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Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding

1. Niels Bohr proposed his atomic model of the hydrogen atom in 1913 to overcome limitations of Rutherford's model. Bohr's model extensively used Planck's quantum theory and postulates. 2. According to Bohr's model, electrons revolve in fixed orbits around the nucleus. The orbits are associated with discrete energy levels. Electrons can only occupy certain permitted orbits corresponding to specific energy levels. 3. When an electron jumps from a higher to lower energy level, it emits or absorbs a quantum of energy that is equal to the difference in energy levels. This explains the quantization of electronic energy.

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100% found this document useful (3 votes)
4K views17 pages

Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding

1. Niels Bohr proposed his atomic model of the hydrogen atom in 1913 to overcome limitations of Rutherford's model. Bohr's model extensively used Planck's quantum theory and postulates. 2. According to Bohr's model, electrons revolve in fixed orbits around the nucleus. The orbits are associated with discrete energy levels. Electrons can only occupy certain permitted orbits corresponding to specific energy levels. 3. When an electron jumps from a higher to lower energy level, it emits or absorbs a quantum of energy that is equal to the difference in energy levels. This explains the quantization of electronic energy.

Uploaded by

Haresh Chaudhari
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We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BONDING

The story of Atom:

The Indian philosopher Maharishi Kanad and his Greek contemporary declare individually
shared their vision with world. They said that matter is not continuous rather it composed of
extremely small invisible particles.

In 1808 John Dalton and English school teacher was the first to give his famous atomic theory
.Thought the present atom is quite different from the visualized by Dalton. the theory was a big
milestone in this arena. We got the structure of the modern atom after the distinguishing works
of various scientists such as J.J.Thomson, Rutherford, Max Planck, Neil‟s Bohr, and Chadwick
etc. This explains the different attributes of matter.

Bohr`s Atomic Model :

In 1913 Neils Bohr proposed his revolutionary atomic model of the hydrogen atom to overcome
the drawbacks of Rutherford`s nuclear atomic model, He was awarded the Noble Prize in 1922
for his exemplary work. he extensively used Planck`s quantum theory which are known as
Bohr`s postulates or assumptions.

Postulates / Assumptions of Bohr`s Atomic Theory:

1. An Atom consist of dense positively charged central part called nucleus and it is at rest.

Nucleus
+

2. “The electrons revolving around the nucleus in fixed circular paths are called orbits or
shell.”Thus the electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and electron is
balanced by centrifugal force. Hence the electron does not fall into the nucleus and
therefore, the atom remains stable.
3. Out of the number of possible circular orbits around the nucleus, an electron can rotate
only in certain permitted orbits which are known as `stationary states’.
4. Each of the stationary state is associated with a definite amount of energy, hence these
are also called as `energy levels’.
5. Electrons in the energy level nearest to the nucleus have lower energy , while those at a
greater distance from the nucleus have higher energy.
6. As long as the electron stay in the same energy level ,the energy remains constant. The
energy of an electron can change only when it moves from one level to another level. It
changes abruptly and not continuously just as a ball rolls down a stair –case from one
step to another.
7. The angular momentum of electron (mvr) must be an integral multiple of h/2π or
simply whole number multiples of h/2π such as 2 h/2π ,3h/2π ,……… nh/2π.This

1
means that the angular momentum of an electron is quantized in units of h/2π. The
change of electronic energy by jumping and not by flowing from one energy levels to
another is known as quantization of electronic energy. The number of Bohr`s possible
orbits (or energy levels) can be determined by using the

mvr = nh/2π

Where m= mass of electron

v= tangential velocity of the electron in its orbit.


r= radius of orbit
h= Planck`s constant 6.62 × 10-34 joules second-1
n= principle quantum number which can take only integral values 1,2,3,4, etc.
Thus, „n‟ represents orbit or shell number.

