Course: Curriculum and Instruction (6503)

Semester: Autumn, 2020

Level: M.A Education.

ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q. 1 Why does a teacher need a teaching model? How are the models of teaching built?

Modelling is an instructional plan in which the teacher demonstrates a new concept or approach to
learning and students learn by observing and making learning notes. This documentis an aid to using
modelling successfully in the teaching spaces you work in.

{Task and performance modelling}

Task modelling occurs when the teacher demonstrates a task student will be expected to do on their
own. This type of modelling would precede activities such as science experiments, foreign language
communication, physical education tasks, and solving mathematical equations. This strategy is used so
that students can first observe what is expected of them, and so that they feel more comfortable in
engaging in a new task or activity.

{Metacognitive modelling}
Metacognitive modelling demonstrates how to think in lessons that focus on interpreting information
and data, analyzing statements, and making conclusions about what has been learned. This type of
modelling would be particularly useful in a math class when teachers go through multiple steps to solve
a problem. Teachers would talk through their own thought process while they do the problem on a
board or collaboratively on MWBs. “This thinking-out-loud approach,in which the teacher plans and
then explicitly articulates the underlying thinking process should be the focus of teacher talk.” - Bandura
This type of modelling can also be done in a reading lessonwhile the teacher asks rhetorical questions
or makes comments about how to anticipate what is coming next in a story.

i- {Nuremberg Funnel} (Teaching as content delivery)

This model claims that learning is simply a matter of passively “absorbing” what the teacher presents,
and that every student is capable of “taking in” content no matter what the form or subject.
This model separates content from teacher and implies teachers are interchangeable (likewise students).
It also suggests content can be created by an author (expert) independent of teachers and students. Of
course, sometimes teachers are experts.
Delivery of a message does not ensure learning:
The message may not be received.
Receiving may not be the same as understanding.
Understanding may not be the same as learning.
Students may not learn (or may not study) unless they foresee a penalty (or reward) for doing so. In
order to understand a second message, students must often understand a first message. (This suggests
that learning “builds on a foundation.”)

ii- {Shannon’s Model of Communication} Introducing the problem of noise in transmission

This model assumes sender + receiver share a common vocabulary (which makes encoding & decoding
possible); but a goal of education is to expand students’ vocabularies, a process this model does not
describe.
Shannon explained how adding redundancy in a message can compensate for noise in a channel. This is
analogous to saying that repetition is sufficient to compensate for failure of a student to correctly decode
a message.

iii- {Assessment: External Regulation} Checking that students received “the message”

This model is like any feedback system. For example, a captain gives the order to dock the ship at
port (sets a higher-level goal). The pilot sets a course toward port by moving the wheel and then
watching to see if the ship veers off because of wind or tide. If so, the pilot compares the current
heading with the desired heading and adjusts the wheel accordingly. At a lower level, changing the
heading translates into setting a new goal for the “wheel angle” (or rudder angle).
This model assumes teachers have a responsibility to ensure that their students learn.
Teachers organize a series of “lessons” (lectures, exercises, etc.) which lead to mastery of a higher-level
“unit”.
When students demonstrate competence in one lesson, the teacher then moves on to the next. SRA is
an example of this model applied first to teach reading and later to other subjects.
One issue with this model is that both teachers and students are accountable to agents outside the
model.

iv- {Self-regulation} Learning by acting in the world

Students learn by acting in the world, measuring the effects of their actions, comparing those effects to
their goals, and modifying their actions to bring the effects more in line with their goals. “Acting in the
world” could be operating a simulation, or teaching back to the teacher, or teaching each other.
This model frames students as seeking to maintain a relationship with their environment. It argues that
learning cannot be “dis-embodied” and is not merely a matter of mind or an exchange of messages.
However, learning is not mere regulation; a float valve does not learn. First-order systems cannot change
goals or strategies.

Q.2 Discuss the Glaser and Herbertian model of teaching. In your opinion which one is better
and why?

