD) [36], which are,
respectively, defined mathematically as follows:
L
∑i=s 1 | X(i) |
SNR = 10 log L
(12)
∑i=s 1 (| X(i) | − |Y(i) |)2

10 Ns −1 Nm+ Ls −1 ∑iN=1 | X(i) |

SNRseg =
Ns ∑ 10 log10 ∑ L
(13)
m =0 i = Nm ∑i=s 1 (| X(i) | − |Y(i) |)2
L
∑i=s 1 | X(i) |
(SSSNRi )dB = 10 log L
(14)
∑i=s 1 (| X(i) | − |Y(i) |)

AVA T
 
d LPC = ln (15)
BVB T
v
u p
∑
u
2
CD = 10 log10 t2 Cx (n) − Cy (n) , (16)
n =1

where
• Ns is the number of segments in the output signal, and Ls is the length of each segment; and X(i)
and Y(i) are the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of original and recovered signal, respectively,
for the i-th speech sample.
• V is the autocorrelation matrix of the original speech block; and A and B are the LPC coefficients
vectors for the clear and recovered (or encrypted) speech blocks, respectively.
• Cx (n) and Cy (n) the cpestral coefficients of the original and recovered (or encrypted)
speech blocks, respectively.
It is worth mentioning that the SNRseg is considered the most popular time-domain metrics as it
is a good estimator for speech signal quality. Mathematically, SNRseg is defined by the mean SNR
value of short segments of the output signal.

3.3. Efficiency Metrics

High speed and Efficiency are moreover essential problems for a profitable cryptosystem,
mainly in real-time applications. In general, encryption pace identity fantastically established on
the Central Processing Unit (CPU)/Microprocessing Unit (MPU) structure, Random-Access Memory
(RAM) size, the underlying operating system, and the programming language and its compiler options.
Thus, to effectively examine the encryption complexity of two ciphers media produced on two different
machines is to use the normal execution time for encryption/decryption put together, for example
in milliseconds (msec) [23]. Another frequent metric to evaluate the encryption/decryption speed
is bytes/sec.

4. Experimental Results and Discussion

Most encryption schemes are evaluated using measurable examinations to quantify a relation
between both encrypted and original media. All of our simulation experiments have been conducted
using MATLAB R2017a programming environment running on a Windows 7 machine, with
the following specification: core i5-2400, 4 GB RAM, and a 160 GB Hard Disk Drive (HDD).
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 13 of 23

All simulations/tests have been conducted more than one time. Reported times represent the average
elapsed time of all trials. Comparisons with other state-of-the-art literature schemes have been
conducted and evaluation of the comparative results are assessed using the above-mentioned metrics.

4.1. Text Simulation Results

The encrypted text is obtained with the help of the nonlinear function presented in Algorithm 2
and it is sent to the communication channel. For the decryption, the data obtained from the
communication channel is transferred to the chaos generator and the inverse of the nonlinear function.
Correct decryption is achievable if the chaos generator used for both encryption and decryption is
the same.
For the encryption, the plaintext in the Figure 3 is used. In Figure 7b, the encrypted text whose
cipher is generated with the aid of the usage of proposed maps is shown. The decrypted text with the
aid of inverting the nonlinear equation and with the assist of chaos generator is shown in Figure 7c.
It is worth mentioning that the average processing time for our text encryption/decryption scheme is
20 msec (1.6 MB/sec).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7. Step-by-step illustration of the text simulation results: (a) plain (b) encrypted, and (c)
decrypted text data.

The statistical analysis of the plaintext and the encrypted version can be evaluated by histogram
analysis. The histogram can offer information to find the plaintext, the secret key, or both. Just in case
that the histogram content is reasonably equally circulated over the scale, no data about the plaintext
can be accumulated through histogram examination. The histogram of the plaintext characters and the
cipher text are shown in Figure 8a,b, respectively. As can readily seen, the cipher text histogram is
uniform, so the proposed scheme is powerful against histogram attacks in addition to frequency attacks.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8. Exemplary histogram for a plain (a) encrypted (b) and decrypted (c) text data.

In addition to visual evaluation using histogram analysis, Table 1 summarizes the results of
NPCR and UACI metrics for the proposed approach compared with other literature techniques.
As demonstrated in the table, our scheme has achieved average values of 99.33%, and 33.42% for
NPCR and UACI, respectively, which documents that the proposed algorithm is robust against
differential attacks.
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 14 of 23

Table 1. Percentage NPCR and UACI for the text simulation comparing the proposed approach with
other literature methods (“NPCR”—number of pixels change rate; and “UACI”—unified average
changing intensity).

