Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute Technology

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

STUDY OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION IN IMPROVING

POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY
(Case study: Addis Center Substation)

BY: ABEBA DEBRU TESHOME

ADVISOR: GETACHEW BIRU WORKU (DR.-ING)

A Thesis Submitted to Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, School of

Graduate Studies Addis Ababa University in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirement for the Degree of Masters of Science in Electrical
Engineering (Electrical Power Engineering)

June, 2016
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute Technology
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

STUDY OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION IN IMPROVING

POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY
(Case study: Addis Center Substation)

BY: ABEBA DEBRU TESHOME

_____________________________ ___________________
Chairman, Department of Electrical Signature
And Computer Engineering

Dr.Ing. Getachew Biru ___________________

Advisor Signature

_____________________________ ___________________
Internal Examiner Signature

_____________________________ ___________________
External Examiner Signature

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

DECLARATION

I, the undersigned declare that this thesis is my original work, has not been presented for Degree
in this or other universities, all sources of materials for this thesis have been fully
acknowledged.

Name: Abeba Debru

Place: Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa

Date of Submission: ______________________

This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as a university advisor.

Dr.-Ing Getachew Biru Signature: __________________

Advisor’s Name

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I would like to thank God, for His provision of strength that helped me to overcome
any difficulties during the entire work. Without His help I couldn’t be able to finish it.

Secondly, I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor Getachew Biru (Dr.-Ing.), for his
valuable comment, timely response and great commitment. I’m also grateful to his motivation
and his dynamic suggestions for solutions to any of the challenges faced during the thesis work.

Then I would like to appreciate Tesfaye and Junad, Ethiopian Electric Power corporation staffs
for their hospitality and willingness in provision of necessary data. I have received a very keen
support from the office during my data collection period.

I am also grateful to Ato Konno Bodde, Lecturer at Ethiopian institute of Technology-Mekelle

(EiT-M), and Ato Worku Eshetu for their great assistance in editing this paper.

And I want to thank my husband, Behailu and all my family for their continuous and tireless
support.

Finally, I want to say thank you to all my friends who took part in this work directly or
indirectly.

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

Table of Contents
Contents Page Number

Declaration .................................................................................................................................... III

Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................ IV
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... V
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ IX
Acronyms ...................................................................................................................................... XI
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... XIII
Chapter one ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the Study Area .................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Objectives ................................................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Thesis ......................................................................................... 4
1.5 Outline of the thesis .................................................................................................................. 5
Chapter two ..................................................................................................................................... 6
Theoretical background and literature review ................................................................................ 6
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Distributed Generation .............................................................................................................. 6
2.2.1 Types of Distributed Generation Technologies ..................................................................... 7
2.3 Review of related works ......................................................................................................... 14
2.4 Reliability Analysis Methods .................................................................................................. 16
2.4.1. Analytical Method .............................................................................................................. 16
2.4.1.1 Reliability Evaluation of Power System using Markov Models ....................................... 17
2.4.1.2. Series System ................................................................................................................... 19

2.3.1.3. Parallel Structure .............................................................................................................. 20

2.4.2 Numerical or Monte Carlo Simulation Methods ................................................................. 20

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

2.4.3 PowerFactory ....................................................................................................................... 21

2.4.3.1 Reliability Assessment under PowerFactory .................................................................... 22

2.3.3.2. Network Reliability Assessment ...................................................................................... 24

2.4.5. Results ................................................................................................................................. 26
2.5 Reliability Indices ................................................................................................................... 26
2.6 Cost-Benefit Analysis ............................................................................................................. 30
Chapter three ................................................................................................................................. 31
Data collection and analysis.......................................................................................................... 31
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 31
3.2 Basic data of ADC substation ................................................................................................. 31
3.3 Major Interruption Causes of ADC Substation ....................................................................... 35
3.4 Interruption Data from 2012/13 to 2013/14 ............................................................................ 37
3.5 Reliability Indices Calculation ................................................................................................ 41
Chapter four .................................................................................................................................. 47
Simulation studies and result analysis .......................................................................................... 47
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 47
4.2 Selection of DG technology .................................................................................................... 47
4.3 Sizing of Microturbine/Fuel cell hybrid Systems ................................................................... 48
4.4 Reliability Analysis using PowerFactory................................................................................ 50
4.5 Connecting DG to the at selected feeder/s .............................................................................. 51
4.5.1 Case study 1: Integrating DG at ADC-7 .............................................................................. 52
4.5.2 Case study2: Integrating DG at ADC-9 ............................................................................... 52
4.5.5 Case study 5: DG at all feeders ............................................................................................ 54
4.5.6 Case study 6: Two DGs at the Same Location .................................................................... 55
4.6 Connecting DG to a Single Feeder (ADC-7) .......................................................................... 56
4.6.1 Distance vs. Reliability ........................................................................................................ 59
4.6.1.1 Case study 7: DG at LP1 ................................................................................................... 59
4.6.1.2 Case study 8: DG at LP 2 .................................................................................................. 60
4.6.1.3 Case study9: DG at LP 3 ................................................................................................... 60

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

4.6.1.4 Case study 10: DG at LP 4 ................................................................................................ 61

4.6.1.5 Case study 11: DG at LP 5 ................................................................................................ 61
4.6.1.6 Case study 12: DG at LP 6 ................................................................................................ 62
4.6.1.7 Case study 13: DG at LP 7(end of the line) ...................................................................... 62
Conclusions, Recommendations and Future work........................................................................ 65
5.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 65
5.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 66
5.3 Future Work ............................................................................................................................ 66
References ..................................................................................................................................... 67
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 72
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................... 73

List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Overview of ADC substation .................................................................................. 1
Figure 1.2: Two aspects of reliability ......................................................................................... 2
Figure 2.1: A photovoltaic system [6] ............................................................................................ 7
Figure 2.2: Parts wind turbine [6] ................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2.3: Fuel cell, [6] ................................................................................................................. 9
Figure2.4: Parts of microturbine [11] ........................................................................................... 12
Figure 2.5: Transition diagram of component states [17,19] ........................................................ 17
Figure 2.6: Average state cycle [17, 19] ....................................................................................... 18

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

Figure 2.7: Series system (structure) [17, 19] ............................................................................... 19

Figure 2.8: Parallel system [19] .................................................................................................... 20
Figure 2.9: Reliability analyses under power factory [20] ........................................................... 23
Figure 2.10: Reliability analysis interface .................................................................................... 25
Figure 2.11: Output tab of reliability assessment dialogue........................................................... 25
Figure 2.12: Reliability worth and reliability cost [8] .................................................................. 30
Figure 3.1: One line diagram ADC substation.............................................................................. 31
Figure 3.2: Hourly loads of each feeders of ADC substation ....................................................... 34
Figure 3.3: Overall (total) load of ADC substation ...................................................................... 34
Figure 3.4: Percentage Duration of each fault types ..................................................................... 40
Figure 3.5: Percentage of frequency of Interruption ..................................................................... 41
Figure 3.6: SAIDI comparison ...................................................................................................... 43
Figures 3.7: SAIFI comparison ..................................................................................................... 43
Figure 4.1: Equipments used in reliability analysis of PowerFactory .......................................... 50
Figure 4.2: One line diagram ADC substation.............................................................................. 51
Figure 4.3: DGs to all feeders .................................................................................................. 54
Figure 4.4: Multiple DGs at ADC-7 ............................................................................................. 55
Figure 4.5: ADC-7circuit .............................................................................................................. 57
Figure 4.6: One line diagram ADC-7 ........................................................................................... 57
Figure 4.7: Lumped diagram of ADC-7 ....................................................................................... 58
Figure 4.8: Distance vs. SAIFI, SAIDI, ENS and ASAI .............................................................. 64

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

List of Tables
Table 2.1: Features of fuel cell types [8, 9] .............................................................................. 10
Table 2.1: Attributes of Microturbine [11] .............................................................................. 12
Table 2.3: Summary of customer Oriented Indexes .............................................................. 29
Table 3.1: Data for Addis Center Distribution Substation [19]............................................ 32
Table 3.2: Basic data the of ADC feeders ................................................................................ 32
Table 3.3: Annual average energy and power consumption ............................................... 33
Table 3.4: Average and peak load ............................................................................................ 33
Table 3.5: Interruption duration and frequency of different faults of 2012/13 ................ 38
Table 3.6: Percentage of duration and frequency of each fault types ................................. 38
Table 3.7: Planned and unplanned outage duration (Hr.) of 2013 and 2014 ..................... 39
Table 3.8: Frequency of planned and unplanned outage of 2013 and 2014 ....................... 39
Table 3.9: Percentage duration of each fault types ................................................................ 40
Table 3.10: Percentage of Frequency (interruption per year) .............................................. 40
Table 3.11: Reliability indices of 2013 ...................................................................................... 41
Table 3.12: Reliability indices of 2014 ...................................................................................... 42
Table 3.13: Reliability indices of the average of 2013 and 2014).......................................... 42
Table 3.14: SAIDI and SAIFI comparison [21] ....................................................................... 45
Table 3.15: EEPCO’S electricity tariff (Birr/kwh) [21, 23] .................................................... 45
Table 3.16: Average cost of ENS for single month at ADC outgoing feeders ................... 46
Table 4.1: Emission levels different DGs ................................................................................ 47
Table 4.2: Equipments and installation costs [10] ................................................................. 48
Table 4.3: The cost of 3.5 MW DG ............................................................................................ 49
Table 4.4: Electrical and Failure inputs ................................................................................... 50
Table 4.5: Basecase reliability indices ...................................................................................... 52
Table 4.6: Indices with DG at ADC-7 ...................................................................................... 52
Table 4.7: Indices of the average system with DG at ADC-9 ............................................... 53
Table 4.8: Indices when DGs connected at ADC-7 and ADC-9........................................... 53
Table 4.9: Indices when DG connected at ADC-7, ADC-9 and ADC-14 ............................ 54

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

Table 4.10: Indices of two DGs at the same location ............................................................. 55

Table 4.11: Basic data of ADC-7 feeder ................................................................................... 58
Table 4.12: Basecase ADC-7 indices without DG .................................................................. 58
Table 4.13: Indices DG at load point 1(1.15km from SP) ...................................................... 59
Table 4.14: Indices DG at load point 2 (1.853km from SP) ................................................... 60
Table 4.15: Indices DG at load point 3 (3.03km from SP) ..................................................... 60
Table 4.16: Indices DG at load point 4 (3.9km from SP) ....................................................... 61
Table 4.17: Indices DG at load point 5 (6.27km from SP) ..................................................... 61
Table 4.18: Indices DG at load point 6 (7.447km from SP) ................................................... 62
Table 4.19: Indices DG at load point 7 (8.696km from SP) ................................................... 62
Table 4.20: Summary of ADC-7 indices (Reliability vs. Distance) ...................................... 63

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

ACRONYMS
AAC All Aluminum Conductors
ACCI Average Customer Curtailment Index
ADC Addis Center substation
AENS Average Energy Not Supplied Index
ALIDI Average Load Interruption Duration Index
ALIFI Average Load Interruption Frequency Index
ASAI Average Service Availability Index
ASUI Average Service Unavailability Index
CAIDI Customer Average Interruption Duration Index
Customer Average Interruption Frequency
CAIFI
Index
DER Distributed Energy Resource
DG Distributed Generation
DUR Time of Interruption
ENS Energy Not Supplied Index
FEA Failure Effect Analysis
Freq. Frequency of Interruption
Km Kilometer
kV kilo volt
kVA kilo volt ampere
kVAr kilo volt ampere reactive
kVArh kilo volt ampere hour reactive
kWh kilo watt hour
MTBF Mean time between failure
MTTF Mean time to fail
MTTR Mean time to repair
MVA Mega volt ampere
MVAr Mega Volt Ampere Reactive
MW Mega Watt
P Active Power

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

PEF Permanent Earth Faults

PEF Permanent Short Circuit
Pf Power factor
Q Reactive power
SAIDI System Average Interruption Duration Index
SAIFI System Average Interruption Frequency Index
TEF Temporary Earth Faults
TSC Temporary Short Circuit
UF Utilization factor
V Volt
W Watt

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

ABSTRACT
Reliability analysis is a main aspect for power system planning, design and operation. In a
country like Ethiopia, which is growing fast, ensuring power system reliability should be given
better attention since energy is the main engine for any form of development.

The present Addis Center Substation (ADC) has encountered frequent power interruptions and
power quality problems. The interruptions are caused mainly by short circuit (SC) and earth fault
(EF). There are also planned outages for operation and maintenance purpose. The substation’s
System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI) and System Average Interruption
Duration Index (SAIDI) are 152.16 and 144.502, respectively. The substation is not reliable by
the standard of Ethiopian Electric Agency (EEA) which set (SAIFI =20 and SAIDI= 25). This
reliability gap calls for searching of effective methods for improving the reliability of the
distribution system.