The best substitute for a theory of teaching is a model of teaching. Teaching models merely suggesthow
various teaching and learning conditions are interrelated. In many fields’ models are prototypes of
theories because they make possible our early conceptualization and study of phenomena. Unlike
theories, in their early stage of development models lack factual support. Eventually useful models give
way to empirically supported theories.

A BASIC TEACHING MODEL

Robert Glaser (1962) has developed a stripped-down teaching model which, with modifications, is the
basic teaching model. The basic teaching model divides the teaching process into four components or
parts. It will be useful in several ways. It helps to organize the great body of facts, concepts and
principles which makes up

The above diagram is a diagram of basic teaching model. The four parts of the model represent the
basic divisions. Box A denotes Instructional objectives, Box B includes Entering behavior, Box C deals
with instructional procedure, and finally Box D relates to performance assessment. The diagram referred
above applies to the four components of the basic teaching model, with its connecting arrows shows
only the major sequence of events in the instructional process, it is possible to add many more connecting
lines. Lines with connect components later in the sequence with earlier ones are called FEEDBACK
LOOPS. The three feedback loops as shown in the diagram shown below for example, connect
performance assessment with each of the earlier components of the model.

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

Instructional objectives are those the student should attain upon completion of a segment of instruction.
In theory, objectives can vary in scope and character. Instructional procedures, describe the teaching
process; most decisions a teacher makes are on these procedures. Proper management of this component
results in those changes I student behavior which we call learning or achievement. Procedures must vary
with the instructional objectives.

One way to define instructional objectives is to identify the end product of instruction in terms of
observable performance. The way to determine whether or not a student has learned something is to
observe the outcome of his behavior. The outcome has been conventionally referred to as behavioral
objectives. It is more precise to refer to these end products of instruction as terminal performances. In
most schools these are verbal performances or motor skills.

ENTERING BEHAVIOR

Entering behavior describes the student level before the instruction begins. It refers to what the student
has previously learned, his intellectual ability and development, his motivational state, and certain social
and cultural determinants of his learning ability. Entering behavior is a more precise term than its usual
alternatives human ability, individual differences, and readiness.
This precision may come at the price of seeing the student as less complex, less able, and less
experienced than he may in fact be. Schools tend to define entering behavior in terms of the tradition’s
curriculum rather than in terms of student ability, experience, and interest. A student with the more
abstractive ability and interest of the mathematician, therefore, may be viewed as having a higher-level
entering behavior than that of a student whose major interest and ability are in creating the visual,
geometric forms of modern painting and sculpture.

Although the model gives priority to the selection of instrumental objectives over the assessmentof
entering behavior, in practices these two components must interact. Depending on the requirement of
the instructional situations, particularly on the entering behavior of the student, the classroom of the
future will provide for more or less personal contact than the conventional classroom does now.
Accordingly, the model implies a greater emphasis on teacher competence than on personal charisma
without, of course, objecting to a useful combination of the two.

More simply, entering behavior describes the present status of the student’s knowledge and skillin
reference to a future status the teacher wants him to attain. Entering behavior, therefore, is wherethe
instruction must always begin. Terminal behavior is where the instruction concludes. This way the
teaching can be described as getting the student from where he is to where we would like him to be- as
moving from entering to terminal behavior. Together descriptions of entering and terminal behavior
define the limits of instructional responsibility for each degree of teaching.

INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES

Instructional procedures describe the teaching process; most decisions a teacher makes are on these
procedures. Proper management of this component results in those changes in student behavior which
we call learning or achievement. Procedures must vary with the instructional objectives. Generally
instructional procedures describe procedures for teaching skills, language, concepts, principles, and
problem solving.
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

Performance assessment is the process of measuring the student’s auxiliary and terminal performances
during and at the end of instruction. Auxiliary performances are behaviors which must be acquired at
the lower levels of a learning structure before the terminal performances are acquired at the higher levels.
In the teaching of a principle,

for example, the teacher must determine whether the student has acquired the component concepts, as
auxiliary performances, before proceeding with the instruction which arranges these concepts in the
proper relationship for the learning of the principle.