Proposed Ekhlas et al. [9] Norouzi et al. [37]

File NPCR UACI NPCR UACI NPCR UACI
Plain Text1 99.65 33.80 99.55 32.80 99.42 32.62
Plain Text2 98.73 33.25 98.65 33.09 99.12 33.00
Plain Text3 99.62 33.20 99.50 33.11 99.13 33.01

4.2. Voice Simulation Results

An example of voice simulation results using a voice block is shown in Figure 9. The voice file
used in this experiment has a total length of 5 sec with a sampling frequency of 8 KHz (i.e., 40,000
samples), and an 8-bit/sample. The performance of the proposed voice system is conducted using
several metrics. For example, distributions of data histogram is one of the tools used in many
different fields. In encryption practices, if the distributions of numbers that represent encrypted data
are close, this means encryption has been performing well. Namely, the closer the encrypted data
distributions are, the higher their encryption level. The second row in Figure 9, shows the distribution
versus sample value for our voice encryption approach. To statistically analyze our results, different
measures that were described in Section 3), are also used for quantitative evaluation. Table 2 shows
the average values of those metrics for the sample audio files analyzed using the proposed technique.
In terms of processing time, the proposed scheme takes about 325 msec (2.16 MB/sec) for encryption
or decryption stages.

10-3 10-3 10-3

2 16 2

14
1.5 1.5
12
1 1
10
Amplitude

Amplitude

Amplitude

0.5 8 0.5

0 6 0

4
-0.5 -0.5
2
-1 -1
0

-1.5 -2 -1.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Sample Value 104 Sample Value 104 Sample Value 104

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 9. Sample example of the encryption/decryption results obtained using the proposed voice
encryption approach: (a) original, (b) encrypted, and (c) decrypted signals. Signals’ histograms are
shown in (d–f), respectively.
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 15 of 23

Table 2. Quantitative results of the proposed chaotic voice encryption scheme using different
sample audio files. Note that “SNR”, “SNRseg”, and “R”, stand for signal-to-noise-ratio,
segmental signal-to-noise-ratio, and cross correlation coefficient, respectively.

Evaluation Metric
Test Audio File SNR (dB) SNRseg (dB) R
Sample1.wav −41.05 −55.20 −11.80 × 10−3
Sample2.wav −48.55 −52.74 −4.00 × 10−4
Sample3.wav −43.03 −51.30 −21.00 × 10−3
Sample4.wav −45.26 −53.40 37.00 × 10−4

Moreover, Table 3 shows the quantitative comparison between the proposed scheme and
state-of-the art literature voice encryption methods. As readily seen in the table, the encryption
methods that use chaos outperform the traditional methods. In fact, the proposed two-level encryption
scrambling scheme: scrambling and masking gives the best encryption results. The SSSNR of the
main level (confused scrambling) is decreased by −7.028 dB (from 0.8823 to −6.1457) dB as contrasted
with time-domain scrambling. In the subsequent level (chaotic diffusion), the SSSNR is diminished
by −21.248 dB (from 0.8823 to −20.3657) dB. It additionally shows that when the two levels are
consolidated, the general decrease is −26.1478 dB (from 0.8823 to −25.2655) dB. Furthermore, the key
space of the proposed method is much greater than other traditional methods. The spectrograms in
Figure 10 of the original and encrypted speech signals show that these two signals are quite different
from higher encryption quality.

1 1
-60
rad/sample)

rad/sample)

-20

-70
Power/frequency (dB/rad/sample)

Power/frequency (dB/rad/sample)
0.8 0.8 -40
-80

-60
-90
0.6 0.6
Normalized Frequency (

Normalized Frequency (

-100 -80

0.4 -110 0.4

-100
-120

-130 -120
0.2 0.2

-140
-140
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Samples 104 Samples 104

(a) (b)

Figure 10. Spectrogram of the (a) input and (b) scrambled speech signals.

Table 3. Residual intelligibility of the proposed system compared to some traditional methods.
Note that “dLPC ”, “SSSNR”, and “CD” stand for linear predicative code, segmental spectral
signal-to-noise ratio, and cpestral distance measures, respectively.