Fundamental Particles of an Atom:

Sr. Characteristics Electron Proton Neutron


No.
1 Discovered by J. J. Thomson Rutherford Chadwick
With year In 1898 In 1911 In 1932
2 Symbol e p n
3 Nature Negatively Positively charge Neutral
charge
4 Location in atom Extra-nuclear Inside the Inside the
part nucleus nucleus
5 Relative charge -1 +1 0
6 Relative mass in amu 0.000555 1.007825 1.008665
Proton , Electron &Neutron are the fundamental particles of the atom .These are known as sub
atomic particles.

Atomic mass unit (amu) . 1 amu = 1.66 × 10-24 gm.


Atomic Number: Atomic number is the fundamental characteristic of an element .different
elements have different atomic numbers. in the periodic table different element are arranged
according to their atomic numbers.
Definition – atomic number of an element is defined as the number of proton in the nucleus
,which exactly balance the number of planetary electrons present in the extra- nuclear part of an
atom. It is denoted by `Z‟
Atomic number (Z) = No. of Protons (p) = No of electrons (e)
Atomic mass number (or Atomic weight) :

All the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus in protons and neutrons .Electrons are of
negligible mass .
Atomic mass number is therefore the sum of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an
atom .
It is denoted by `A‟.
Atomic mass number (A) = No. of Protons (p ) + No. of neutrons (n)

2
Difference between the Atomic number and Atomic mass number.
Sr. Atomic Number Atomic Mass Number
no.
1. The number of protons in the nucleus is The sum of the protons and neutrons present
equal to the number of electrons in extra in the nucleus of an atom of element is
nuclear part of the atom is called Atomic called as Atomic mass number of an element
number of an element.
2. It is denoted by` Z‟ It is denoted by `A‟ where
Z= p=e A=p+n
3. Different element have different atomic Atoms of the same or different elements may
number or may not have the same atomic mass
number.
4. Atomic number does not indicate the Atomic mass number indicates the mass of
mass of the nucleus of atom of element. nucleus of the atom of element.
5. Atomic number is the fundamental Atoms of the same element may have
characteristics of an element .It fixes different mass numbers .Hence it doesn‟t
the position of an element in the periodic fix the position of an element in the periodic
table. table.
 Orbit or Energy level :
The fixed circular path described by moving electrons around a nucleus associated with a
definite amount of energy is called orbit or energy level.
 Orbital or Sub energy level :
Three dimensional region in space around the nucleus , where there is maximum
probability of finding electrons is called orbital or sub – energy level.

Energy levels and Sub- energy levels :The energy levels are numbered as n = 1,2,3,4 & so on
starting with lowest energy level and represented by letters K,L,M, N and so on. the order of
energy in orbits is K<L<M<N.

The study of spectra showed a close grouping of several adjacent lines in the individual spectral
line, indicating the presence of one or more sub – energy levels in each energy level .
The sub – energy levels are named as Sharp , principal, Diffused an Fundamental & designated
by letters s,p ,d &f.
The order of energy in orbital‟s is s<p<d<f
Number of sub – energy levels in an energy level is given by n2 .where n is number of orbit.
Following table illustrate these well.
Shell or energy level Sub –shell or sub- Number of orbital’s Maximum number of
energy level electrons
K ( n = 1) 1s 1 2 2
L ( n = 2) 2s 1 2
2p 3 6 8
M (n = 3) 3s 1 2
3p 3 6 18
3d 5 10
N(n=4) 4s 1 2
4p 3 6 32
4d 5 10
4d 7 14

3
Difference between the energy level and sub energy levels :

Sr.no. Energy level Sub – energy level


1 The fixed circular path described by Three dimensional region in space around the
moving electrons around a nucleus nucleus, where there is maximum probability
associated with a definite amount of of finding electrons is called orbital or sub –
energy is called orbit or energy level. energy level.