Terminal performances, you already know, refer to the end products of instruction usually verbal
performances’ the emphasis on the measurement of both auxiliary and terminal performances means
that you should not think of performance assessment as occurring only at the end of a unit or a course.
The assessment can occur whenever the teacher or student needs information about the adequacy of the
student’s present learning for subsequent instruction.
Performance assessment consists of tests and observations used to determine how well the student has
achieved the instructional objectives. If performance assessment indicates that the student has fallen
short of mastery or some lesser standard of achievement, one or all the precedingcomponents of the basic
teaching model may require adjustment. The feedback loops show how the information provided by
performance assessment feeds back to each component.

The personality of the teacher is not the central element in the present conception of the teaching process.
The model indicates that teaching includes a broad range of decision and practice- much of which
requires little or no personal contact between teacher and student. The widespread use of technological
devices, team teaching, and non-graded instruction will definitely modify the traditional nature of the
personal contact between teacher and student.

Depending on the requirement of the instructional situations, particularly on the entering behavior of
the student, the classroom of the future will provide for more or less personal contact than the
conventional classroom does now. Accordingly, the model implies a greater emphasis on teacher
competence than on personal charisma without, of course, objecting to a useful combination of the two.

Q. 3 Explain the specific principles applied to each instructional style. Compare the cost
effectiveness of different styles of instruction.

An instructional designer applies this systematic methodology (rooted in instructional theories and
models) to design and develop content, experiences, and other solutions to support the acquisition of
new knowledge or skills. Instructional designers ought to begin by conducting a needs assessment to
determine the needs of the learning event, including: what the learner should know and be able to do as
a result of the training or learning solution, and what the learners already knowand can do.
Instructional designers are then responsible for creating the course design and developing all
instructional materials, including presentation materials, participant guides, handouts, and job aids or
other materials. Instructional designers are commonly also responsible for evaluating training, including
assessing what was learned and whether the learning solution led to measurable behaviorchange.

According to the ATD Talent Development Capability Model, instructional designers follow a system
of assessing needs, designing a process, developing materials, and evaluating effectiveness. Instructional
design requires the analysis and selection of the most appropriate strategies, methodologies, and
technologies to maximize the learning experience and knowledge transfer.An instructional design
resume and portfolio should include the knowledge and skills needed to successfully design a learning
initiative.
Principles of Instructional Design
Instructional design (ID) is based on three psychological principles of learning: behavioral, cognitive
and constructivist.
Behavioral psychology advocates repetition and reinforcement in learning material to create a
"behavior" in the learner. Cognitive psychology focuses on engaging the learner's senses to create a
learning process, while constructivism emphasizes the learner's own experience and personal
interpretation. To create a solid foundation for delivering these principles, learning materials should:
a Present content.
b Guide the learner in practice.
c Provide for independent practice by the learner.
d Assess how well the learner is doing.
And be supported by interactivity between learner and program, and the motivation of the learner.
Skilled instructional designers know that the learning content shouldn't become secondary to the
technology that delivers it. They also activate prior learning, demonstrate what's new, give learners
opportunities to apply their new learning, and integrate current with previous learning. In my
previous post, I introduced Frank Troha's eight-question approach to ID. Now let's look at some more
models.

1-Robert Gagn's nine instructional events, or steps, outline the processes needed for effective learning:

1. Gain attention.
2. Inform learner of objectives.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning.
4. Present stimulus material.
5. Provide learner guidance.
6. Elicit performance
7. Provide feedback.
8. Assess performance.
9. Enhance retention and transfer.
10. They highlight that the transfer of learning is key to delivering a return on investment (ROI)and
to producing an improvement in performance. Gagn provides a way of mapping the logical flow
of information - but using these steps rigidly will bore learners.
2-In the "Learn and apply" model, anyone can join in at the "apply and try" stage.
They continue only if they get it wrong. This helps maximize the ROI from learning, because not
everyone has to study the entire learning program.

3-Roger Schank's goal-based learning is an immersive approach based on the principle of "learning by
failure."