Among different solutions to power system reliability problems, integrating Distributed

Generation (DG) to the current network is evaluated in this thesis. Distributed generation is a
generation of an electric power close to the load. The resources are mini hydro, photovoltaic
Array (PV), fuel cells, wind generators, micro turbines and so on. In this thesis, based on
availability of the resource, cost factors, and utilization area, Microturbine/Fuel cell hybrid
system of is selected from other distributed generation resources. The size of a single DG is
3.5MW and fed to the grid as backup when there is an interruption. Simulation studies using
DigSilent software for reliability analysis is carried out. So, the main focus of this thesis is
studying the improvement of power reliability using DG as a backup.

Best location of DG, multiple DGs at the same load point and reliability improvement
opportunity with DG has been investigated. One of the feeders, (ADC-7) was studied to
investigate the effect of distance of DG to reliability. SAIFI and SAIDI of this feeder without of
DG were 249.6 and 186.1 respectively. With the DG option at the end of the line, the simulation
result shows that the above indices reduced to 20.46, and 15.75 respectively.

Key words: Power System Reliability, Distributed Generation, DG technology, PowerFactory.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The goal of any power system is to deliver electricity to its customers in an economical and
reliable manner. Unless this power is planned and maintained reliable, it causes adverse
economic effect due to interruption costs and power outages on both the utility and its
customers. [1] This thesis presents the study of current power system reliability assessment of
Addis Center substation (ADC), analyses its causes and improvements by integrating DG.

1.1 Background of the Study Area

Addis center substation is located in Addis Ababa around federal police and it supplies a large
part of city with two transformers rated at 31.5MVA each; and with medium voltage is 15kV.
The substation supplies approximately 115,884customers including residential, commercial
and industrial customers.

There are 11 outgoing feeders in the substation namely, ADC-3, ADC-4, ADC-5, ADC-7,
ADC-8, ADC-9, ADC-10, ADC-11, ADC-14, ADC-15, and ADC-16.

Figure 1.1: Overview of ADC substation

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

As shown in the above figure, the substation is found in middle of the city supplying large area.
The substation has critical customers like, the government palace, National theatre, Black lion
hospital, and so on.

Reliability measures the power system’s ability to supply electricity to its customers within
accepted standards and in the magnitude desired, for the period of time intended, under the
operating conditions required. There are two aspects of reliability:

Figure 1.2: Two aspects reliability [2, 3]

Adequacy: refers to the existence of adequate generating, transmitting and distributing
facilities within the system to satisfy the consumer load demand at all times; considering
planned/ unplanned outages [2, 3]. It is assessed using the power flow (AC/DC) solutions.

Security: refers to the ability of the electric systems to react against to sudden disturbances
arising within that system, such as earth fault and short circuit [3]. It is assessed using dynamic
calculation.

As a consequence, adequacy is particularly related with the planning of the grid and security is
linked with the operation of the grid.

A power system consists of three hierarchies levels. These are generation, transmission and a
distribution system. Reliability analysis and its evaluation technique is mainly developed at
generation and transmission level than at distribution level since distribution outages are more
localized and less costly than generation or transmission level outages. However, analysis of
customer outage data of utilities has shown that the largest individual contribution for
unavailability of supply is due to distribution system failure. [4]

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Distribution systems are typically of radial configuration or meshed configurations that are
operated as radial systems. This means that there are no other power supply options from
another feeder. Unidirectional energy flows from the supply point to the customer load points
through distribution lines, cables and busbars are connected in series. The component
reliability indices include failure rates and repair times.

Distributed Generation

With recent advances in technology, use of distributed generation (DG) in the power
distribution system is increasing. Though integrating DG into the power system is associated
with many challenges in terms of interconnection, protection, coordination and voltage
regulation, increased reliability and reduced cost are the primary incentives of adding DG to a
power network.

Distributed generation is small modular generation of an electric power close to the load. With
advances in fuel cells and renewable energy sources, increase of DG is projected. DG may be
connected at the generation substation, at any point in a distribution feeder or at customer load
points. Renewable energy sources include mini hydro, wind powered and photovoltaic
generation. Other Distributed Energy resources (DER) include fuel cells and micro turbines.
DG may be synchronous or induction generator.

Distributed generation is mainly used in standby or backup mode when the grid experiences
power interruption. Some of the other DG applications encompass, peak shaving, independent
generation, net metering, voltage support, combined heat and power etc. In the backup mode,
the DG improves the system adequacy index while in the peak shaving way, DG enhances the
system reliability by serving some of loads and decreasing energy costs in high demand
periods.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The issue of reliability is of great concern in our daily life. Since Addis Ababa is the capital
city of the country and a preferred location for most of the industries, considerable share of the
electric power supply is directed towards the city. Due to this fact, Addis Ababa has been the
load center of Ethiopian electric power system. Addis Center substation is one of the

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substations found in Addis Ababa that face distribution inefficiency, repetitive and sporadic
power interruptions and power quality problems.

The people in the capital city and different towns in Ethiopia are facing problems because it is
associated with their livelihood. All residential, commercial and industrial customers are
victims of the problem. Especially for factories and industries, it is really challenging to
tolerate power interruption since it causes much revenue loss within hours of interruption. So
the root cause of this problem should first be identified and the possible solution should be
investigated.

1.3 Objectives

General Objective

Electric Power interruption is affecting many sectors in Ethiopia. So, the main objective of this thesis is
to study the power system reliability problems and their improvement using distributed generations.

Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this thesis listed below:

 To investigate the main causes of reliability problems of the present Addis Center
substation.
 To identify possible solutions for those reliability problems.
 To compare the results of the selected components Microturbine/Fuel cell
implementations with the present grid.
 Draw relevant conclusions and recommendations from the result of the investigation

1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Thesis

This thesis covers, studying the current power system reliability problems of the substation,
their causes, percentage of improvements gained by penetrating distributed generators to the
present Addis Center substation.

The resources of DG are shown using Homer Energy software and the reliability models have
been developed in DigSilent/Power Factory.

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1.5 Outline of the thesis

In chapter one, the background of the study area, statement of the problem, general and
specific objectives, and scope of the thesis work, basic concepts of the power system reliability
and distributed generation concepts are discussed.

Researches done in the area of power system reliability analysis or reliability assessment using
distributed generation and methods of reliability analysis have discussed are explained in detail
in chapter two. These methods are Analytical and Numerical method. In numerical methods,
(Monto Carlo simulation) and in analytical methods, (markov models, series and parallel
structures) are briefly described. Finally, reliability analysis software (PowerFactory) is
discussed.

In chapter three of the thesis, the electrical data of Addis Center substation and interruption
data are collected. These include number of customers, number of distribution transformers,
interruption duration and frequency and so on. The collected data is analyzed numerically and
reliability indices are calculated.

Under this chapter, the design of the proposed system will be discussed. The hybrid system of
Microturbine/Fuel cell is designed. This magnitude of DG is fed to the main grid, as backup
and simulated using DigSilent/Power Factory software for reliability improvement.

Finally, the conclusions, recommendations and future researches are discussed in chapter five.
Results obtained from this thesis work are summarized and relevant conclusions have been
drawn. Possible solutions to the problems faced during the thesis work have been
recommended and future works in the area of reliability using DG are proposed.

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CHAPTER TWO

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Distributed Generation (DG) has so many resources both renewable and non-renewable. Some
of these resources are discussed based on selection criteria, specific DG options for this thesis
is specified. And this chapter gives a detailed overview of the researches in the area of
reliability assessment of power distribution systems with distributed generation. And reliability
analysis methods and detailed explanation of DigSilent software is given.

2.2 Distributed Generation

Distributed Generation (DG) is one of the new trends in power systems used to support the
increased energy-demand, peak shaving and to use as a backup generator. There is no
commonly accepted definition of DG as the concept involves many technologies and
applications. Different countries use different notations like “embedded generation”,
“dispersed generation” or “decentralized generation.”

“Distributed generation is considered as an electrical source connected to the power system, in

a point very close to/or at consumer´s site, which is small enough compared with the
centralized power plants.” [5] To clarify about the DG concept, some categories that define the
size of the generation units are presented.

Size of DG is defined according to the reference [6]:

 Micro distributed generation between 1Watt < 5kW

 Small distributed generation between 5kW < 5 MW

 Medium distributed generation between 5 MW < 50MW

 Large distributed generation between 50MW < 300MW

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2.2.1 Types of Distributed Generation Technologies

There are many resources of distributed generations. Some of them are: Photovoltaic system
(PV), Wind turbines, Fuel cells, Micro-turbine, Gas turbine and other renewable resources.

A. photovoltaic system

A photovoltaic system (PV), converts the light energy received from the sun radiation to
electric energy. Semi conducting materials are used to construct solar cells which are capable
of transforming self-contained energy of photons into electricity when they are exposed to
solar radiation. The cells are placed in an array that is either fixed or moving to keep tracking
the sun to generate the maximum power. [6] PV systems are comfortable to environment since
they are not associated with emissions, easy to use, are simple in designs and it does not need
any other fuel than solar light. Their disadvantage is that they need large spaces and the initial
cost is decreasing to $0.55 per watt.[http://www.extremetech.com]

Figure 2.1: A photovoltaic system [6]

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The system generates DC voltage then transferred to AC with the aid of inverters. The design
of such systems can be with and without battery storages.

B. Wind turbines

Wind turbines are capable of converting wind energy into electricity. The wind has high
stochastic nature, which cannot be stored, thus, it must be handled according to this
characteristic. A general scheme of a wind turbine is shown in Figure 2.2, where its main
components are shown [6].

There are two conversion steps in wind turbines. First, the rotor takes the kinetic energy of the
wind; convert it into mechanical torque in the shaft; and then the generator system converts this
mechanical torque into electricity. Mostly, the generator system gives an AC output voltage
which is dependent on the wind speed. As wind speed is not constant, the voltage generated
must be transferred to DC and back again to AC with the aid of inverters. However, turbines
with fixed wind speed can directly be connected to grid [6].

Figure 2.2: Parts wind turbine [6]

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C. Fuel cells

Fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction that combines hydrogen and
oxygen to form water vapor, heat and electricity. Its principle of operation resembles a battery
that is continuously charged with a fuel gas with high hydrogen content; this is the charge of
the fuel cell together with air, which supplies the required oxygen for the chemical reaction [6].
The fuel produces an induced DC voltage by using a reaction of hydrogen and oxygen with the
aid of an ion conducting electrolyte.

By using inverters, this DC voltage is converted to AC and then is supplies to the grid. The
main advantage of fuel cell is the absence of moving parts, which increase the reliability of this
technology and no noise is generated while the disadvantage is high running cost. [4, 6]

Figure 2.3: Fuel cell, [6]

Types of Fuel Cells

Fuel cells are classified according to the type of electrolyte used. There are various fuel cell
types at different stages of development. The various types of fuel cells in the increasing order
of their operating temperature are: [7]

 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC-175 F⁰)

 Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC-400 ⁰F)

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 Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC-1250 ⁰F)

 Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC-1800 ⁰F)

Table 2.1shows the features of different fuel cell types including the corresponding strength
and weakness.

Table 2.1: Features of fuel cell types [8,9]

Fuel cell type PEMFC PAFC MCFC SOFC
Immobilized
Immobilized Yttrium-
Ion exchange liquid
Electrolyte liquid molten stabilized
membranes Phosphoric
Carbonate Zirconia
Acid
Operating
85⁰C 200 ⁰C 650⁰C 800-1000⁰C
temperature
catalyst Platinum Platinum Nickel Perovskites
Prime cell Graphite- Stainless-
Carbon-based Ceramic
component based Carbon-based
Gaseous/Liquid
cathode cathode Anode Anode
water formation
H2 , CO, CH4,
H2 , CO, CH4,
Pure H2 Pure H2 other
other
Fuel (tolerates (tolerates CO2 , hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons
CO2) 1.5% CO) (tolerates CO2
(tolerates CO2

Electrical
35% 40-50% 50-60% 50-65%
Efficiency
Low emissions Low emissions Low emissions Low emissions
Strength
High efficiency High efficiency High efficiency High efficiency
Low energy
Weakness High cost High cost High cost
density

PEMs are the most commonly utilized type. It is fueled by hydrogen gas and uses oxygen from
the air to produce electricity. Hydrogen and ambient oxygen are fed into opposite sides of
the fuel cell, separated by a membrane (the PEM), forcing a flow of electrons through
an attached circuit to complete the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen into water. The
electrolyte is the proton exchange membrane. The catalyst is not required but highly
recommended to help the chemical reactions to take place.