2 These are denoted by letters k, L,M,N These are denoted by letters s, p,d,f etc.
etc.
3 The maximum number of electrons in The maximum number of electrons in the sub-
the energy level `n ‟ is given by 2n2 energy levels are s=2,p=6, d= 10,f=14.
4 Energy levels are circular in shape or Sub- energy levels consist of orbital‟s having
elliptical in shape around the nucleus different geometrical shapes i.e. s= spherical
,p= dumb-bell shaped etc.
Filling up of the Orbital’s with electrons:

 As we already know , the electrons occupy the space in various orbital‟s


 There are different types and different number of orbital‟s associated with any atom
depending atom and its size i.e. bigger atom have more number of orbital‟s as compare to
smaller ones.
 Electronic configuration is the manner and order of the arrangement of electrons in the
orbitals.
 The filling up of the orbital‟s is guided by Hund`s rule of maximum multiplicity, Pauli`s
exclusion principle and Aufbau`s principle.

Hund`s rule of Maximum Multiplicity:

Beside revolving around the nucleus, there is another type of movement in the electrons ,just like
the earth`s motion around its own axis ,electrons also move around their own axis this movement
is called spinning ,which is in any of two directions clockwise and anticlockwise.

Hund`s rule : when several orbital‟s of the same type are available the electrons first fill all the
orbitals with parallel spin before pairing in any one orbital.

6C =

1s2 2s2 2p2

Aufbau`s principle:

Aufbau is the Germen expression, which means building up. According to this rule the orbitals
are filled up in the order of their increasing energy.

Statement: The orbital with the lowest energy is filled up first while that with the highest energy
is filled up in the end.

4
The energy of various orbitals increasing order given below:-

1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p<5s<………….

1s

2s 2p
pp
3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f

Pauli`s Exclusion Principle:

No two electrons have same set of quantum number in single orbital.

Example: - 1st electron

1s2 = 2nd electron ,in this example both electrons have different spin
quantum number.

1st electron have + ½ and 2nd electron have – ½. i.e. different quantum number.

Electronic configuration of elements with atomic number 1 to 30.

H(1) =

1s1

He (2)=

1s2

Li (3) =

1s2 2s1

Be (4) =

1s2 2s2

5
B(5) =

1s2 2s2 2p1

C (6) =

1s2 2s2 2p2

N(7) =

1s2 2s2 2p3

O(8) =

1s2 2s2 2p4

F(9) =

1s2

Ne(10) =

Na(11) = 1s2 , 2s2 ,2p6, 3s1

Mg(12) = 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2

Al(13)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p1

Si(14)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p2

P(15)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p3

S(16)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p4

Cl(17)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p5

Ar(18) =1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p6

K(19)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p6,4s1

Ca(20)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p6,4s2

Sc(21)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p6,4s2 , 3d1

Ti(22)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p64s2 , 3d2

V(23)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p64s2 , 3d3

Cr(24)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p64s1 , 3d5

Mn(25)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p64s2 , 3d5

6
Fe(26)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p64s2 , 3d6

Co(27)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p64s2 , 3d7

Ni(28)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p64s2 , 3d8

Cu(29)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p64s1 , 3d10

Zn(30)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p64s2 , 3d10

Exceptions

There are two exceptions, Cr & Cu .The expected electronic configuration for

Cr(24)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p64s2 , 3d4 and

Cu(29)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p64s2 , 3d9

But they show the following configuration :-

Cr(24)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p64s1 , 3d5

Cu(29)= 1s2 ,2s2 , 2p6, 3s2,3p64s1 , 3d10

In case of chromium one 4s electron jumps to 3d orbital and make it half filled.

In case of copper one 4s electron jumps to 3d orbital and make it completely filled.

This is because a half filled or completely filled orbital has less energy and therefore it is more
stable.

CHEMICAL BONDING:

How do atoms combine to form molecules and why do atom form bond?

A molecule will only be formed if it is more stable and has a lower energy, than the individual
atoms.

Atomicity:

The number of atoms in the molecule is known as atomicity.

Atomicity

Monoatomic Diatomic Triatomic

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Monatomic = only one atom in the molecule.

Examples-inert gases like He, Ne, Ar, etc.

Atoms of noble gases or inert gases do not normally react with other atoms, the lack
of reactivity is because the atoms already have low energy, and it cannot be lowered further by
forming molecules. This low energy is due their having 8 electrons (2 in case of Helium)in
outermost orbit. This is called as Noble gas configuration.