It focuses on critical mistakes and works with a range of content types, including case-based simulations.
The designer produces a scenario and allows the learner to make a mistake. The learner can't continue
with the program before receiving tutoring or mentoring. When he or she goes back, he hopefully doesn't
make the same mistake again, and so progresses through the scenario. This approach works well for
independent learners and can provide a quick way to gain learning, since the learner is only checked
when he makes a mistake.

4-The work of Robert Mager and Peter Pipe, along with the Dick & Carey mode. It is based on the view
that the purpose of learning depends on the context but that what makes people perform can be summed
up by five verbs: "I know" what to do- "I have" what I need to do it "I may" or "I have authority to do
it." "I will" “or "I want to do it." "I can" do it. By breaking down instruction into smaller components,
you target the specific skills and knowledge to be taught and aim to supply the optimum conditions and
resources for learning these outcomes. The model builds on the idea that there's a predictable and reliable
link between a stimulus "learning materials" and the response that it produces in a learner. It presumes
that learning is based on mastering a set of predictable and reliable behaviors.

5-There's also a hybrid ID model - based on the work of Gagn and Malcolm Knowles - and known by
the mnemonic Peter Hassle:
• Prepare - remembering that getting people prepared and motivated to learn can happen outside
of a formal learning program.
• Engage - remembering that the one thing that bores learners is learning content that's too "low
level."
• Tutor
• Explore - remembering that learners need to try out things for themselves.
• Review and, for online learning:
• Help
• Assess
• Study
• Share
• Learn
• Enter
Frank Troha comments, "Gagn's nine steps don't address the bigger picture of ID, such as identifying
the objectives, outlining the content based on the objectives, selecting the most appropriate media,
developing the evaluation strategy, and so on. But you should keep Gagn's events in mind when
focusing on what the course will entail from introduction to conclusion and follow-up after the course.
"The steps work well for classroom- delivered learning. Yet, they can also work for online learning -
even if everyone who applies thesenine instructional events won't necessarily turn out effective learning.
ID is both a science and an art - and the artistic aspect of it involves knowing the difference between
weaving a tapestry and simply tying knots in a rope. "I tend to incorporate Gagn's nine events because
Gagnis all about adding value. Malcolm Knowles has done a wonderful job of explaining the principles
of adult learning.

The approaches taken by other learning experts have their place. What the good instructional designer
uses is drawn from a knowledge of all that's in the well -but nearly everything I design reflects Gagnto
a greater extent than the others."

The head of digital learning at Telefnica UK, Asi DeGani, says, "Instructional designers should treat the
different models they rely on in the same way that a tradesman treats his tools. Not only should they
select the right tool for the job but, at times, more than one tool is needed to complete a job successfully
and some tools become irrelevant as others supersede them. "Technology continually offers us new
ways of engaging and interacting with the learners. We must base what we're building on sound
psychological and learning principles the constructivist approach beinga great example of these.

Having selected the models, they must be used in a way that's relevant to the learners and their context.
Obviously, this needs to be done with 'real' models. Ones which haven't been validated can cause real
damage to the design process." Former head of instructional design at Tata Interactive Systems, and
now its head of L&D, Dr Shwetaleena Bidyadhar picks up on the technological aspects of ID.

Once upon a time, when work and the world of learning were stable, classical ID theories were applied
and certification programs/curricula designed. This is still relevant for professional courses or academic
degrees but, in the corporate world, we cater for learners who're interested in 'just-in- time' information
that fulfills their immediate need. Add to this the millennial generation with their 90-second attention
spans.
So, content accessibility becomes ever more critical in this rapidly changing world – necessitating
greater emphasis on user experience from a design point of view. "Well-designed learning nowhas
to deal with smaller screens and shorter attention spans. It must present key concepts in easily digestible,
'device-agnostic' knowledge chunks. In this landscape, designers of online learning must exploit the
possibilities of technology to transform their learning solutions into engaging formats."