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A SOFC is an electrochemical conversion device that produces electricity directly from

oxidizing a fuel. However, unlike normal fuel cells, the SOFC is composed entirely of solid-
state materials, typically ceramics. [9] It allows SOFC to operate at much higher temperatures
than conventional fuel cells. So it has less need for the catalysts. The most attractive advantage
of this type of fuel cell is the high efficiency.

An SOFC stack model has been studied based on the references mentioned above. A
hybrid sample system consisting of an SOFC and other elements will be presented in the
sample system section.

D. Micro-turbine

Micro-turbines, as the name implies, are small combustion turbines that burn gaseous or liquid
fuels to drive an electrical generator, and have been commercially available for more than a
decade. A micro-turbine is a mechanism that uses the flow of a gas, to convert thermal energy
into mechanical energy. The combustible (usually gas) is mixed with air in the combustor
chamber, which is pumped by the compressor. This product makes the turbine to rotate, which
at the same time, impulses the generator and the compressor. In the most commonly used
designs, the compressor and turbine are mounted above the same shaft as the electric generator.

To have similar nominal voltage and frequency, the output voltage of micro-turbines should be
converted to DC and then back to AC before connecting it to the grid. The main advantage of
micro-turbines is the clean operation with low emissions and good efficiency. Its disadvantages
are the high maintenance cost and the lack of experience in this field. Very little micro-turbines
have been operated for enough time periods to establish a reliable field database. [6]

Major features of Micro- Turbines

Some of the advantages of the newly developed microturbines are listed as follows. [10]

They can easily be installed and simple infrastructure requirements (install the units
almost anywhere- on a pole, platform, in a substation, roof, vault or pad).
They have low maintenance cost - less than $0.005/kWh.
The fuel requirement is flexible (diesel, gasoline, ethanol, propane).
Their simplicity in structure made them reliable and durable

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Environmental superiority of MTs on natural gas.

They have high electrical efficiency, with fuel energy-to- electricity conversion
reaching 25-30%.
Possibility of cogeneration by using the waste heat recovery, which increases the
overall energy efficiency, levels reaching 75%.

Application of Micro-Turbines

Some of the applications of low cost and high efficiency microturbines are:
They serve as firm power for isolated communities, small commercial buildings and
light industry.
During overloading, they serve for peak shaving to the utility systems in order to
decrease the required incremental cost.
To maintain reliable operation of the utility and with important loads, microturbines
used as standby and emergency power.
Provide Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) since they provide low initial cost, low
maintenance requirements and high reliability.

Figure 2.4: Parts of microturbine [11]

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Table 2.2: Attributes of Microturbine [11]

Electrical Output Available from 33 to 500 kW with integrated modular packages up to 1,000
kW.
Thermal Output Exhaust temperatures in the range of 500 to 600 °F, suitable for supplying a
variety of site thermal needs, including hot water, steam, and chilled water

Fuel flexibility Can utilize a number of different fuels, including natural gas, sour gas (high
sulfur, low Btu content), and liquid fuels (e.g., gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel,
and heating oil.

Reliability and Design life is estimated to be 40,000 to 80,000 hours with overhaul.
life
Emissions Low NOx combustion when operating on natural gas; capable of meeting
stringent California standards with carbon monoxide/volatile organic compound
(CO/VOC) oxidation catalyst.

Modularity Units may be connected in parallel to serve larger loads and to provide power
reliability.

Part-load Units can be operated to follow load with some efficiency penalties.
Operation
Dimensions Compact and light weight, 2.3-2.7 cubic feet (cf) and 40-50 pounds per kW.

Benefits of DG
Connection of Distributed Generation can provide several advantages [12]:
 Increases power supply reliability and reduces transmission and distribution systems
losses.
 Can improve voltage profile; enhance power quality and supports voltage stability, so
that the system can withstand higher loading situations.

 DG has least installation time and payback period. Many countries are subsidizing the
development of renewable energy projects through a portfolio obligation and green
power certificates. This incentives investment in small generation plants.

 Some DG technologies have low pollution and good overall efficiencies like combined
heat and power (CHP) and micro-turbines.

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 Renewable energy based DG like PV and wind turbines play great role in the reduction
of greenhouse gases.

Drawback of DG

Injection of a DG has not only advantages, but also its own challenges to the existing
distribution system. [12]

 Power converters are needed to connect DG with the grid we need, which are capable
of injecting harmonics into the system.
 The connection of DG might cause over-voltage, fluctuation and unbalance of the
system voltage if coordination with the utility supply is not properly achieved.

 Depending on the network configuration, the penetration level and the nature of the DG
technology, the power injection of DG may increase the power losses in the distribution
system.

 Short circuit levels are changed when a DG is connected to the network. Therefore,
relay settings should be changed and if there is a disconnection of DG, relay should be
changed back to its previous state.

2.3 Review of related works

An electric power system consists of three hierarchical levels (HLs) namely: the generation
(HL1), transmission (HL2) and distribution (known as hierarchical level 3, HL3).The
reliability analysis of each hierarchy level can be done in the following ways.

1. Generating capacity reliability – related with generation adequacy.

2. Composite system reliability- considers both generation and transmission lines.
3. Distribution system reliability – considers local network connected to end-users

Conducting the overall power systems reliability is complicated due to variety and enormity of
problems. But independent reliability analyses of the generating facilities, of composite
generation and transmission systems, and of distribution system are conducted.

Power system reliability is concerned with total electric power interruptions which results in a
total loss of voltage, but not just deformations of the electric sine wave. So, reliability does not
cover sags, swells, impulses or harmonics.

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Power reliability can be defined as the ability of a power system to deliver electricity to its
consumers within accepted standards, and in the amount desired and in the time needed. The
degree of reliability may be measured by the frequency, duration, and magnitude of adverse
effects on the electric supply.

The reliability of the system is examined with and without disconnects, by applying DG at
selected locations. The presence of disconnects to the main line plays great role in the
improvement of reliability. Connection of DG alone cannot improve reliability unless there are
disconnectors to the main line. This is because DGs can supply the loads isolated by
disconnectors from the substation in the occurrence of section or distributor lateral failures. So
DG should be placed at a point where there are most load and most customers. [13]

Tabu search technique is used for optimal placement and sizing of DG in distribution systems.
Connection of a DG in a distribution system results in several benefits such as increased
overall system efficiency. The effectiveness of the proposed method was demonstrated by a
case study of a distribution network of RBTS bus 2. It was seen that distributed generation can
reduce the customer interruption cost and therefore improve the reliability of the system. [14]

Power system analysis was made without and with DGs in terms of total power loss and
voltage profile of all the buses. The total power loss in with DG was reduced to 37% of total
power losses in the system and the voltage profile of all the buses remained stable within the
tolerable limits. The reliability indices EENS and ECOST are also reduced by about 29 %.[15]

The paper analyzed the system with and without DG for different case studies and the
following result was obtained for the corresponding SAIDI and CAIDI. SAIDI with DG was
reduced by 50% and CAIDI BY 42%. [16]

Reliability worth assessment is undertaken in [17]. The installations of DG at supply point will
barley improve system reliability. DG at further point will increase their role of improvement.
As far the location is from the substation, the reliability system indices increase. The best
location for the placement of the DG is at the end of the line where much improvement is
achieved.

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It is found out that reliability indices (ENS, SAIDI and CAIDI) got improved as the DG is
installed away from the substation, as the size of DG increased and the best location of DG is
at the end of the line. [18]

2.4 Reliability Analysis Methods

Reliability analysis of electrical distribution system is considered as a tool for the planning
engineer to ensure a reasonable quality of service and to choose between different system
expansions plans that costwise were comparable considering system investment and cost of
losses.

There are two main approaches applied for reliability evaluation of distribution system, namely
Simulation (Monte Carlo) method and analytical methods. The simulation (Monte Carlo)
method is based on drawings from statistical distributions (Monte Carlo) and that of Analytical
methods is based on solutions of mathematical models. The requirement of large number of
drawings to obtain accurate results made this approach to be time consuming. The analytical
approach is relies on the solutions of mathematical models on assumption of statistical
distributions of failure rates and repair times.
Reliability indices are usually evaluated by analytical approach based on failure mode
assessment and the use of equations for series and parallel networks.

There are three common reliability indices used in this method of reliability evaluation. These
are: expected failure rate (λ), the average outage time(r), and the expected annual outage time
(U), which are enough for the simple radial system. In distribution system whether the
networks are radial or meshed, they are mostly operated radially and, this makes the
assessment simple. The evaluation process becomes more sophisticated for parallel or meshed
networks. [19]

2.4.1. Analytical Method

As described above, the majority of techniques have been analytically based and simulation
techniques have taken lesser role in specialized applications [19].

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2.4.1.1 Reliability Evaluation of Power System using Markov Models

A Markov model is the most commonly used method in the quantitative reliability analysis,
and that is comfortable to provide required concept about principle of reliability analysis. In
this method, a simple mathematical formula can be used to determine radial system reliability.
[39] This method is known as duration-frequency technique, and the beginning point is the
failure of the individual component. In a stationary Markov process, it basically operates with
two central concepts:

 Failure frequency (λ) and

 Repair time (r).

It is assumed for example that a component-wise reliability can only be in one of the following
conditions;

1: Component is in operating or working state (in);

2: Component is out of service or it is in repair state (out).

This is shown in two state model diagram in Figure 2.5, where (0 represents a component in
down state and 1 refers component is in an operating state).

λ=1/m

μ=1/r

Figure 2.5: Transition diagram of component states [17,19]

Where λ fault frequency,
M mean time to failure (MTTF),
μ repair frequency and
r mean time to repair (MTTR)
Number of outages on a component in a given period
Where, 𝛌 =
Total time the component is in operation

The markov model is capable of giving a simple description of a component, which can be
handled well with mathematical methods. This means that the system must be represented as a

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system which lacks memory of previous states with identifiable system states. Figure
2.6shows, expected operational or working and failure time for a component which is known
as state cycle. [14, 16]

Figure 2.6: Average state cycle [17, 19]

1
Where, average function time m is given by, 𝑚 = λ

m =MTTF= mean time to failure

1
r=MTTR= mean time to repair; is given by, 𝑟 = µ
1
m+r=MTBR, mean time between failures, 𝑇 = 𝑓

1
f =cycle frequency, 𝑓 = 𝑇

The following equations (2.1) and (2.2) show that the relationship of repair rate µ and the
outage-time r and the corresponding probabilities of a component to be in working (Up) or in
down state (P1, P0)

𝑟 λ 𝑟 f ∑(down time)
P0 = = = = = (2.1)
m + 𝑟 λ + μ T μ ∑(down time) + ∑(up time)

m μ m 𝑓 ∑(up 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
P1 = = = = = (2.2)
m + 𝑟 λ + μ T λ ∑(down time) + ∑(up time)
Where, f= λ.P1=P0 μ

Where, P0 = probability for a component to be in state 0 (down),

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P1 = probability of a component to be in state 1 (up) and

f = cycle frequency (frequency to be in or out).

Where f is the frequency of encountering a state, and is defined as the inverse of the cycle time:

1 μλ
𝑓= = (2.3)
T λ+μ

2.4.1.2. Series System

In system where there is unidirectional power flow or radial system, components such as;
circuit breakers, lines, switches, transformers and at the end a “Customers” are connected in
series pattern. In the series structure both components must be operating state for the whole
system to be in upstate, that means if there is a failed device anywhere in the network, the
whole system enters to a state of failure. This is shown in figure 2.7 and equations 2.4 to 2.7
give the basic indices of failure and repair times.

Figure 2.7: Series system (structure) [17, 19]

Average failure rate of the system is given by the sum of the individual failure rates;

2
𝛌𝒔= 𝛌1 + 𝛌2 = ∑ 𝛌𝑖 (2.4)
1

Average Outage time of the system is given by;

𝛌1 𝒓1 + 𝛌1 𝒓2 + 𝛌1 𝛌2 𝒓1𝒓2
𝐫𝑠 = (2.5)
𝛌1 + 𝛌2
If λ1 λ2 𝑟1𝑟2 ≪ λ1 𝑟1 𝑜𝑟 λ2 r2 , equation (2.5) can be simplified to;

∑𝛌𝒊 𝒓𝒊 𝑈𝑠
𝑟𝑠= = (2.6)
∑𝛌𝑖 𝛌𝒔

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And the annual outage time is Us is given by,

Us = fs rs = λi rs (2.7)

Where, λ𝑖 𝑖𝑠 the failure rate is at node i, is the outage time at node i.