Diatomic= two atoms in the molecule

e.g. H2 , Cl2 , N2 etc.

Triatomic = three atom in the molecule.

e.g. O3, H2O etc.

laws governing stability of an atom :

1) Law of octet (or octet rule) The tendency of an atoms to acquire eight electrons in the
outer shell or orbit is known as octet rule .
2) Duplet rule(law of duplet):-
The tendency of an atom to acquire two electrons in the outer shell or orbit is known as
duplet rule.

Valency and its types: As we know, electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are involved in
forming bonds. The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence
electrons and they determine valency of atom. Basically two types of valency: Electrovalency
and Covalency.

Electrovalency:The number of electrons that atom of an element gains or loses to complete its
last orbit is called electrovalency. It is again of two types:- +ve and –ve electrovalency.

Positive electrovalency: when an atom especially metallic atoms, loses its outermost electrons
so as to complete its last shell is known as +ve electrovalency. And element known as
Electropositive element. After losing electrons, atom becomes positively charged.

Example: Na(2,8,1) Na+(2,8) + e.

Na is known as electropositive element.

Negative electrovalency:- Valency obtained by gain of electrons by non-metallic elements so as


to complete their octet is known as –ve electrovalency .And elements known as electronegative
element. After receiving electrons, atom becomes negatively charged.

Examples: Cl(2,8,7) + e Cl –(2,8,8)

Cl is called as electronegative element.

8
Covalency:

The valency obtained by the mutual sharing of electrons between similar or dis similar atoms as
to complete their last orbits is called covalency.

Depending upon the number of electrons shared, covalency may be have three types,

 Single covalency: sharing of one pair of electrons between two atoms.e.g. Cl2
 Double covalency: sharing of two pairs of electrons among themselves .e.g. C2H4.
 Triple covalency: sharing of three pairs of electrons among themselves e.g.C2H2.

Valency

Electrovalency Covalency

+ve electrovalency -ve electrovalency single covalency double covalency triple covalency

Electrovalent Bond Formation :


Bond formed when electropositive element react with electronegative element, is called as
electrovalent bond. And compound is known as electrovalent compound.
Formation of molecules by Electrovalent Bond;
1. Formation of NaCl ;
Sodium chloride is formed by electrovalent bond between an atom of sodium and 1 atom
of chlorine . covalency
Sodium atom has electronic configuration (2,8,1) & chlorine atom has electronic
configuration (2,8,7).

-
Na × + Cl Na + + × Cl NaCl

(2,8,1) (2,8,7) (2,8) (2,8,8)

9
Na atom loses one valence electron and acquires unit +ve charge and attains stable
configuration (2,8 ) Electron lost by Na atom is gained by Cl atom and acquires -ve
charge. with stable configuration (2,8,8).These charged ions bound together by
electrovalent bond & give a neutral Neck ,electrovalent compound.

Formation of CaCl2 :
Calcium chloride is formed by electrovalent bond.
A molecule of CaCl2 consist of 1 atom of Ca & 2 atoms of Cl

CaCl2

During the formation of calcium chloride molecule, 2 electrons are transferred from calcium to 2
chlorine atoms.Thus Ca attains 2+ve charge ,while each chlorine atom attains a –ve charge.These
charged atoms combine together by electrostatic force of attraction and produce a neutral
molecule of CaCl2.

Formation of MgCl2:
Magnesium chloride is formed by electrovalent bond.

A molecule of MgCl2 consist of 1 atom of Mg & 2 atoms of Cl .


During the formation of Magnesium chloride molecule, 2 electrons are transferred from
Magnesium to 2 chlorine atoms. Thus Mg attains 2+ve charge, while each chlorine atom attains a
–ve charge. These charged atoms combine together by electrostatic force of attraction and
produce a neutral molecule of MgCl2.

Formation of AlCl3:
Aluminum chloride is formed by electrovalent bond between an atom of Aluminium and3 atoms
of chlorine .Aluminum atom has electronic configuration (2,8,3) & chlorine atom has electronic
configuration (2,8,7).