{COST EFFECTIVENESS IN EDUCATION}

Methodology, Examples, Use of Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
Cost-effectiveness analysis is an evaluation tool that is designed to assist in choosing among alternative
courses of action or policies when resources are limited. Most educational decisions face constraints in
the availability of budgetary and other resources. Therefore, limiting evaluation to the educational
consequences of alternatives, alone, without considering their costs provides an inadequate basis for
decision-making. Some alternatives may be more costly than others for the same results, meaning that
society must sacrifice more resources to obtain a given end. It is desirable to choose those alternatives
that are least costly for reaching a particular objective or that have the largest impact per unit of cost.
This is intuitively obvious because the most cost-effective solution will free up resources for other uses
or allow a greater impact for any given investment in comparison to a less cost-effective solution

Applying this to educational interventions, there are a host of options from which schools, school
districts, and higher education institutions can choose to improve educational outcomes. Many have
shown at least some evidence of effectiveness, although the standards of evidence vary considerably.
Thus, at the very least, consistent standards of evidence are needed to compare the competing
alternatives. But estimates of the costs of the alternatives are needed as well. Even if one alternative is
10 percent more effective than another, it will not be preferred if it is twice as costly. Thus, both costs
and effectiveness must be known in order to make good public policy choices.
The approach to measuring costs is similar for both techniques, but in contrast to cost-effectiveness
analysis where the results are measured in educational terms, cost-benefit analysis uses monetary
measures of outcomes.

This approach has the advantage of being able to compare the costs and benefits in monetary values for
each alternative to see if the benefits exceed the costs. It also enables a comparison among projects with
very different goals as long as both costs and benefits can be placed in monetary terms. In education,
cost-benefit analysis has been used in cases where the educational outcomes are market-oriented such
as in vocational education or in consideration of the higher income produced by more or better
education.

It has also been used in cases where a variety of benefits can be converted into monetary values such as
in the noted study of the Perry Preschool Program discussed in W. Steven Barnett's 1996 book. In most
educational interventions, however, the results are measured in educational terms rather than in terms
of their monetary values.

In almost all respects, measuring the effectiveness of alternatives for purposes of cost- effectiveness
analysis is no different than for a traditional evaluation. Experimental or quasi- experimental designs
can be used to ascertain effectiveness, and such studies should be of a quality adequate to justify
reasonably valid conclusions. If a study of effectiveness does not meet reasonable standards in terms of
its validity, there is nothing in the cost-effectiveness method that will rescue the result. What cost-
effectiveness analysis adds is the ability to consider the results of different alternatives relative to the
costs of achieving those results. It does not change the criteria for what is a good effectiveness study.