2.3.1.3. Parallel Structure

In the parallel structure, there is an alternative path of power flow for the consumers i.e. to
interrupt a load point; two or more equipments need to fail at the same time. “It is assumed that
the failures are independent and that restoration involves repair or replacement, the equations
used to evaluate the indices of the overlapping outage are as shown below.” [19]

Figure 2.8: Parallel system [19]

Average failure rate of the system;

𝛌1 𝛌2 (𝐫1 + 𝐫2)
𝛌𝒑 = = 𝛌1 𝛌2 (𝐫1 + 𝐫2 ) (2.8)
1 + 𝛌1 𝐫1 + 𝛌2 𝐫2
Where, λ1 r1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 λ2 r2 usually <<1 which means the denominator is almost 1.

Average Outage time of the system;

𝐫1 𝐫2
𝐫𝒑= (2.9)
𝐫1 + 𝐫2

Average Annual Outage time of the system; 𝐔𝒑 = 𝐫𝒑 𝛌𝒑

2.4.2 Numerical or Monte Carlo Simulation Methods

Monte Carlo simulation method is the most commonly utilized numerical method. In this
method, simulation of physical relationship is used to analyze the random behavior of the
system. The possible outcomes of this technique are not only average values like that of

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analytical methods, but also the expected probability distributions of reliability indices. The
method provides the possibility to be applied to a more complicated component models,

e.g. including effects of component aging. But this has its own side effect .i.e. increased
computation time which makes the Markov models to be utilized much more often.

In addition to the analytical techniques, the simulation methods may also be used to estimate
the output power and evaluate the reliability of a renewable generation system. Monte Carlo
simulation consists of randomly sampling system states, testing them for acceptability and
aggregating the contribution of loss of load states to the reliability till the coefficients of
variation of these indices drop below pre-specified tolerances. There are two approaches of
MCS, sequential and random approaches.If the approach is applied for each hour in of a year
chronologically, the approach is called chronological approach while if the hours of study time
taken at random, the approach tends to be random approach. Load flows, dispatch algorithms
are the tools used for the simulation of randomly selected systems. The results of these
simulations are current flows, voltage levels and energy curtailment which are required for
determination of necessary indices of power system reliability. [19, 20]

As previously pointed out, the major demerits of MCS are the requirement of several
experiments to obtain accurate results. This makes the method to take large computational
time.

“To reduce this large computational burden, several variance reduction techniques such as
control variates, importance sampling, stratified sampling and antithetic variates, have been
developed” [21].

2.4.3 PowerFactory

PowerFactory is one of power system analysis softwares, which is designed by the software
developer DigSilent. It models different aspects concerning the planning and operation of a
power system. The well-known advantages of this software are its overall functional
integration, for modeling of generation, transmission-, distribution- and industrial networks and
its comprehensive user interface. Power Factory is also an important tool for studying the grid
connection of new generation-technologies. [21]

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Power generation at distribution system has challenges to the existing grid network due to bi-
directional power flows, drop in voltage and huge difference in equipment loadings. Different
types of generation technologies are possible, such as synchronous and asynchronous
cogeneration units, PV-cells, wind turbines, fuel cells and micro-turbines and other renewable
energy technologies. Typical studies include steady-state and dynamic analyses, taking into
consideration time-varying correlated or un-correlated energy sources.

Power Factory is capable of analyzing the impact of distributed generation integration to the
current grid network. It provides a combined classical distribution system analysis functions
such as unbalanced network, voltage drop calculation, load and generation modeling,
selectivity analysis, etc. with the power of a highly modern analysis tool featuring dynamic
simulation functions and reliability analysis. [21]

2.4.3.1 Reliability Assessment under PowerFactory

The assessment of reliability indices for the whole network or for the parts of it is associated to
the capability of that network to supply the electricity demand of its customers in adequate
availability. The Power Factory’s reliability assessment module provides two distinct
calculation functions for the analysis of network reliability under probabilistic conditions:
known as network reliability assessment and voltage sag assessment.

Network reliability assessment: the probabilistic assessment of interruptions during an

operating period of the power system. Network reliability assessment is used to determine
expected interruption frequencies and annual interruptions costs, or to compare alternative
network designs.

Voltage sag assessment: The probabilistic assessment of the frequency and severity of voltage
sags during an operating period. It is used to determine the expected number of equipment trips
due to deep sags.

The reliability assessments indices consist of the following reliability modules. These are:
Failure modeling, Load modeling, System state production, Failure Effect Analysis (FEA),
Statistical analysis and Reporting. [21]

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Figure 2.9: Reliability analyses under power factory [20]

The basic reliability analysis calculation flow diagram is shown in Figure 2.9. The failure
models generally shows failure of components, that describe the way of component failures,
frequency of failures and the time needed to repair them. The load models may include only a
few possible load demands, or may be based on precise load forecast and growth conditions.

System State is combination of one or more simultaneous faults and a specific load condition.
The system state production module will use the failure models and load models to build a list
of relevant system states. Each of these system states may have one or more faults. Then, the
failure effect analysis module, FEA analyzes the faulted system states by imitating the system
reactions to these faults, given the current load demands. The FEA undertake the power system
through different operational states which may include: [21]

 The faults will be cleared by tripping protection breakers;

 The fault will be isolated by opening separating switches;
 Restoration of Power by closing normally open switches;
 Alleviation of overload by load transfer and load shedding.

The major role of the FEA functions is to search whether the faults occurred will result in to
load interruptions and if so, which loads will be interrupted and for how long.

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To update the reliability statistics, the outcomes of the FEA are combined with the data which
describe the expected frequency of occurrence of the system state and its expected duration
that is provided by the system state production module. A system state with a single feeder on
outage (i.e. due to a short circuit), will have a duration equal to the time needed to repair that
feeder. This is no more a problem in the case of a double feeder where no loads may suffer any
interruption. In the case that loads are interrupted by the outage, the power may be restored by
network reconfiguration (i.e. by fault separation and closing a back-stop switch). The
interruption duration will then equal the restoration time, and not the repair duration (system
state duration). The availability gives the fraction of time during which the component is in
service; the unavailability gives the fraction of time during which it is in repair; and P+Q = 1.0.

2.3.3.2. Network Reliability Assessment

“Reliability analysis is an automation and probabilistic extension of contingency evaluation.

The planner is not required to pre-define outage events, but can optionally select that all
possible outages are considered for analysis. The relevance of each outage is considered using
statistical data about the expected frequency and duration of outages according to component
type. The effect of each outage is analyzed in an automated way, meaning that the software
simulates the protection system and the network operator's actions to re-supply interrupted
customers. As statistical data regarding the frequency of each event is available, the results can
be formulated in probabilistic terms.”

An analytical assessment of the network reliability indices (transmission, sub-transmission or

distribution level) is initiated by the following actions within PowerFactory:

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Figure 2.10: Reliability analysis interface

A reliability assessment will be started when the Execute button is pressed.

Outputs

The output option interface of PowerFactory is shown in figure below.

Figure 2.11: Output tab of reliability assessment dialogue

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2.4.5. Results

The result options in PowerFactory allow the choice of the result element (ElmRes) where the
results of the reliability analysis will get stored.

These results include all the indices of power system reliability indices such as SAIDI, SAIFI,
and ASAI, ENS and so on. If load flow analysis option is executed, the result box shows the
voltage profile, the active and reactive powers, total generation from the external grid and from
our DG and also the losses due reliability problems. [PowerFactory45].

2.5 Reliability Indices

Power system reliability indices are used as a means of measuring the reliability of the
individual as well as the overall system. Reliability indices typically consider such aspects as:

 The number of customers;

 The connected load;
 The duration of the interruption measured in seconds, minutes, hours, or days;
 The amount of power (kVA) interrupted; and
 The frequency of interruptions.
A. Customer-Oriented Indices

These indices are directly related to customers. Some of these indices are listed below. They
are defined in IEEE Standard 1366 [19, 20, and 22].

1. System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI):

It is the average frequency of sustained interruptions per customer over a predefined area.

It is the total number of customers interruptions divided by the total number of customers
served.

Total number of customer interruptions ∑𝑖 λ𝑖 𝑁𝑖

SAIFI = = (2.10)
Total number of customers served ∑𝑖 𝑁𝑖

Where is the failure rate at load point i, and Ni is the number of customers found at load point i

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2. Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index (CAIFI):

This index gives the average frequency of sustained interruptions for those customers
experiencing sustained interruptions. The customer is counted once regardless of the number of
times interrupted for this calculation.

Total number of customer interruptions ∑𝑖 𝑁𝑖

CAIFI = = (2.11)
Total number of customers affected ∑𝑖 𝑁0

Where No is total number of customer interruptions and Ni is the number of customers found
at load point i.

3. System Average Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI):

It is commonly referred to as customer minutes of interruption or customer hours, and is

designed to provide information as to the average time the customers are interrupted. It is the
sum of the restoration time for each interruption event times the number of interrupted
customers for each interruption event divided by the total number of customers.

Total number of customer interruption durations ∑𝑖 𝑈𝑖 𝑁𝑖

SAIDI = = (2.12)
Total number of customers served ∑𝑖 λ𝑖 𝑁𝑖

Where Ui is the annual outage time at load point i and Ni is the number of customers at load
point i.

4. Customer Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI)

It is the average time needed to restore service to the average customer per sustained
interruption. It is the sum of customer interruption durations divided by the total number of
customer interruptions.
Sum of customer interruption durations ∑𝑖 U𝑖 𝑁𝑖
CAIDI = = (2.13)
Total number of customers interruptios ∑𝑖 λ𝑖 𝑁𝑖
Where λ𝑖 is the failure rate at load point i, Ui is the annual outage time at load point i and Ni is
the number of customers at load point i.

5. Average Service Availability Index (ASAI):

This index represents the fraction of time (Often in percentage) that a customer has power
provided during one year or the defined reporting period.

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Customer hours of available service ∑i Ni X8760 − ∑i Ui Ni

ASAI = = (2.14)
Customer hours demanded ∑i Ni X8760

6. Average Service Unavailability Index (ASUI): This index is the complementary value to
the average service availability index (ASAI).

Customer hours of unavailable service ∑𝑖 𝑈𝑖 𝑁𝑖

ASUI = 1 − ASAI = = (2.15)
Customer hours demanded ∑𝑖 𝑁𝑖 X8760

B. Load or Energy-Oriented Indices

1. Energy Not Supplied Index (ENS): This index represents the total energy not supplied by
the system. And it is given by

ENS = ∑ La (i)Ui (2.16)

i

Where, La (i) is the average load given by:

Ed (i)
La (i) = LP (i) ∗ LF (i) = (2.17)
t
LP is peak load demand, LF is the load factor, and Ed is the total energy demanded in the period
of interest t.

2. Average Energy Not Supplied Index (AENS): This index represents the average energy
not supplied by the system.

Total energy not supplied ∑i 𝐿𝑎 (i)𝑈𝑖

AENS = = (2.18)
Total number of customers served ∑i 𝑁𝑖

3. Average Customer Curtailment Index (ACCI): This index represents the total energy not
supplied per affected customer by the system.

Total energy not supplied ∑i La Ui

ACCI = = (2.19)
Total number of customers served ∑i No

Where: La (i) is the average load, No is the number of customers affected.

In this thesis, SAIDI, SAIFI and ENS are taken for comparison of reliability indices after
connecting DG.

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Table 2.3: Summary of customer Oriented Indexes

Index Definition Description

SAIFI System average interruption Average number of interruption per

frequency index customer served per year

SAIDI System Average Interruption Average interruption duration per

duration Index customer served per year
CAIFI Customer average Average no of interruption per customer
interruption frequency index affected per year
CAIDI Customer average Average interruption duration per
interruption duration Index customer affected per year
ASAI Average service availability Ratio of total customer hours that service
(USAI) index was available(unavailable)during a year to
the total customer hours demanded

AENS Average energy not supplied Average energy not supplied per customer
(EENS) per year

The major demerits of reliability indices is that the presence of debate about comparing these
indices from one geographic area to another and exactly how the input data is to be applied in
making the calculations. Many state public utility commissions require utilities to compute and
track certain reliability indices, but comparing them from region to region and utility to utility
has been problematic due to differences in how the data is applied, system designs, weather
differences, and even differences in vegetation growth. Because of this, the indices are limited
in their usefulness. If the calculation method is kept the same, they are useful within a specific
geographic area in evaluating changes in reliability over time, perhaps as a measurement of the
effectiveness of maintenance practices.