Evaluation Metric
Security Scheme dLPC SSSNR (dB) CD
Time Scrambling [38] 0.6532 0.9754 2.4373
Frequency Scrambling [38] 0.5723 −0.2935 2.5075
Two Dimensional Scrambling [38] 0.6732 −1.9443 3.2269
Chaotic Scrambling [38] 0.6087 −4.2272 3.4406
Chaotic Masking [38] 0.9702 −19.7036 3.8279
Two-level Encryption:(Scrambling-Masking) [38] 0.9998 −20.7803 4.2583
Proposed Chaotic system 2.0082 −25.2655 6.1201
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 16 of 23

4.3. Image Simulation Results

Sample example of the image encryption and decoding processes are depicted in Figure 11.
Four reyscale images were utilized to test the proposed scheme: Lena, Cameraman, Baboon, and Pepper.
The simulation results showed that the cipher images are so boisterous in a way that any data from
them cannot be obtained. Table 4 summarizes the evaluation metrics for all test images. To visually
evaluate our image encryption scheme, the histogram analysis is conducted. As outlined above,
the nearer the distribution numbers that represent encrypted data, the better the encryption level is.
The histogram for a sample image is shown in the second row of Figure 11.
The proposed encryption employments distinctive midpoints when scrambling individual input
images. This, in turn, can remarkably increase the algorithm resistance to unknown or chosen attacks
and differential assaults, which is a desired characteristic of cryptanalysis and secure encryption
schemes. For an image encryption algorithm, NPCR bounded with UACI can measure its capacity
of standing up to the differential attack. The security performance of the proposed algorithm has
been conducted and compared with several state-of-the-art literature. The results can be observed in
Table 5. By differentiate, the UACI (>33%) and NPCR (>99%) values obtained by our approach are
very close to the perfect standard, which proves the exceedingly sensitive for our scheme for resisting
differential attacks. For decryption, utilizing the proper secret keys only can correctly restore plain
images from the decoded ones. The simulation results also infer that small changes made to the plain
image will produce completely different images even if there’s only one bit of change between the two
plain images. Additional advantage of our method is that the encryption and decryption steps take
about 242 msec (1.57 MB/sec).

(a) (b) (c)

1000 600 1000
Frequency of Occurence

Frequency of Occurence

Frequency of Occurence

800 500 800

400
600 600

300
400 400
200

200 200
100

0 0 0

0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Value Value Value

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 11. Encryption and decoding example results using the Cameraman image: (a) plain,
(b) encrypted, and (c) decrypted images. Respective image histograms are shown in (d–f).

In addition to histogram and differential attack analyses, other well-known security analyses can
be performed to support the effectiveness of a given scheme. Those analyses can be applied to any data
encryption schema, however, image encryption is the most common application. Thus, we have
conducted other security tests for our image encryption algorithm: key space and sensitivity,
and correlation analysis.
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 17 of 23

Table 4. Evaluation metrics of the proposed image encryption scheme for different test images
(“MSE”—mean square error; and “PSNR”—peak signal-to-noise ratio).

Evaluation Metric
Test Image MSE PSNR (dB) Entropy
Lena 7747.31 9.24 7.9993
Cameraman 9445.44 8.38 7.9991
Baboon 7254.20 9.52 7.9993
Peppers 8413.24 8.88 7.9994
Average 8215.05 9.01 7.9993

Table 5. Percentage NPCR and UACI for the image simulation comparing our scheme with
other literature methods (“NPCR”—number of pixels change rate; “UACI”—unified average
changing intensity; and “NA”—not applicable).

Test Image
Lena Cameraman Baboon Peppers
Algorithm NPCR UACI NPCR UACI NPCR UACI NPCR UACI
Wang et al. [15] 99.59 33.48 99.59 33.53 99.56 33.58 99.61 33.41
Wu et al. [16] 99.60 33.51 99.61 33.56 99.59 33.53 99.61 33.53
Amina et al. [17] 99.65 33.62 NA NA 99.62 33.44 99.63 33.51
Luo et al. [18] 99.61 33.46 99.61 33.46 99.61 33.46 99.61 33.40
Alawida et al. [19] 99.62 33.51 NA NA 99.60 33.42 99.62 33.39
Proposed 99.66 33.61 99.65 33.64 99.64 33.64 99.63 33.60