EXAMPLES:
The application of cost-effectiveness analysis can best be understood by providing examples of its use.
In a 1984 study, Bill Quinn, Adrian Van Mondfrans, and Blaine R. Worthen examined the cost-
effectiveness of two different mathematics curricula. One approach was based upon a traditional,
textbook application. The other was a locally developed curriculum that emphasized highly
individualized instruction with special methods for teaching mathematics concepts. With respect to
effectiveness, the latter curriculum was found to be more effective in terms of mathematics achievement,
on average, than the traditional program. It was also learned that the lower the socioeconomic status
(SES) of the student, the greater were the achievement advantages of the innovative program.
But the innovative program had a cost that was about 50 percent higher per student than the traditional
one. The question is whether the additional achievement justified the higher cost. The evaluators found
that the cost per raw score point on the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills was about 15 percent less for the
innovative program than for the traditional one, showing that the higher achievement more than
compensated for the higher cost. For low SES students the cost per point of the innovative program
was less than 40 percent that of the traditional program. For high SES students, however, the traditional
program was slightly more cost-effective. This study demonstrates the value of cost-effectiveness and
its usefulness as an evaluation technique among different types of students. In a low SES school or
district the innovative program was far superior in terms of its cost-effectiveness. In a high SES school
or district, the traditional program mightbe preferred on cost-effectiveness grounds.
One of the most comprehensive cost-effectiveness studies compared four potential interventionsin the
elementary grades: reductions in class size in a range between twenty and thirty-five studentsper class,
peer tutoring, computer-assisted instruction, and longer school days. The measures of educational
effectiveness included both mathematics and reading achievement. Tutoring costs per student were
highest, followed by decreases in class size from thirty-five to twenty, computer- assisted instruction,
and longer school days. The high costs for peer tutoring are a result of the cost of adult coordinators who
must organize and supervise the tutoring activities of effective programs. Effectiveness measures were
taken from evaluation studies that had focused on the achievement gains associated with each type of
intervention. Although peer tutoring had a high cost, it also had very high effectiveness and the highest
cost-effectiveness. In general, computer-assisted instruction was second in cost-effectiveness with class
size and longer school days showing the lowest cost-effectiveness. Results differed somewhat between
reading and mathematics, but the cost-effectiveness of reduced class size and of longer school days was
consistently lower than those of peer tutoring and computer-assisted instruction.
A study in northeastern Brazil undertook a cost-effectiveness analysis of different approaches to
school improvement. A range of potential school improvements was compared to ascertain effects on
student achievement. These included teacher-training programs, higher salaries to attract better teaching
talent, better facilities, and greater provision of student textbooks and other materials. The authors used
statistical models to determine the apparent impact of changes in these inputs on Portuguese language
achievement for second graders. Costs were estimated using the ingredients method outlined above.
Effectiveness relative to cost was highest for the provision of more instructional materials and lowest
for raising teacher salaries. Given the very tight economic resources available for improving schooling
in Brazil, this type of study provides valuable guidance for those people making resource decisions.
{USE OF COST-EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS}
Studies of the effectiveness of educational interventions are very common. Studies of their cost-
effectiveness are rare. What might account for this discrepancy? There may be many reasons. Evaluators
of social programs rarely have background in cost analysis. Few programs or textbooksin educational
evaluation provide training in cost-effectiveness analysis.
That decision makers are often unfamiliar with cost-effectiveness analysis limits their ability to evaluate
and use such studies. Yet, in the early 1980s, the field of health was also limited in terms of both the
production and use of cost-effectiveness studies. By the early twenty-first century, the concept had been
widely applied to health decisions in response to severe resource stringencies in health care. Because
the field of education is pressed with similar resource constraints, there might be increased development
and use of cost-effectiveness techniques in educational decision- making.
Q.4 Highlight the importance of curriculum. What are its basic elements and which factors
provide guidance for effective curriculum planning?

1- IMPORTANCE OF CURRICULUM (A STEADY, ORGANIZED PATH)

Your curriculum is essentially a series of activities and learning outcome goals related to each subject.
It serves as a great map, outlining where you need to go and how to get there. Curriculum docs are not
created overnight: Aa great deal of thought, time, effort, and expertise go into their development, so
don’t try to reinvent the wheel.

If you’re feeling passionate about putting your own special flair on your teaching, don’t fret! Whilethe
curriculum charts the path and provides ideas along the way to support your teaching, there is always
room for interpretation. Let the curriculum serve as a guide path and sprinkle in your own style as you
go. And hey, who doesn’t love a good blackline master or curriculum activity? They’ve been created to
help you and your students, so go ahead and use them!

An example of the steady path of structure that a curriculum provides lies in its framework. Larger
learning goals are broken down into more specific ones and desired outcomes. In this way, you can see
the big picture and better understand how smaller lessons help you teach overarching concepts.

A fifth-grade student in a physical education class may be required to learn ‘movement.’ That’s fairly
vague. But if you dig a little deeper, you’ll see that your students are to learn how to detect errors in
movement, carry out movement sequences, and perform transport skills, along with a few other pieces
of the puzzle. Once you see the structure (or organization) of the learning outcome, everything becomes
clearer.

2- PROGRESS!
A well-crafted curriculum serves as a reference to ensure that you’re on the right track. Its components
are designed to develop concepts, from a basic level to increasingly complex topicsor skills.

It’s important to remember that a curriculum is not an isolated signpost for a single school year. Rather,
it’s a part of a much bigger puzzle that’s connected to the curriculum for every other grade. Students
make progress from year to year. By following the curriculum with your students, you’re preparing them
to continue on their journey the next year, and each year after, in a more logical and organized fashion.

While learning how to write important sight words and read basic texts are all the rage in one grade, in
the next grade, students may be writing longer pieces in the form of short stories and reading more
independently with lengthier texts. While adding and subtracting are the crucial skills to learn in the
first few years of school, they give way to multiplication, division, and eventually, algebra and calculus
as students build upon their foundations.