10
Al atom loses three valence electron and acquires 3 +ve charges and attains stable configuration
(2,8 ) Eletrons lost by Al atom is gained by 3 Cl atoms and acquires unit -ve charge on each
chlorine atom,with stable configuration (2,8,8).These charged ions bound together by
electrovalent bond & give a neutral AlCl3 ,electrovalent compound.
Covalent Bond Formation: When two electronegative atoms react together ,both atoms have
tendency to gain electrons ,but none of atom have tendency to lose electrons. In such cases atoms
share electrons so as to attain a stable configuration. Bond formed by sharing of electrons to
attains stable electronic configuration ,known as covalent bond.
There are three types of covalent bond:
1. Single covalent bond:- bond formed by sharing of one pair of electrons between two
atoms ,is called single covalent bond
2. Double covalent bond:- bond formed by sharing of two pair of electrons between two
atoms ,is called double covalent bond.
3. Triple covalent bond:- bond formed by sharing of three pair of electrons between two
atoms ,is called triple covalent bond.
Formation of Cl2 molecule :
In the formation of Cl2 molecule ,two chlorine atom combine together.
Each chlorine has electronic configuration (2,8,7) contains 7 valence electrons.so each chlorine
atom required one electron to complete its octet

Thus ,a molecule of chlorine is formed by sharing of one pair of electrons between two chlorine
atoms and attains stable configuration, a single covalent bond is formed between them.

Formation of CO2:
In the formation of carbon dioxide molecule, 1 carbon atom(2,4) and 2 oxygen atoms (2,6).

11
Carbon atom is short of 4 electrons and each oxygen atom is short of 2 electrons two complete
their octets.
Hence ,in CO2 , 2oxygen atoms share two pair of electrons each with a carbon atom.Thus two
C=O double bonds are formed in CO2.

Formation of N2:

Nitrogen molecule is diatomic .Each nitrogen atom A= 14,Z= 7.

Number of valence electrons = 5.each nitrogen atom is in short of 3electrons to complete the
octet.

So both N- atoms contribute 3e for sharing.

Thus, nitrogen molecule is formed by sharing three pairs of electrons between two nitrogen
atoms and formed triple covalent bond

Coordinate bond
A type of covalent bond in which both the shared electrons are contributed by one of the two
atoms. Also called dative bond.
OR A chemical bond in which shared pair of electron is contributed by only one atom ,is known
as co-ordinate bond. It is denoted by arrow. ( )

Formation of SO2:

These molecules have one sulfur atom & two oxygen atoms.
S- atom have Z=16
Number of valence electrons 6.
each sulfur atom is in short of 2 e to complete its octet
Each oxygen atom have,Z= 8
Number of valence electrons =6, O-atom is in short of 2e to complete its octet.Thus,two
electron pair s shared between one oxygen atom &sulfur atom. And formed double covalent
bond.

12
Other oxygen atom contributes electron pairs & complete its octet. In between other oxygen
atom & sulfur atom there is co-ordinate bond.

Co-ordinate bond

Metallic bond
This type of bond (exists in metals) results from a delocalized covalent
bonding by the overlap of valence orbitals between nearest neighbour atoms.

Thus, metallic crystal lattice consist of positive ions.( called Kernels)permeated by


a cloud of valency electrons ( called electron gas).
Ion core
+ + + + +
Sea of valence electrons
+ + + + +

+ + + + +

+ + + + +

The binding force is attraction between Kernels of atoms (atom minus


valency electrons) and the electron cloud. In other words, all valency electrons
belong to the crystal as a whole.
These electrons are free to migrate throughout the crystal lattice, thereby giving
rise to high electrical conductivity to metals. The high reflectance of metals arises
due to the ease with which the free electrons get accelerated by high frequency
radiations and then reradiate immediately virtually all the energy of the incident
radiation absorbed.

Characteristics: - 1) They usually posses high M.P & B.P.