The key space defines all-out number of various keys, which can be utilized in the
encryption scheme. The proposed calculation comprises two procedures; permutation and diffusion.
For permutation step, the proposed four maps are exploited with autonomous factors x(0) , y(0) , a, b
and α for the split image and combination vector. For diffusion stage, the clench hand proposed map
has independent variables x(0) , y(0) , a, b and α. In the key identified with the plain content algorithm,
we have a consistent whole number c ∈ [1, 255]. Thus, the key space is { x(0) , y(0) , a, b, α}. Since x(0) ,
y(0) , a, b and α are two-fold accuracy numbers, their absolute number of various qualities is greater
than 1014. Thus, the key space is bigger than 1014 × 1014 × 1014 × 1014 × 255 = 280,375,465,082,880
combinations of secret keys. This huge key space is sufficient to resist brute-force attacks.
Key sensitivity is one of the most important features of chaos encryption. A small change in
the key lead to different results during decryption, i.e., encrypted data cannot be decrypted even if
only one parameter has been changed. It is also mandatory to know keys order, otherwise, the data
cannot be decrypted without knowing all the keys as decryption does not happen in the correct order.
Figure 12 shows encrypted images using different encrypted keys. The second row of Figure 12
demonstrates the decrypted images. Figure 12d shows the decrypted image using the same keys
of correct encrypted image in Figure 12a. On the other hand, Figure 12e,f show illegal decrypted
images when error/wrong keys are used. The results document that the decrypted images are all
unrecognized, i.e., the original image cannot be recovered unless the correct key is used. A small
change will not produce correct decryption results. Therefore, the proposed encryption algorithm has
a high key sensitivity.
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 18 of 23

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 12. Key sensitivity results using Cameraman test image. First row is the encryption process
of the plain image (a) and its encrypted versions with two keys (b,c). In the second row, decrypted
images using correct encryption key (d) and wrong keys (e,f).

Another security evaluation is correlation analysis. This type of analysis visually shows the
distribution between the adjacent pixels of both the original and encrypted images. Normally,
plain images should exhibit strong correlations for its adjacent pixels, while the cipher images hardly
have correlations for the adjacent pixels. Figure 13 demonstrates the obtained correlations in horizontal,
vertical and diagonal directions for both original and encrypted images. As expected, the correlations
between the adjacent pixels are very high in the original image and very low in its encrypted version
in all three directions. Numerically, Table 6 summarizes the average correlation coefficients in all
three directions for both plain and encrypted images. According to the results, our algorithm achieves
good encryption in terms of the correlation degree of adjacent pixels (R values of the plain images are
closer to “1” while those of the cipher images are closer to “0”), thus documenting that the proposed
encryption algorithm has good confusion and diffusion properties.

Table 6. Average correlation analysis results (%) of the proposed image encryption scheme, computed
in all directions.

Direction
Horizontal Vertical Diagonal
Plain Image 95.09 93.47 94.01
Test Image
Encrypted Image 33.61 × 10−2 38.02 × 10−2 −27.11 × 10−2
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 19 of 23

10 4 10 4 10 4

Pixle gray value on location (x+1,y)

Pixle gray value on location (x+1,y)

Pixle gray value on location (x+1,y)

7 7 7

6 6 6

5 5 5

4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
4 4
Pixle value on location (x,y) 10 Pixle value on location (x,y) 10 Pixle value on location (x,y) 10 4

10 4 10 4 10 4
Pixle gray value on location (x+1,y)

Pixle gray value on location (x+1,y)

Pixle gray value on location (x+1,y)

7 7 7

6 6 6

5 5 5

4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pixle value on location (x,y) 10 4 Pixle value on location (x,y) 10 4 Pixle value on location (x,y) 10 4

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 13. Adjacent pixel correlation analysis using Cameraman test image for the plain image
(first row) and encrypted image (second row) for the horizontal (a), vertical (b), and diagonal (c)
directions.

4.4. Video Simulation Results

The proposed video encryption scheme is used to encrypt video data, frame by frame,
without considering the selective region of interest. Input color videos considered are Rhino.avi,
Flamingo.avi, Train.avi, and Viptrain.avi. A one-second test video consisting of 15 frames is chosen
for testing the performance of the proposed video encryption scheme and the sample video frame is
shown in Figure 6. An encrypted video frame using Algorithm 5 is shown in Figure 14, which shows
that the encrypted frames are unintelligible, having good perceptual security.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 14. Video encryption and decoding results using Rhino.avi file: (a) plain, (b) encrypted,
and (c) decrypted video with right keys.

Differential attack refers to the method of finding out a meaningful relationship between plain
and encrypted video frames by making a slight change in the pixel value of the encrypted video frame
and observing its effect. If a slight change in the plain video frame results in a significant change in
the cipher frame with respect to diffusion, then this encryption scheme can resist differential attack
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 20 of 23

effectively. Table 7 measures the video simulation comparing the proposed approach with other
literature methods.