3- COMMON GOALS.
The goals for each subject area aren’t just for students — they’re also for teachers. We have goals set
out in the curriculum for what we need to teach in a given year, and our students have goals for what
they need to learn. Clearly, there’s a lot of overlap there; shared goals make it easier for instructors to
align their teaching methods with students’ academic needs to ensure that they succeed.
Beyond creating shared goals between teachers and students, curriculum also standardizes the learning
goals for an entire school and provides a clear path for students to progress from one grade to another.
Students must meet certain core competencies before moving on to advanced subjects, such as mastering
algebra before ever attempting calculus. Without such a standardized curriculum in place, instructors
would have to create their own learning objectives and somehow coordinate with one another to ensure
that their students are on track.
Perhaps more importantly, students who complete high school and achieve all the learning objectives
set out for them will be ready for post-secondary education or the workforce with a similar baseline of
skills, making it easier for employers to identify truly qualified candidates.

4- ALWAYS CHANGING.
Finally, embracing curriculum is worthwhile for yourself and your students because it’s not something
static. Docs are regularly revisited and updated to reflect the current needs of students and society at
large.

These updates and changes are the results of collaboration and research. Your students will benefit in
major ways from the latest information and from having emphasis placed on the skills that are really
needed in today’s world.

Certain skills or learning goals may fall out of favor over time (hello, cursive writing!) and are generally
replaced with more pertinent goals. As a teacher, you know that there simply isn’t enough time in a
school year to learn everything. Thus, it’s especially important to zero in on the most pressing needs
and goals for students.

These days, tech skills are high on the list of needs. Students have to be tech-savvy in order to do well
in the modern world, and teachers and schools have a responsibility to prepare them for just that
(although, my six-year-old is probably surpassing me in the tech-savvy realm at this point … Okay, so
maybe we need to teach these basic skills so that our kids and students can help us out with technology
in a few years!).

5- THE IMPORTANCE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN ENHANCING

TEACHING AND LEARNING.
Another positive and important shift in curriculum has been one of global citizenship. Students are
learning more about how to exist and contribute in a world that is increasingly intertwined and
interconnected. Global issues affect everyone in a different manner than in the past. Largely dueto
technology, we’re connected in a way that was not experienced by previous generations, and students
need to be able to navigate their role and journey in this global community.

All this goes to show that curriculum must and does change regularly, making it an even more essential
foundation on which to base our teaching methods. By effectively using curriculum, you’ll be helping
your students stay on top of the latest in-demand skills and to have a more coherent learning path.

BASIC ELEMENTS AND WHICH FACTORS PROVIDE GUIDANCE FOR EFFECTIVE

CURRICULUM PLANNING:

There are five key elements of curriculum development, according to Tyler “it is essential as a part of
comprehensive theory of organization to show just what are the elements will serve satisfactory as
organizing elements.” According to Herrick and Tyler, following are the components and elements of
curriculum development
1- Situational analysis
2- Formulation of objectives
3- Selection of content, scope and sequence
4- Activities, strategies and method of teaching
5- Evaluation Situational Analysis
SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS means the analysis of different conditions such as emotional, political,
cultural, religious and geographical condition of a country. This will help the curriculum planners in the
selection of objectives, selection of organization of learning materials and in suggesting appropriate
evaluation procedure.
FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES there are four main factors for formulating the objectives of
education. These are
1. The society
2. The knowledge
3. The learner
4. The learning processes
All of these factors are to be considered while selecting and formulating the educational objectives.
SELECTION OF CONTENT one of the important elements is the selection of content for a subject. At
the time of subject matter selection, the following factors are to be kept in mind:
1. Available sources and resource
2. Demand of the society
3. International needs
4. Level and age of the learner or student
5. Methods of content organization
6. Number of courses offered
7. Quantity and qualification of teaching staff
8. Scope of subject matter
9. System of examination
10. Type of society and culture
STRATEGIES AND METHOD OF TEACHING these are strategies and methods of teaching adopted
by the teachers during instruction and learning experiences. This will certainly not fair to ask a teacher
for achieving certain objectives without giving any guidelines. In most of the countries curriculum
development is a centralized process. Teachers are not directly involved in this phase. Most of the
teachers do not know the process of achieving desired goals. After determining the goals and objectives
the next problem is the selection of strategies and methods of teachers. What we should give to our
students. Should a curriculum be fixed or flexible, constant, common or differentiated?
EVALUATION
Evaluation is one of the dynamic process, which needs a continuous research and evaluation for its
betterment in order to cope with the variable demands of the society and bring about desirable changes.
Curriculum evaluation is not a student evaluation. It is a broader term being used to make judgment
about the worth and effectiveness of it. With the help of evaluation phase experts can modify the
curriculum by bringing about desirable changes.