2) They are mostly hard.
3) They are very good conductors of heat and electricity.
4) They reflect the light e.g. Na Fe, Cu, Ag etc...

Conditions for metallic bonding:-

Metallic bonding occurs, when the attraction between positive metal ions and
the electron gas “exceeds “the repulsion of electrons in that gas.
In energy terms bonding occurs when the reduction in electron potential
outbalances the increase in electron kinetic energy that accompanies it. The
energy that accompanies it.

13
Explanation of metallic properties:- 1 ) High conductivity of metals is due to the presence of
mobile valency electrons. In an electric field the valency electrons move readily and thus
conduct electricity throughout the metal from one end the other.

Movement of electrons towards anode

- - - - Stationary metallic kernel

Cathode + + + + Anode

- - - -

+ + + +

CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY BY METAL

Electricity simply directs the movement of electrons on raising the temperature of a metal. The
kinetic energy of positive kernels and consequently their vibration is increased. This evidently
interferes with the directed flow of electrons through the metal crystal. As result of this the
resistance of a metal increases and its conductivity decreases with the rise in temperature.

2) High thermal conductivity of metals is also due to presence of mobile valency electrons.
When one part of the metal is heated the mobile valency electrons at heated portion acquire large
amount of kinetic energy. Since energized electrons in metallic crystals are free to move so these
electrons move rapidly to the colder parts of the metal and in doing so some of their thermal
energy is transferred to these parts. As a result of this temperature of colder part is also raised
and in this way heat gets conducted throughout the metal.

Stationary positive _ _ _ _ Energetic electrons


throughout the kernel metal
Cold end + + + + Hot end

_ _ _ _

+ + +

3 )Bright Metallic luster -is also due to presence of highly mobile valence electrons in metallic
crystals . When a beam of light (composed of electromagnetic waves) falls on the surface of
metal, the electric field associated with incident light waves causes the electrons present on the
metals surface to oscillate to and fro. We also know that a moving charge always emits
electromagnetic energy in the form of light. Consequently these oscillating electrons
(negatively charged bodies) emit electromagnetic energy in the form of light. So, due to this
momentary exchange of light energy, the metal surface exhibit shining appearance.

4) Softness, Malleability and Ductility: -


The valency electrons in metallic bond are spread all over the crystal more or less uniformly. In
other word metallic bond is no directional. So the positive kernel in the crystal can be moved
14
past one another with relative ease, provided their average inter-kernel distances are not changed.
In other words the influence of an external stress and the position of one group of kernel can be
changed relative to the neighboring group of the kernels without changing their relative position
with respect to surrounding sea of electrons. The ease with which the positive kernels in metallic
crystal can be moved past the nearest neighbors explain why metals are malleable (i.e. can be
drawn into wires). This also explains why metals like sodium and potassium are soft and can
even be cut with knife .It may be added here that this delocalized electrons model can also
explain the well known observation that only a small force is needed to bend a straight copper or
aluminum wire, But for straightening out of a bent wire much more force is required. Not only
that even after straightening a small kink always remains around the spot. The formation of sharp
bend involves in separation of metallic kernel from their adjacent electrons as well as from their
nearest kernel neighbors, thereby the previous pattern of kernel and electrons is disturbed and
somewhat different new pattern is setup in the crystal with new planes and edges. Consequently
it is difficult to restore the original pattern, since the new edges and planes are formed .during
bending, do not ordinarily fit together exactly to restore the original pattern once again.
5) High Tensile strength or Tenacity: - Metals posses high tenacity i.e. they can resist
stretching force without breaking. Strong electrostatic force of attraction existing between
positively charged kernels and the sea of the electrons is responsible for high tenacity of metals;
on the other hand crystalline substances having covalent bonds do not posses higher density.
This is due to absence of any electrostatic force of attraction in their crystals since no oppositely
charged units are present in their lattice.

6) Elasticity in Metals: - Elasticity may be defined as property by virtue of which a substance


can recover its original form, soon after the removal of deforming force. The elasticity of the
metals is also due to the ease with which positive kernels in metallic lattice can be slide from one
site to another.