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2.6 Cost-Benefit Analysis

When a power is interrupted, both the utility and customers face interruption costs. When a
customer faces such interruption, there is an amount of money that the customer is willing to
pay to evade the interruption and this amount is referred to as the customer cost of reliability.
Such costs are of tangible and intangible types and also there is an opportunity cost. But
assessing the interruption cost from the customer side is difficult.

So to maximize the reliability, utility should balance their reinforcement cost for reliability
improvement and the customer cost for poor reliability.
Therefore, the optimal level of reliability is said to be achieved when the sum of utility cost
and the customer cost are minimum.[23].

Figure 2.12: Reliability worth and reliability cost [8]

The above graph shows the cost of both customer and utility and it tell us that high reliability
achieved by investing high cost.

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CHAPTER THREE

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

3.1 Introduction

Reliability analysis needs interruption duration, interruption frequency, total number of

customers served, customers interrupted, loads connected and so on. So, under this chapter, the
collected failure data and basic electrical data of power system equipments which are necessary
for reliability analysis are presented. These data are analyzed to identify the current reliability
status of the substation and to distinguish the main problems of interruption.

3.2 Basic data of ADC substation

Addis Center substation has been supplied from main grid that is interconnected system (ICS).
Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation is a service provider of electric power in the country. A
132kV transmission line is stretched into the substation then, the distribution system in the city
has a primary voltage of 15 kV. And also, this voltage value is stepped down to 380V/220 in
three phase and single phase respectively. The following one line diagram shows the overall
system of the substation.

Figure 3.1: One line diagram ADC substation

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The substation has 11 feeders as shown in the above one line diagram and the data for the
substation is given in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Data for Addis Center Distribution Substation [19]

Name of Lines Trafo. Voltage Level Transformer Total capacity
substation HV MV LV Quantity (KV) Capacity (MVA)
(MVA)
Addis 3 0 11 2 132/15 31.5 63
Center

Table 3.2 contains the data of 11 feeders of the distribution network. Similarly, Table
3.3contains the annual average energy and power consumption of each feeder customers. The
annual average energy is calculated using the recorded data from 20012/13 G.C (2005 E.C) to
2013/14 G.C (2006 E.C).

Table 3.2: Basic data the of ADC feeders

Name of the Total No of Total No of Total capacity of Conductor
feeder distribution customer transformers Size
transformers (kVA)
ADC03 54 9577 14795 AAC-50mm2
ADC04 87 8500 27890 AAC-50mm2
ADC5 97 10250 31370 AAC-50mm2
ADC07 71 10350 21335 AAC-50mm2
ADC08 41 8050 23515 AAC-50mm2
ADC09 41 10360 13910 AAC-50mm2
ADC10 41 8815 14685 AAC-50mm2
ADC11 25 6050 7465 AAC-50mm2
ADC14 38 6665 12935 AAC-50mm2
ADC15 33 6020 11355 AAC-50mm2
ADC16 37 8200 10475 AAC-50mm2
Total 565 92837 189730

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Table 3.3: Annual average energy and power consumption

Feeder Average Average Average Average Active Average
name MVA Active Reactive Energy Reactive
Power Power (kWh) Energy
(MW) (MVAr) (kVArh)
ADC03 4.33 4.1135 1.2557 36,034,260 10,999,932
ADC04 4.32 4.104 1.2528 35,951,040 10,974,528
ADC5 1.99 1.8905 0.5771 16,560,780 5,055,396
ADC07 4.87 4.6265 1.4123 40,528,140 12,371,748
ADC08 4.32 4.104 1.2557 35,951,040 10,974,528
ADC09 5.02 4.769 1.4558 41,776,440 12,752,808
ADC10 4.11 3.9045 1.1919 34,203,420 10,441,044
ADC11 4.87 4.6265 1.4123 40,528.14 12,371,748
ADC14 4.33 4.1135 1.2557 36034,260 10,999,932
ADC15 1.63 1.5485 0.4727 13,564,860 4,140,852
ADC16 3.63 3.4485 1.0527 30,208,860 9,221,652
Total 43.42 41.249 12.5918 361,341,240 110,304,168

From Table 3.3, the power factor of the substation can be determined. Pf= Cos (tan-1(Q/P))
=Cos (tan -1(110304.168/361341.24)) = 0.95.

Table 3.4: Average and peak load

Feeder name Average Peak load
demand(MW) (MW)
ADC03 4.11 6.29
ADC04 4.10 6.24
ADC5 1.89 2.86
ADC07 4.63 7.01
ADC08 4.10 6.24
ADC09 4.77 7.27
ADC10 3.90 5.98
ADC11 4.63 7.01
ADC14 4.11 6.24
ADC15 1.55 2.34
ADC16 3.45 5.46

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Figure 3.2: Hourly loads of each feeders of ADC substation

As shown from hourly load of the Figure 3.2, the minimum and maximum load of the feeders
respectively are 1.09MW and 7.01MW. The maximum load is observed during the night time in the
range of 6:00 PM to 7:00 PM. The above hourly load and the overall load are shown in Figure 3.2 and
3.3.

Figure 3.3: Overall (total) load of ADC substation

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Figure 3.2 and 3.3 show the load measured during 24 hours of a day. Hourly load denotes a load
measured during that corresponding time and overall load is the total sum of load of each feeder. So the
maximum overall load of the system is observed from 12:00 to 1:00 Pm night time which is 62.93 MW.

3.3 Major Interruption Causes of ADC Substation

In ADC substation, major faults occurring frequently are short circuit, earth fault, blackout,
overload, underfrequency. And there are planned outages for operational and maintenance
purpose. The major faults occurring can either be of temporary and permanent type. Permanent
or Sustained interruptions are long-duration interruptions which last longer than 5 minutes
whereas interruptions with duration of less than 5 minutes are termed momentary interruptions
[17]. Usually, only data on sustained interruptions is reported to the regulatory authority. Many
of the distribution problems are temporary and mainly caused by tree, animal contact, and
whether condition. They can easily be solved with little or no intervention from the system.
Then by simply reclosing, the system will be re-energized. But permanent faults can’t be
restored by simple re-energizing. Permanent faults can be caused by Equipment malfunction,
cable failure, down line or persistent tree contact. [19]

Permanent (Sustained) interruptions can be classified as Planned and Unplanned Interruptions

[17]. Planned interruptions (operational outages) occur mainly for the purpose of construction,
preventative maintenance or repair. A planned interruption occurs at a selected time less
inconvenient for the customers and the customers have been notified beforehand of the
interruption. On the other hand, if the occurrence time of the interruption has not been selected,
then the interruption is unplanned. Unplanned interruption occurs, for example, due to fault
clearing, unwanted operation of the protection system or due to inadvertent initiation of
opening operation of a switching device by a human.

Non-momentary interruption: are the results of the following faults

Distribution Short Circuit (DSC)

Short circuit is the most commonly used term to describe the cause of a power failure. It occurs
when an electric current travels along a path that is different from the intended one in an
electrical circuit. When this happens, there is an excessive electric current which can lead to
circuit damage, fire, and explosion. In fact, short circuits are one of the primary causes of

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electrical fires throughout the world [18]. It also occurs when the insulation of the wiring used
breaks down. It can also occur due to the presence of an external conducting material (such as
water) that is introduced accidently into the circuit. Electrical batteries can explode if they are
subjected to a large current. Short circuits can even occur when electric motors are forced to
operate when the moving parts are jammed. This can result in abnormal buildup of current,
ultimately leading to a short circuit.

Water can lead to short circuits and power failure. Because water is conductive so the current
easily flows through it. Current will always take the easiest path. Since there is little resistance
in water, the current will flow from positive to negative (or vice-versa) through the water
causing the short circuit. The damage caused due to water in electrical circuits can be very
expensive so it makes sense to ensure that you are well protected from it. Electrical
switchboards, wires, and circuits should be protected from exposure to water. Dust can also
wreak havoc with electrical systems and lead to short circuits and power failures

Distribution Earth (ground) fault (DEF)

This fault occurs when there is a conducting connection between any electric conductor and
any conducting material that is grounded or that may become grounded. Electricity always
wants to find a path to the ground. In a ground fault, electricity has found a path to ground, but
it is a path the electricity was never intended to be on, such as through a person’s body [6]. The
earth fault, caused by an insulation loss between a live conductor and an exposed conductive
part, represents a plant engineering problem which may cause damage to the electrical
installations and above all may jeopardize people; as a matter of fact, people could get in touch
with an exposed-conductive-part not normally live but which, due to the fault, might have a
dangerous potential to ground.

Power Transformer Overload

Overloaded transformers are found in industry as a result of a combination of factors. Often

times rapid plant expansion without adequate capacity planning can lead to overloaded
transformers. This combined with the poor power factor and high harmonic currents generated
by inductive loads, can cause a transformer to become heavily loaded.

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Distribution Line Overload:

Increasing demands for electric power have caused existing power grids to become overloaded.
Overloading is a common cause of line voltage fluctuations. Inadequate power generation and
inadequate distribution systems are also causes of line voltage problems. Improper or poorly
designed power regulating devices may create voltage fluctuations. Loose or corroded
connections at the electric service user end can create voltage irregularities. The same
conditions on the distribution power lines may also affect voltage. Many voltage fluctuation
problems can be traced back to inadequate infrastructure. [18]

Blackout

Blackout is a total loss of the electric service in one area. It can be caused by catastrophic
equipment failure or severe weather. It can also be caused by the utility itself for peak shaving
purpose.

4.4 Interruption Data from 2012/13 to 2013/14

Among the different types of power system faults, frequently occurring faults at ADC
substation include permanent and transient earth fault, permanent and transient short circuit,
and interruptions duet to operation/maintenance. Table 3.6shows the duration and frequency of
these different types of faults such as permanent Earth Fault (PEF), Permanent Short circuit
(PSC), Transient Earth fault (TEF) and Transient Short circuit (TSC).

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Table 3.5: Interruption duration and frequency of different faults of 2012/13

Operational PEF PSC TEF TSC
Feeder Dur Freq Dur Freq Dur Freq Dur Freq Dur Freq
(Hr.) (Int/yr.) (Hr.) (Int/yr.) (Hr.) (Int/yr.) (Hr.) (Int/yr.) (Hr.) (Int/yr.)
L-03 39 40 32.5 10 19.92 20 1.7 37 0.5 6
L-03 28.7 49 32.5 10 19.92 20 1.7 37 0.5 6
L-05 15.63 7 4.5 4 20.25 15 0.6 1 0.5 3
L-07 41.3 37 8 4 72.9 35 1.3 36 0.77 12
L-08 3.22 7 10 2 2.25 8 2.5 5 2.77 12
L-09 60.8 49 11.3 9 16.18 9 0.6 19 0.68 9
L-10 19.5 14 3 3 28.23 13 0.9 15 0.5 5
L-11 39.6 35 6.867 3 19.8 22 0.1 1 1.25 3
L-14 47.6 42 0.83 1 8.167 12 0.9 15 17.7 3
L-15 19.4 20 15.55 7 4.633 7 0.7 10 2.85 9
L-16 22.8 20 0.667 3 9.983 13 0.1 3 0.57 5
337.5 125.7 222.2 28.5
Total 320 56 174 11.1 179 73
5 4 3 9

From Table 3.6, we can calculate the percentage of duration and frequency by taking the
contribution each type of fault and the total sum.

Table 3.6: Percentage of duration and frequency of each fault types

Feeder Operational PEF PSC TEF TSC

name %Dur %Freq %Dur %Freq %Dur %Freq %Dur %Freq %Dur %Freq

L-03 41.48 31.75 34.57 33.58 21.19 15.87 1.81 29.37 0.5 4.76
L-03 29.66 45.37 34.57 33.58 20.58 18.52 1.76 38.23 0.5 0.5
L-05 2.86 12.28 6.87 7.02 30.92 26.32 0.9 1.75 7.63 5.26
L-07 28.00 22.29 5.42 2.41 49.42 21.84 0.88 21.69 0.52 7.23
L-08 11.30 18.92 35.09 5.41 7.90 21.62 8.77 13.51 9.72 32.43
L-09 52.98 38.89 9.85 7.14 14.10 7.14 0.5 15.08 0.5 0.5
L-10 41.94 24.56 6.45 0.52 60.71 22.81 1.94 26.32 1.07 8.77
L-11 46.94 46.05 9.04 3.51 23.16 28.95 0.117 1.32 1.46 3.95
L-14 55.35 51.85 0.97 1.24 9.50 14.82 1.05 18.52 20.58 3.70
L-15 56.23 33.33 45.07 11.67 13.43 11.67 2.03 16.67 8.26 25.00
L-16 43.02 35.09 12.58 5.26 18.84 22.81 0.189 5.26 1.08 8.77
Total 39.59 33.65 14.75 6.68 26.07 18.30 1.30 18.82 3.35 7.68

The following Table 3.8 shows how many interruption durations are caused for operation and
maintenance purpose and how many are caused by other power system faults.