Q.5 Discuss the effects of social and cultural influence on curriculum development inPakistan.
Strengthen your argument with examples.

Culture is an important factor in curriculum planning and drives the content of every curriculum. This
is because the essence of education is to transmit the cultural heritage of a society to theyounger
generation of the society. Curriculum is a veritable tool for attaining the educational goals of a nation.
Education is the hub of all ramifications of development in any country. No country can develop if
her educational system is weak. Curriculum planning should therefore endeavor to integrate the
components of culture, which is the essence of education in curriculum planning toensure that the
products of the educational system would be functional members of their society. curriculum,
curriculum planning, and culture are explained and discussed.
The components of culture are discussed and how they can be integrated in the curriculum is presented
with examples or with illustrations based on There exist different definitions of curriculum. The
definitions are according to the different conceptions of education and the functions of school and types
of the school products. The origin of the word curriculum was from the Latin word ‘currus’, which
means to run a race.
This implies that children commence to learn as soon as they enroll in a school (begins to run the race).
This race is comprehensive in nature because, in the course of the race, the child or the learner encounters
many experiences, which may be intellectual, social, moral, spiritual or physical. These experiences are
provided to produce the total man, a functional member of the society. The experiences may be formal
and planned or informal and accidental or unplanned. In the course of the race, some children may also
encounter some obstacles, which they must surmount either through their efforts or by the assistance of
someone else to enable them to attain the expectations of the society.
Integrating the cultural components into the curriculum
Integration involves inclusion of the required knowledge, skills, values and attitudes in thecurriculum.
According to Agwu (2009:172), ‘integration means that what the school offers must be related to what
the community requires.’ In the organization of content and learning experiences(method of teaching),
integration refers to the horizontal relationship of curriculum content and learning experiences. It is the
merging of related content and experiences from different subject areas into one area of knowledge. It
deals with using content from one subject area to solve problems in another content area.
curriculum to show the relationship between what is taught in school and what the learners experience
in life or in their society. One of the bases of the Nigerian philosophy of education (FGN, 2004:7) is
‘the full integration of the individual into the community’.
At the basic education level, which includes primary and junior secondary schools, the curricula are
integrated. The essence is to integrate the learners as functional members of the society. The broad fields
design is used whereby aspects of related knowledge, skills, and attitudes are brought together and
systematically arranged in terms of their gradient of difficulty.
For example, Social Studies, Basic Technology, Basic Science, Business Studies, Language, Cultural
and Creative
Arts and Civic Education are all integrated subjects. Integration cannot be attained if the school
curriculum is planned without recourse to the culture of the community. It therefore behooves the
curriculum planners to link the curriculum content and experiences to the culture of the people.
This can be achieved by doing a situational analysis before curriculum planning as given by Nicholls
and Nicholls (1978); and Taba’s (1962) curriculum planning models.
The inclusion of the mode of delivery of the curriculum at the planning stage takes cognizance of the
nature of integration. Such modes include role play, dramatization, collaboration, field trips, games and
simulation, and other interactive modes. Through these modes, it is easy to relate the curriculum content
to the real-life experiences of the learners to show them the worthwhileness of the school programs.
Through these modes of instruction, they will be well equipped to transfer what they learn in school to
solve their problems. This is the essence of education.