7) Due to symmetrical and no directional arrangement of the positive kernels in space the metals
are crystalline.

8) Metallic bonds being weak .so the metals have moderate to high M.P. i.e. the melting points
of the metals are lower than those of ionic compounds.
Limitations of the electron gas model: -

1 ) It fails to explain low M.P. (39oC) of the mercury metal.


2 ) It fails to explain extra ordinary high M.P. (3300oC) of Tungsten metal.
3 ) It fails to explain extremely hard nature of Osmium metal.
4 ) It fails to explain different electrical conductivities of some metals
e.g. conductivity of Ag > Cu >Pb.

15
Volumetric Analysis
Volumetric Analysis involves the estimation in solution by measurement of volumes. It is based
on the reactions between substances in aqueous solutions. It involves frequent measurements of
volumes of the reacting solutions therefore it is called as Volumetric analysis.

Terms Involved in Volumetric Analysis

1. Titration- The process of finding out the volume of one of the solution required to react
completely with the definite volume of the other solution is called as Titration.
2. Titrant- The solution of known strength is called as titrant.
3. Titrate- The Solution which contains a substance whose strength is to be estimated is calls
as titrate.
4. Equivalence Point- The point at which the completion of the reaction occurs is called as
Equivalence point.
5. End point - It is an observable physical change that occurs near the equivalence point ,
6. Indicator- The substance which indicates the end point of the reaction is called as an
Indicator, The indicator indicates the completion of the reaction by change in colour at the
end point
7. Strength- The amount of substance dissolved in one Litre of solution when expressed in
Grams is termed as the strength of the solution
8. Normality- It is the number of Gram equivalent of the substance dissolved in one Litre of
the solution. It is denoted by N.

Grams of solute per litre of the solution


N=
Gram equivalent of the solution
9. Molarity- It is the number of moles of solute present in per litre of the solution. It is denoted
by M.
Grams of solute per litre of the solution
M=
Molecular Mass of the solute
10. Equivalent weights – The equivalent weight of a substance is „the number of parts by
weight of it which react or produces 1part by weight of hydrogen , 8 parts by weight of
Oxygen or the equivalent weight of the of any other substance‟ It is said that the substance
react in a ratio of their equivalent weight.
The relation between Molecular weight and Equivalent weight is

Equivalent Weight= Molecular weight


Valency
Classification of Methods of Volumetric Analysis
The reactions used in volumetric analysis belong to various types; they can be divided into
the following methods
i. Neutralization Titrations (Acid Base Titrations)
ii. Oxidation- Reduction Titrations (Redox Titrations )
iii. Precipitation Titration
iv. Complexometric Titration

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 Neutralization Titrations or Acid base Titration-This involves the Titration of base with
an acid. The reaction essentially involves the combination of Hydroxyl ions with Hydrogen
ions to form water.
There are two types which we will study
I. Titration of Strong Acid and Strong base – A typical example is the titration of
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) against Hydrochloric acid
Reaction
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

II. Titration of Weak Acid and Weak Base – A typical example is the titration of
Ammonium Hydroxide(NH4OH) against Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
Reaction
NH4OH + CH3COOH CH3COO NH4 + + H2O
 Oxidation- reduction Titration – This involves the change of the oxidation number or the
Transfer of electrons among the reacting substances. The principle oxidizing agents are
Potassium Permanganate, Potassium Dichromate, Iodine and Potassium Iodide. The
reducing agents are ferrous or stannous compounds, Oxalic Acid and Sodium Thiosulphate.
 Precipitation Titration- Precipitation Titration results in the formation of a precipitate The
composition of the precipitate is not always known. A typical example of the titration is
Silver Nitrate against Sodium Chloride
Reaction
AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3

The downward arrow indicates precipitation.

 Complexometric Titration- In this type of titration, a complexing reagent forms a complex


ion with metal ions like Ca2+ and Mg2+ . Sodium salt of EDTA(ethylenediamine tetra acetic
acid ) it is commonly used as complexing reagent in Titrations.

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