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Table 3.7: Planned and unplanned outage duration (Hr.) of 2013 and 2014
Feeder Operation- Other Total Operational Other Total Average
Name al Faults (2013) (Hr.) faults (2014) Dur
(Hr.) (Hr.) (Hr.) (Hr.) (Hr.) (Hr.)
L-03 39 55 94 82.81 116.77 199.535 146.77
L-03 28.7 68.08 96.78 48.22 114.4 162.622 129.7
L-05 15.73 49.77 65.5 17.59 55.63 73.218 69.35
L-07 41.3 106.2 147.5 69.66 179.13 248.795 198.14
L-08 3.22 25.23 28.5 14.91 117.18 132.094 80.3
L-09 60.8 53.97 114.77 123.12 109.65 232.764 173.7
L-10 19.5 27 46.5 111.62 154.77 266.388 156.4
QL-11 39.6 45.9 85.5 22.24 25.79 48.029 66.76
L-14 47.6 38.4 86 198.41 200.05 358.468 222.23
L-15 19.4 15.1 34.5 145.15 112.17 287.329 160.91
L-16 22.8 30.2 53 43.18 57.25 100.407 76.7

Table 3.8 shows how often interruptions caused for operation and maintenance purpose and
how many are caused by other power system faults.

Table 3.8: Frequency of planned and unplanned outage of 2013 and 2014
Feeder Operati Other Total Operatio Other Total Average
name onal Faults (2013) nal Faults (2014) Freq.
Int/yr. (Int/yr.) (Int/yr.) (Int/yr.) (Int/yr.) (Int/yr.) (Int/yr.)

L-03 40 86 126 94.5 148.5 243 185

L-04 49 59 108 164.44 33.5 198 153
L-05 7 50 57 11.62 71.38 83 70
L-07 37 129 166 103.54 257.46 361 264
L-08 7 30 37 31.5 103.5 135 86
L-09 49 77 126 206.81 118.18 325 226
L-10 14 43 57 77.81 161.18 239 148
L-11 35 41 76 44.21 51.78 96 86
L-14 42 39 81 145.7 135.29 281 181
L-15 20 40 60 78.33 156.67 235 148
L-16 20 37 57 28.07 51.903 80 69
System 320 631 951 986 1289.3 2276 1616

Other faults or unplanned faults include:-Transient Earth Fault, Transient Short Circuit,
Permanent Earth Fault, Permanent Short Circuit, Under Frequency, so on.

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In 2014, ADC7, ADC9 and ADC14 are the main feeders experiencing longer interruption
duration and frequency. So it is better to locate DGs at these feeders. The data given above are
in hours. The percentage of each of the faults is shown in Table 3.10.

Table 3.9: Percentage duration of each fault types

Causes Operational PEF PSC TEF TSC UF Others
%Dur(Hr.) 40 15 26 1 1 15 2

Other faults include overload, blackout (total loss of power to an area) and so on.

Figure 3.4: Percentage Duration of each fault types

As can be seen from the pie chart, 40% (Hr.) of the interruption duration is due the operation
and maintenance, 26% is due to permanent short circuit, 15% under frequency and 15%
permanent earth fault cover and the remaining faults account around 4%.

Table 3.10: Percentage of Frequency (interruption per year)

Causes Operational PEF PSC TEF TSC UF Others

% Freq 33 7 18 19 8 9.674 5.198

(Int/Yr.)

Where, UF (under-frequency) means operating below the tolerable limit of supply frequency

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Figure 3.5: Percentage of frequency of Interruption

Figure 3.5 show that 33 % of the interruption frequency is due the operation and maintenance, and 19%
is due to transient earth fault, 18% permanent short circuit, 10 % is because of under frequency.

3.5 Reliability Indices Calculation

The reliability indices of the existing substation can be calculated using equations (2.1) to (2.13), which
are given in chapter two. Based on the data given in Table 3.7 and 3.8, we can calculate the reliability
indices for 2013 and 2014 and the average of the two years. Therefore, Table 3.12, 3.13 and 3.14 show
the reliability indices in 2012/13 (2005 E.C), 2013/14 (2006 E.C) and the average system respectively.

Table 3.11: Reliability indices of 2013

Feeder SAIFI SAIDI CAIDI ASAI ASUI ENS(MWh) AENS
L3 126 94.000 0.746 0.990 0.010 386.669 0.032
L4 108 96.780 0.896 0.989 0.011 397.185 0.024
L5 57 65.500 1.149 0.993 0.007 123.828 0.006
L7 166 147.500 0.888 0.983 0.017 682.409 0.039
L8 37 28.500 0.770 0.997 0.003 116.964 0.019
L9 126 114.800 0.911 0.987 0.013 547.338 0.071
L10 57 46.500 0.816 0.995 0.005 181.559 0.021
L11 76 85.500 1.125 0.990 0.010 395.566 0.080
L14 81 86.000 1.062 0.990 0.010 353.761 0.053
L15 60 34.500 0.575 0.996 0.004 53.406 0.009
L16 57 53.000 0.930 0.994 0.006 182.771 0.024
Total 93.84 89.670 0.955 0.990 0.010 3421.455 0.376

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As shown from Table 3.12, the CAIFI and CAIDI values are small because of the absence of number of
affected and served customers.

Table 3.12: Reliability indices of 2014

Feeder SAIFI SAIDI CAIDI ASAI ASUI ENS(MWh) AENS
L3 243 199.54 0.82 0.977 0.023 820.787 0.0670
L4 198 162.62 0.82 0.982 0.018 667.401 0.0403
L5 83 73.218 0.88 0.992 0.008 138.419 0.0064
L7 361 248.79 0.69 0.972 0.028 1,151.05 0.0661
L8 135 132.09 0.98 0.985 0.015 542.114 0.0870
L9
325 232.76 0.72 0.974 0.026 1,110.05 0.1434
L10 239 266.39 1.11 0.970 0.03 1,040.11 0.1180
L11 96 48.029 0.5 0.995 0.005 222.206 0.0449
L14 281 358.47 1.27 0.96 0.04 1,474.56 0.2212
L15 235 287.33 1.22 0.967 0.033 444.929 0.0739
L16 80 100.407 1.255 0.989 0.011 1,194.06 0.1543
Total 208.59 182.52 0.875 0.9795 0.0205 8805.686 1.0225

Table 3.13: Reliability indices of the average of 2013 and 2014)

Feeder SAIFI SAIDI CAIDI ASAI ASUI ENS(MWh) AENS
L3 185 146.77 0.79 0.984 0.016 603.7384 0.0493
L4 153 129.7 0.85 0.985 0.015 532.2888 0.0322
L5 70 69.35 0.99 0.993 0.007 131.1062 0.0061
L7 264 198.14 0.75 0.977 0.023 916.69471 0.0526
L8 86 80.3 0.93 0.991 0.009 329.5512 0.0529
L9 226 173.7 0.77 0.981 0.019 828.3753 0.1070
L10 148 156.4 1.05 0.983 0.017 610.6638 0.0693
L11 86 66.76 0.78 0.993 0.007 308.83176 0.0625
L14 181 222.23 1.22 0.975 0.025 914.14311 0.1372
L15 148 160.91 1.09 0.982 0.018 249.16913 0.0414
L16 69 76.7 1.11 0.992 0.008 264.49995 0.0342
Total 151.44 133.6 0.8823 0.985 0.015 5,689.0624 0.6447

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Figure 3.6: SAIDI comparison

As shown in Figure 3.6, the maximum interruption duration in 2013 was 147.5 Hr. while that
of 2014 is 358.5Hr.It is seen from the figure that SAIDI or system average interruption
duration index has shown much increment from 2013 to 2014.This is partly because of the
simple railway construction which crosses the substation area where may power cables got
injured.

Figures 3.7: SAIFI comparison

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As shown in the Figure 3.7, the index SAIFI has increased from 2013 to 2014. The reason for
this is also the same as explained above for SAIDI comparison Figure 3.6.

Summary of the analysis

1. SAIFI of the overall system as shown in Table 3.14 is 151.16 int. /yr. As per Ethiopian
Electrical Agency‘s (EEA’s) standard, SAIFI should not exceed 20 interruption per
customer per year, which indicates that the current value is above the acceptable value
by large margin. And also, when we compare the calculated SAIFI value with German
standard, it is much greater than the maximum limit [10, 11]. This clearly indicates that
there is serious reliability problem in the present ADC substation.
2. Table 3.14 shows SAIDI of the system are 133.6 hours per customer per year. This
shows that every customer experiences 133.6Hr.per year. This proves that there is great
reliability problem in the existing ADC substation. As per (EEA), the SAIDI value
should not exceed 25 hours per customer per year [21]. The permissible SAIDI value in
Germany is 0.383 hours per customer per year [21].
3. ASAI: It is the average service availability index which shows the fraction of time that
a customer has received power during the reporting period. The power supply of the
overall system is 98.5% available as shown in Table 3.14 However, this value is not
still good enough since the ASAI value should be greater than 99.98% as per EEA’s
standard[21].
4. ENS: It indicates the un-served or unsold energy of each feeder. For the overall system,
the total unsold energy was 5,689.0624 MWh as given in Table 3.14.
5. AENS: This index represents the average energy not supplied per customer by the
system. The overall system has an AENS value of 0.6447 MWh per customer.

In general, based on the data analysis the following points can be drawn:

1. The reliability of the ADC substation does not meet the requirements set by the
regulatory body that is Ethiopian Electric Agency (EEA).

2. The reliability of Addis Center substation is not good enough as compared to the
international reliability indices of best experienced countries.

3. There is high unavailability of services in the network.

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4. There is also much loss of Unsupplied Energy due to both planned and unplanned
outages in the present power grid of ADC substation.

Table 3.15 shows the comparison of the most commonly used reliability indices

Table 3.14: SAIDI and SAIFI comparison [21]

Country SAIFI SAIDI
(Int./Year/Customer ) (Hr./Year/Customer)
United States 1.5 4
Australia 0.9 1.2
Denmark 0.5 0.4
France 1.0 1.03
Germany 0.5 0.383
Italy 2.2 0.967
Netherland 0.3 0.55
Spain 2.2 1.73
United Kingdom 0.8 1.5
Ethiopia 20 25
Addis Center 151.44 133.6
substation

Table 3.15: EEPCO’S electricity tariff (Birr/kwh) [21, 23]

Residential Active Energy Range Price Rate (Birr/kWh)
(kWh)
0-50 0.2730
51-100 0.3564
101-200 0.4993
201-300 0.5500
301-400 0.5666
401-500 0.5880
Above500 0.6943
Commercial 0-50 0.6088
Above 50 0.6943
Low Voltage Time of Day
Industry @15kv
Peak 0.7426
Off-peak 0.5354
High Voltage Industry @
132KV
Peak 0.4736
Off peak 0.3664

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Based on EECO’s tariff (Table 3.16), the cost of energy not supplied due to interruption for
Addis Center Substation is calculated using the formula,

Cost of Energy = Power ∗ Time ∗ tariff for elctricity

By considering an average electric price of 0.5345 Birr/kWh, the average energy not supplied
and the average cost of energy not supplied due to power interruption for one month at Addis
Center outgoing feeders are calculated and tabulated in Table 3.16.

Table 3.16: Average cost of ENS for single month at ADC outgoing feeders
Feeder Peak Cost of Energy not
Duration Energy Not
Name Load(MW) supplied(MWh)
of Interruption (Hr.) Supplied (MWh)

ADC-3 6.29 29.21 183.73 98,204.17

ADC-4 6.24 22.19 138.47 74,009.86
ADC-5 2.86 10.38 29.69 15,867.59
ADC-7 7.01 28.32 198.52 106,110.65
ADC-8 6.24 16.32 101.84 54,431.77
ADC-9 7.27 29.17 212.07 113,349.22
ADC-10 5.98 49.1 293.62 156,938.82
ADC-11 7.01 1.58 11.08 5,920.02
ADC-14 6.24 55.15 344.14 183,940.69
ADC-15 2.34 89.5 209.43 111,940.34
ADC-16 5.46 12.09 66.01 223,838.98

Total 62.94 343.01 1788.58 955,996.01

As shown in Table 3.16, the total average energy not supplied and average cost of energy not
supplied due to power interruption for one month at Addis Center outgoing feeders is 1788.58
MWh and 955,996.01 Birr respectively.
The total average cost of energy not supplied because of power interruption per year for the
substation’s outgoing feeders is 12*955996.01 = 11.472 million Birr or 548,899.52 USD.