Table 7. Percentage NPCR, UACI for the video simulation comparing the proposed approach with
other literature methods (“NPCR”—number of pixels change rate; and “UACI”—unified average
changing intensity).

Proposed Ganeshkumar et al. [20] Valli et al. [21]

Test Video NPCR UACI NPCR UACI NPCR UACI
Rhino 99.61 33.61 99.51 33.54 99.54 33.49
Flamingo 99.63 33.63 99.52 33.52 99.58 33.48
Train 99.63 33.63 99.61 33.50 99.53 33.48
Viptrain 99.61 33.60 99.58 33.62 99.51 33.49

In addition to NPCR and UACI quantitative measures, we also quantified our method based
on encryption speed. In real-time the speed of encryption plays a vital role. If the time taken to
encrypt/decrypt the data is high then the method may not be suitable for some applications like video
conferencing, live streaming etc., The proposed method spends 1 second for creating the necessary
parameters for the maps to be used and the time required to encrypt (decrypt) the test video data is
about 408 msec (2.15 MB/sec). The time required to generate the keys is a one-time operation, so the
proposed scheme provides a good competency as compared to its similar methods.

5. Conclusions
Multimedia encryption tools have become an integral part of secure and confidential data transfer
over opened-nature wired or wireless communication channels. In this work, a hybrid-chaotic
multimedia encryption/decryption pipeline has been proposed, which is based on novel 2D dynamical
chaotic maps. The control parameters of both permutation and diffusion structure are generated
by a combination of the proposed maps. Moreover, the ciphers are generated with different chaos
generators for encryption and decryption and the performance analysis is conducted between these
chaos generators. One of the advantages of the proposed system is its comprehensiveness in encoding
all types of media (e.g., text, images, speech and video) compared with a single-secure data application.
Other advantages of our system pertain to specific multimedia types. Particularly, we have presented
a novel symmetric text encryption algorithm that uses plain text characteristics to resist a chosen
or known plain text attack. Our proposed speech cryptosystem provided high-security features
and low correlation between the original and encrypted speech signals. Moreover, the proposed
image encryption/decryption scheme not only applicable for greyscale and color images but also
it takes a very short time, which makes it suitable for today’s fast communication. Furthermore,
the proposed video encryption possesses the ability to deal with more redundant data from the
frame by frame, while providing good complexity and stability for secure encryption. In total,
simulation experiments and evaluation statistics have shown that the proposed chaotic systems are
faster and secure encryption/decryption of several data types with less computation as compared to
conventional systems; practical in key handling; and can be implemented in real-time applications.
Despite the advantages of our research, it is; however, limited in the availability of data making
it difficult to process due to the limited hardware availability. Inter-operability, data processing,
CPU management, memory and disk resources, and big data issues are still weaknesses in architectures
that require a large number of heterogeneous devices such as Fog computing applications. There are
a few research venues that are still open for future research and investigation. This includes the
randomization of key choice handle, the expansion of the number of offers superimposed for increased
layers’ of security; and the integration of other sorts of chaotic maps to improve the encryption handle.
Another research avenue is the integration/utilization of the proposed schemes in fog applications.
Generally, those applications are motivated by the desire for functionality and end-user requirements,
while the security aspects are often ignored or considered as an afterthought. The impact of those
Entropy 2020, 22, 1253 21 of 23

security issues and possible solutions, providing future security-relevant directions will be determined
for designing, developing, and maintaining fog systems.

Author Contributions: I.Y., M.A.M., A.S.S., and F.K.: conceptualization; I.Y. and F.K.: methodology,
formal analysis, visualization, and original draft preparation; I.Y.: software and data curation; M.A.M. and A.S.S.:
validation and supervision; A.S.S. and I.Y.: investigation; I.Y., M.A.M., A.S.S., and F.K.: review and editing
final version. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

1-D One-dimensional
2-D Two-dimensional
2D-HSM Two-dimensional Henon-Sine map
CD Cpestral Distance
CPU Central Processing Unit
DDE Delay Differential Equation
DFT Discrete Fourier Transform
DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DRM Digital Rights Management
HDD Hard Disk Drive
LPC Linear Predicative Code
MPU Microprocessing Unit
MSE Mean Square Error
NMSE Normalized Mean Square Error
NPCR Number of Pixels Change Rate
PSNR Peak Signal-to-Noise-Ratio
PT Processing Time
RAM Random-Access Memory
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio
SNRseg Time-Domain Segemntal SNR
SSSNR Segmental Spectral Signal to Noise Ratio
UACI Unified Average Changing Intensity

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