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CHAPTER FOUR

SIMULATION STUDIES AND RESULT ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction
This chapter begins by describing the selection criteria and sizing of the proper DG technology
for specific area and continues to reliability simulation of the current substation with and
without DG. And analysis of the obtained result is also presented in the corresponding
simulation. The selection of specific DG technology, its sizing, cost, reliability analysis using
DigSilent software and the improvement using DG are presented in detail.

4.2 Selection of DG technology

As discussed in chapter two, there are different technologies or resources of distributed
generation. Among those resources, the selection of a specific DG technology to a certain area
depends on availability of resources, suitability to environment, and cost of DG technology.
Different geographical areas have different resources, both renewable and non-renewables. For
instance, the solar energy availability varies from place to place and the wind energy resources
vary due to the difference in wind speed of different areas.
DG technologies also differ in their positive and negative impacts they have on the surrounding
environment. One of the impacts is emission level of gases like, CO, CO2 and etc. to the
environment. The following table shows that emission levels and cost of various DG
technologies. Cost of each technology is another factor. This is shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Emission levels different DGs

Technology Emission Cost

PV No Moderate
Fuel cell Low High
No harmful
Wind turbine Moderate
emissions
Diesel generator High emissions Low
Microturbine Low Moderate

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Based on the above factors, the DG technologies selected in this thesis are Microturbine/Fuel
cell hybrid system.

4.3 Sizing of Microturbine/Fuel cell hybrid Systems

Hybrid DG systems improve the efficiency and generation characteristics. The hybrid system of
microturbine and fuel cell can either be one of SOFC or molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) with
the microturbine. From recent reports, the combination of a solid oxide fuel cell with a gas
microturbine formed a combined cycle power plant. So, in this thesis, SOFC with MTG systems
is chosen due to higher electrical efficiency as shown in Table 2.1. The following table gives the
equipment and installation cost of various sized microturbines.

Table 4.2: Equipments and Installation costs [10]

system
1 2 3 4 5 6
Nominal capacity (kW) 30 65 200 250 333 1000
Net capacity (kW) 28 61 190 240 320 950
Equipment costs
Gen set package $53,100 $112,900 $359,300 $441,200 $566,400 $1,188,600
Heat recovery $13,500 $0 $0 $0 $0 $275,000
Fuel gas compression $8,700 $16,400 $42,600 $0 $0 $164,000
Interconnection $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0
Total equipment cost $75,300 $129,300 $401,900 $441,200 $566,400 $1,627,600
$/kW $2,689 $2,120 $2,120 $1,840 $1,770 $1,710
Installation costs
Labor/materials $22,600 $28,400 $80,400 $83,800 $101,900 $293,000
Project & construction
$9,000 $15,500 $48,200 $52,900 $68,000 $195,300
management
Engineering and fees $9,000 $15,500 $48,200 $52,900 $68,000 $195,300
Project contingency $3,800 $6,500 $20,100 $22,100 $28,300 $81,400
Financing(int. during
$700 $1,200 $3,700 $4,100 $5,100 $14,800
const.)
Total other costs $45,100 $67,100 $196,400 $211,400 $259,900 $747,300
$/kW $1,611 $1,100 $1,035 $881 $812 $787
Total installed cost ($) $120,400 $196,400 $598,500 $652,600 $826,300 $2,374,900
$/kW $4,300 $3,220 $3,150 $2,720 $2,580 $2,500

As discussed in previous chapters, ADC-7, ADC-9 and ADC-11 are feeders which face much of
the interruption duration and frequency. The corresponding peak loads are 7.01, 7.27, and

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7.01MW respectively. The size of the selected DG is based on the peak load of ADC-7 which is
7.01MW and 50% that is 3.505MW. This 50% is selected so that to compare the annual revenue
loss from the substation and the cost of DG. So, throughout the thesis, single DG refers to a
capacity of 3.5MW.

The contribution of microturbine is made to be 85.7% that is 3MW and that of fuel cell is 0.5MW
or 500kW. The reason for this size classification is due to high cost of fuel cell.[7] The cost of
the hybrid system includes equipment cost, installation cost and operation and maintenance costs.
This is shown in Table 4.4.

Table 4.2: The cost of 3.5 MW DG

Equipments Capacities Cost/kW Total cost

Microturbine 3MW $2,500 $2,374,900

Fuel cell 500kW 3700 $1,850,000

Converter 3.5MW $600 $2,100,000

Total =
$6,324,900

Table 4.3 has shown that the total cost of 3.5MW DG is $6,324,900 or 138.325563 million
Ethiopian Birr. As shown in chapter three, the total revenue loss from the substation due to
ENS is 11.5million birr. When we divide the cost of 3.5 MW DG to this annual loss, we get
12years. This means this cost of DG can be repaid from the 12years of revenue loss from the
substation.

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4.4 Reliability Analysis using PowerFactory

As clearly explained in chapter three, Power Factory software is one of power system
reliability analysis software. Equipments used in this analysis from the PowerFactory are, lines,
breakers, disconnectors, transformers, loads, DG, external grid, busbars and so on. Symbols of
these equipments are shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Equipments used in reliability analysis of PowerFactory

The electrical and failure inputs given to each equipment is shown in Table 4.4. Every
equipment has electrical and failure inputs. For example, a line which is used in a distribution
system shown in the above one line diagram is fed its ratings like, voltage and current ratings
and the failure inputs are the interruption frequency and duration.

Table 4.4: Electrical and Failure inputs

Repair Interruption
Equipment name Voltage level (kV)
duration(Hr.) Frequency(1/km*a)
Main Transformer 120 0.015 132
Distribution Transformers 200 0.015 15
Lines 0.8 18 15
External grid 0.12 0.675 132

The above failure data are obtained from different researches because EEPCO has no such
data.

The distribution system shown in Figure 4.2 receives 132KV from Kality substation feeds two
transformers of 31.5MVA each. These transformers step down the voltage from 132 to 15kV
and then customers will be supplied by their corresponding feeder.

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Figure 4.2: One line diagram ADC substation

The reliability assessment in this thesis has two main parts. These are connecting DG to the
selected feeders of the substation then, evaluating the overall improvement and taking a single
feeder (ADC-7) and applying DG at different load points of that specific feeder.

4.5 Connecting DG to the at selected feeder/s

The following case studies are undertaken to the overall substation shown in Figure 4.2.

1. Basecase reliability indices(without DG),

2. DG at ADC-7,
3. DG at ADC-9,
4. DG at ADC-7, ADC-9
5. DG at ADC-7, ADC-9, ADC-14
6. DG to all feeders
7. Two DGs at ADC-7

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Table 4.5: Basecase reliability indices

4.5.1 Case study 1: Integrating DG at ADC-7

From the result in Table 4.5, SAIFI of the overall system has improved in SAIFI, SAIDI and
ENS by 19.39%, 16.04% and, 15.86%.In this case study, it is shown that the presence of DG
on the substation has positive impact in the power system’s reliability. That means that the
indices were reduced by the integration of DG to the overall system.

Table 4.6: Indices with DG at ADC-7

4.5.2 Case study2: Integrating DG at ADC-9

Now, a 3.505 MW DG is connected to the ADC-9 feeder and the simulation is conducted. The
result of the simulation shows that the overall improvement in overall SAIFI, SAIDI and ENS
is16.63%, 14.17% and 14.43% respectively. This shows the same magnitude of DG connected
at ADC-7 gave more improvement than at ADC-9. This is because ADC-7 is has more
interruption duration and frequency than ADC-9.

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Table 4.7: Indices of the average system with DG at ADC-9

4.5.3 Case study 3: Connecting DG to ADC-7 and ADC-9

As shown below, when DG connected to both ADC-7 and ADC-9 at the same time, the
improvement is 36.05%, 30.21% and 30.3% respectively.

Table 4.8: Indices when DGs connected at ADC-7 and ADC-9

4.5.4 Case study 4: DG at ADC-7, ADC-9 and ADC-14

As shown in Table 4.8, applying DG to ADC-7 ADC-9 and ADC-14, we can see the improvement in
the overall system’s SAIFI=44.58%, SAIDI= 41.74% and AENS=46.04%. This is large improvement
because applying 3 DGs of 3.505MW resulted in almost 45% improvement.

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Table 4.9: Indices when DG connected at ADC-7, ADC-9 and ADC-14

4.5.5 Case study 5: DG at all feeders

In this case study it is assumed that all protective devices and DGs are fully reliable, and other
technologies like micro turbines and fuel cells which have large individual capacity are used as
a DG resource. Based on these assumptions, connection of DG to all feeders as shown in figure
4.9, show that the overall reliability of the system will be improved by 100%. This means
average service availability index becomes one (ASAI=1) and the others zero. But locating DG
to those 11 feeders requires high investment cost. So it is economical to locate the DG into
feeders which experience more interruption than the rest.

Figure 4.3: DGs at all feeder

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4.5.6 Case study 6: Two DGs at the Same Location

Presence of two or more DGs at the same location is tested for its effect on reliability. ADC-7
is taken as the point for locating two DGs and it was shown that locating two DGs is the same
as locating one DG. This is shown in the table below.

Table 4.10: Indices of two DGs at the same location

Figure 4.4: Multiple DGs at ADC-7

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So, it is better to locate different DGs at different feeders for effective reduction of power
system reliability problems.
The above case studies are summarized in Table 4.11.

Table 4.11 Summaries of reliability of overall system

DG at
DG at DG at DG at L DG at L 2 DGs at
Reliably Without all
L7 L7 7&9 7 ,9 &14 L7
Indices DG feeders
(17%) (15%) (32.2%) (45%) (17%) (100%)
SAIFI
152.16 122.66 126.86 97.36 84.32 122.66 0
(int.)
SAIDI
144.502 121.322 124.02 100.844 84.19 121.322 0
(Hr.)
ASAI 0.9835 0.9862 0.9858 0.98849 0.9904 0.9862 1
ENS
6381.4 5368.84 5460.21 4447.67 3443.21 5368.84 0
(MWh)

4.6 Connecting DG to a Single Feeder (ADC-7)

Until now, we have done 6 case studies on effect of connecting DG on reliability improvement
to the overall substation. But now, we will study a single feeder, ADC-7 which has a total of 71
distribution transformers with a total capacity of 21.335 MVA. The peak load for this feeder is
7.01MW. Hence, the peak load used for our analysis is only about 30% of the total capacity of
transformers.

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Figure 4.5: ADC-7circuit

This circuit is drawn using DigSilent software as shown below.

Figure 4.6: One line diagram ADC-7

For the purpose of analyzing reliability, this circuit is lumped into 7 load points as shown in
Figure 4.10. Each load point is tested for best location of the DG in terms of distance from the
supply point.

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Figure 4.7: Lumped diagram of ADC-7

Table 4.10 shows, outage frequency (Int/yr.), Outage duration (Hr.), Repair duration (Hr.),
Capacity of Transformers (MVA) and Length from SP.

Table 4.11: Basic data of ADC-7 feeder

Load Outage frequency Repair duration Capacity of Length
points (Int/yr.) (Hr.) Transformers from SP
(MVA)
1 18.25 0.7308 4.15 1.1512373
2 25.13 1.1661 2.045 1.8530399
3 41.561 0.9741 2.16 3.0102753
4 75.896 0.9039 2.575 3.936669
5 84.444 0.8134 2.675 6.2170247
6 114.66 0.8988 3.625 7.4469287
7 132.22 0.8761 1.76 8.696111

Table 4.12: Basecase ADC-7 indices without DG

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Table 4.12 shows that Basecase reliability indices of the feeder and it and shows SAIFI, SAIDI
and ENS of 249.6, 186.1 and 1242.747 respectively.

4.6.1 Distance vs. Reliability

In this case study, ADC-7 was studied for the response of the placement of DG at different locations or
distances from the supply point.

4.6.1.1 Case study 7: DG at LP1

When DG is connected to load point 1, the indices are shown in Table 4.12.

Table 4.13: Indices DG at load point 1(1.15km from SP)

When DG of 3.5 MW is applied at load point one (Lp1) which is 1.15km from the supply point, the
improvement in SAIFI=7.1% SAIDI= 5.989 % and ENS= 6.04%.

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4.6.1.2 Case study 8: DG at LP 2

Table 4.14: Indices DG at load point 2 (1.853km from SP)

When DG of 3.505 MVA is applied at load point 2 (Lp2) which is 1.853km from the supply
point, the improvement in SAIFI=16.46% SAIDI= 18.85 % and ENS= 18.83%.

4.6.1.3 Case study9: DG at LP 3

When DG of 3.505 MW is applied at load point 3 (Lp3) which is 3.03km from the supply
point, the indices will be improved by SAIFI=27.54% SAIDI= 30.785% and ENS= 30.87%.

Table 4.15: Indices DG at load point 3 (3.03km from SP)

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4.6.1.4 Case study 10: DG at LP 4

When DG of 3.505MW is applied at load point four (Lp4) which is 3.9km from the supply
point, the reliability indices will be reduced by SAIFI=39.58% SAIDI= 42.38 % and ENS=
42.38%.

Table 4.16: Indices DG at load point 4 (3.9km from SP)

4.6.1.5 Case study 11: DG at LP 5

When DG of 3.505 MW is applied at load point five (Lp5) which is 6.217 km away from the
supply point, the improvement in SAIFI=74.44%, SAIDI= 59.77 % and ENS= 62.315%.

Table 4.17: Indices DG at load point 5 (6.27km from SP)

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4.6.1.6 Case study 12: DG at LP 6

When DG is applied at LP6, which is 7.447 km from the supply point, the improvement are
SAIFI=79.79%, SAIDI= 81.59 % and ENS= 85.87%.

Table 4.18: Indices DG at load point 6 (7.447km from SP)

4.6.1.7 Case study 13: DG at LP 7(end of the line)

When DG of 3.505 MW is applied at load point seven (Lp7), which is 8.696 km from the
supply point, the improvements are SAIFI=91.8% SAIDI=91.94 % and ENS= 91.47%.

Table 4.19: Indices DG at load point 7 (8.696km from SP)

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The results of the indices showing “distance vs. reliability” is summarized for some of the
reliability indices in Table 4.21.

Table 4.20: Summary of ADC-7 indices (Reliability vs. Distance)

Distance and the corresponding reliability improvement

Base 1.15
Indices 1.85km 3.01km 3.94km 6.22km 7.45km 8.70km
case km

(6.37%) (18.04%) (29.73%) (41.45%) (65.50%) (82.42%) (91.74%)

SAIFI 249.75 231.88 208.75 180.86 150.79 71.28 34.35 20.46

SAIDI 186.82 174.967 151.02 128.81 107.22 50.3 26.09 15.75

ENS 1242.6 1167.71 1008.68 859.05 716.03 336.38 170.883 106.74

ASAI 0.9787 0.98 0.98276 0.9853 0.98786 0.9942 0.997 0.9982

This case study has shown that, the reliability of the power system will be improved most, if
the DG is applied at end of the supply line. The same magnitude of DG brought different
results due to placement or distance effects.

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Figure 4.8: Distance vs. SAIFI, SAIDI, ENS and ASAI

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CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE WORK

Based on the results obtained from the reliability analysis of Addis Center substation and the
simulations conducted with DG, the following conclusions and recommendation have been
made and the possible future works are proposed.

5.1 Conclusions

As studied in this thesis, the reliability of the Addis Center substation does not meet the
requirements set by Ethiopian Electric Agency (EEA). The average frequency of interruptions
of the substation is 152.16 interruptions per customer per year and the average duration of
interruptions is 144.502 hours per customer per year. There is high unavailability of electric
power in the distribution network. There is huge loss of unsupplied energy due to planned and
unplanned outages. The average unsupplied energy is 1788.7 MWh per month. This results in
loss of around 11.742 million Birr per year from EEPCO.

DGs were connected to the three feeders (ADC-7, ADC-9 and ADC-11) which experience
more interruptions. As a result of these DGs, the overall system’s reliability is improved by
45%. So DGs should be located on a load point where there is most interruption and most
customers are found and where much of the load is supplied.

Multiple DGs were connected at ADC-7 and the resulting reliability indices were similar to
connecting one DG. Therefore, multiple DGs at the same location do not worth to enhance
reliability.

Assuming protection devices and DGs fully reliable, connection of DG to all feeders, gave
100% power system reliability improvement.

The load points of ADC-7 were studied for best placement of DG from supply point. And it
was found that the reliability indices got more improvement as the DG is far from the
substation. And the best location for the DG is found to be at the end of the feeder where 91%
improvement is achieved. This is because the faults anywhere on the main line can be isolated
and the upstream customers can be supplied by the substation and the downstream by the DG.

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5.2 Recommendations

Reliability analysis requires: total number of customers, number of customers served, number
of customers interrupted, loads connected, number of transformers and their ratings, and so on.
So, power system faults, power system devices (lines, buses, transformers on each feeder,
circuit breakers, and disconnectors) and total number of customers served and interrupted
should be correctly documented by EEPCO.

Nowadays DGs are widely used for their positive impact on system reliability and power
system loss reduction. So, renewable energy based DG options should be promoted by the
power divider not only for rural electrification but also for urban areas as a backup.

It was difficult to identify each load point and the corresponding data of that load point. This
made the analysis in this thesis to be difficult. So, I recommend to EEPCO to distinguish each
load point and their corresponding failure data.

5.3 Future Work

Future works to be done on the area of reliability improvement by using DG are presented
below.

The present ADC substation should intensively be studied whether it is comfortable to DG

allocation. This is needed because the placement of DG has its own challenges to existing grid
network. Those real limitations of DG should be studied for the actual implementation of such
a model.

DG can be used for a backup purpose or for peak shaving. So for each of these purposes, there
should be a control system modeled between the DG and the existing grid.

Different distributed generation options other than PV and diesel technologies can be studied
for this substation’s reliability improvement.

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Electronics and Power, Vol. 30, No. 3, 1984.
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[48] Angel Fernández Sarabia,“Impact of distributed generation on distribution

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

Appendix A

Table 1: peak load data of ADC substation

Oct 8--Nov Nov 8--Dec 9 - Dec 8--Jan

Current 9 - 2011 2011 9 - 2011
Existing Express MVA Transformer Peak Min Peak Min Peak Min
Feeder Feeder
Name Name Ratio A A A A A A
15KV
31.5
Trafo I MVA 1500/5/5A 987 280 970 300 1100 320
31.5
Trafo II MVA 1500/5/5A 987 280 970 300 1100 320
150 -
Line -03 ADC -01 300/5/5A 270 60 265 65 264 25
150 -
Line -04 ADC-06 300/5/5A 250 60 240 60 250 25
150 -
Line -05 ADC -08 300/5/5A 240 58 230 62 250 70
150 -
Line -07 ADC- 10 300/5/5A 275 70 270 72 275 80
150 -
Line -08 ADC -04 300/5/5A 215 58 210 60 210 25
150 -
Line -09 ADC -11 300/5/5A 248 32 240 28 260 74
150 -
Line -10 ADC -03 300/5/5A 210 38 206 40 170 20
150 -
Line -11 ADC -09 300/5/5A 62 30 58 30 80 10
150 -
Line -14 ADC -02 300/5/5A 192 28 180 28 290 14
150 -
Line -15 ADC -05 300/5/5A 158 42 140 40 120 40
150 -
Line -16 ADC -07 300/5/5A 160 40 158 40 175 30

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

Appendix B
Table 2: Sample Feeder Fault Types in Addis Center substation Distribution for the year of 2013

Feeder Date Int. Rec. Dur Dur(H Fault Fault

Name (E.C) Time Time Time r.) type reason

ADC-7 1/1/2005 7:19 7:21 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-5 1/1/2005 7:19 8:38 1:19 1.317 Permanent Short circuit

ADC-7 1/1/2005 7:35 7:48 0:13 0.217 Operational By REQUEST

ADC-5 1/1/2005 13:00 13:20 0:20 0.333 Permanent Earth fault

ADC-3 1/1/2005 14:00 17:27 3:27 3.450 Permanent Short circuit

ADC-16 1/1/2005 17:50 17:52 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-5 1/1/2005 20:55 21:05 0:10 0.167 Operation By request

ADC-3 2/1/2005 7:35 7:37 0:02 0.033 Transient Short circuit

ADC-7 2/1/2005 7:35 7:37 0:02 0.033 Transient Short circuit

ADC-9 2/1/2005 10:56 10:58 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-5 2/1/2005 15:00 15:50 0:50 0.833 Permanent Earth fault

ADC-14 2/1/2005 15:00 15:50 0:50 0.833 Permanent Earth fault

ADC-10 2/1/2005 15:00 15:50 0:50 0.833 Permanent Earth fault

ADC-3 2/1/2005 15:00 15:55 0:55 0.917 Permanent Earth fault

ADC-4 2/1/2005 15:00 15:55 0:55 0.917 Permanent Earth fault

ADC-7 2/1/2005 15:00 15:55 0:55 0.917 Permanent Earth fault

ADC-15 2/1/2005 15:00 15:55 0:55 0.917 Permanent Earth fault

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

ADC-9 2/1/2005 15:00 16:27 1:27 1.450 Permanent Earth fault

ADC-16 2/1/2005 21:55 22:25 0:30 0.500 Permanent Earth fault

ADC-3 3/1/2005 8:55 8:57 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-4 3/1/2005 14:40 15:03 0:23 0.383 Operation By request

ADC-7 3/1/2005 16:25 17:55 1:30 1.500 Permanent Short circuit

ADC-4 4/1/2005 9:10 11:53 2:43 2.717 Permanent Short circuit

ADC-9 4/1/2005 10:45 10:47 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-4 4/1/2005 14:05 14:07 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-10 4/1/2005 14:08 14:10 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-8 5/1/2005 1:50 1:58 0:08 0.133 Permanent Short circuit

ADC-11 5/1/2005 10:50 10:55 0:05 0.083 Operation By request

ADC-9 5/1/2005 13:55 15:00 1:05 1.083 Operation By request

ADC-7 5/1/2005 15:25 19:03 3:38 3.633 Permanent Short circuit

ADC-5 6/1/2005 2:00 5:50 3:50 3.833 Operation By request

ADC-3 6/1/2005 2:03 2:05 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-7 6/1/2005 2:03 2:05 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-10 6/1/2005 2:03 2:05 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-15 6/1/2005 2:03 2:05 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-14 6/1/2005 9:30 9:32 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-9 6/1/2005 16:03 16:05 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-5 7/1/2005 1:05 1:10 0:05 0.083 Transient Short circuit

ADC-7 7/1/2005 1:05 1:10 0:05 0.083 Transient Short circuit

ADC-7 7/1/2005 7:55 8:47 0:52 0.867 Permanent Short circuit

ADC-16 7/1/2005 9:40 9:45 0:05 0.083 Permanent Earth fault

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

ADC-3 7/1/2005 14:10 14:12 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-10 7/1/2005 14:10 14:12 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-3 7/1/2005 16:05 16:07 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

ADC-5 7/1/2005 16:33 18:35 2:02 2.033 Operation By request

ADC-3 8/1/2005 5:45 6:33 0:48 0.800 Operation By request

ADC-14 8/1/2005 6:40 6:42 0:02 0.033 Transient Earth fault

Table 3: Sample number of customers on ADC-7, transformer T048

Town A.A Substation Code ADC

Around
Local Ledwta ADC-
address Church MV Feeder Code 07
Wered Transformer
a Code TO 27
Transformer Capacity
Kebele [kVA] 315
LV Feeder No. 01
Outgoing Cable size 3/70/35
HRC Fuse Rating

Protect Phase Code Consumer's category

Consu kWh-m
Contract ion
mer Rating
No. Rating
No [A]
[A]
R S T 3P Residential Commercial Industrial

1 528704 5/15 10 
2 548883 5/15 10 
3 540211 10/30 25  
4 Closed  
5 570599 10/30 25 
6 080789 5/15 10 
7 544674 10/30 25  

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

8 Closed 
9 107901 5/100 25  
10 034021 10/30 25  
11 515641 10/30 25  
12 513261 10/30 25  
13 Closed  
14 550800 10/30 25  
15 Closed  
16 528736 10/30 25  
17 Closed  
18 060518 10/30 25 
19 Closed  
20 Closed  
21 Closed  
22 577450 10/30 25  
23 Closed  
24 099668 5/15 10  
25 Closed  
26 Closed  
27 Closed  
28 097367 5/15 10  
29 Closed  
30 527212 10/30 25  
31 108298 5/15 10  
32 Closed  
33 Closed  
34 Closed   
35 109646 5/15 10  
36 528864 10/30 25 
37 Closed 
38 553489 10/30 25  
39 558126 10/30 25 
40 096732 5/15 10 
41 577760 10/30 25  
42 505850 5/15 10 

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Study of Distributed Generation in Improving power System Reliability

43 510135 5/15 10 
44 573093 10/30 25 
45 572658 10/30 25 
46 2425086 10/30 25  
47 065687 5/15 10 
48 549902 10/30 25 
49 Closed 
50 Closed   

M.S.c Thesis, Addis Ababa Institute of Technology AAU, 2016 Page 77