Group Theory1

Books:

1. Theory of Finite Groups: Applications in Physics, L. Jansen and M.

Boon

2. Group Theory and Quantum Mechanics, M. Tinkham

3. Classical Groups For Physics,Wybourne;

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Set is a collection of objects (which are called elements of the set) such as
(i) collection of ‘n’ people,(ii)collection of 17 students, (iii) collection of ‘n’
points. In these examples, n can be finite or infinite.

Binary operation on a set is a rule which says how to compose two or more
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elements of the set.
Examples for binary operations are, (i) addition: a + b = c, where
a, b, c ∈ S, (ii) multiplication: a × b = c, where a, b, c ∈ S. In these ex-
amples S may be set of Reals -R or complex numbers-C. Formally, a binary
operation is a map from S × S → S, where S stands for set.

Group is a set with elements g1 , g2 , g3 , ......., gn ∈ G, equipped with a binary

operation “ · ” such that the following four(4) properties are satisfied:

1. Closure: ∀ gi , gj ∈ G, gi · gj ∈ G

2. Associativity : ∀gi , gj , gk ∈ G, gi (·gj · gk ) = (gi · gj ) · gk

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3. Existence of Identity: ∃g1 ∈ G st g1 · gk = gk · g1 = gk ∀gk ∈ G

4. Existence of Inverse: ∀gi ∈ G, ∃gi−1 ∈ G st gi · gi−1 = g1 = gi−1 · gi

Number of elements of a group can be finite or infinite, elements can be

continous also. In addition to above four (4) properties, group may also
satisfy
gi · gj = gj · gi , ∀gi , gj ∈ G
in which case the group is called abelian (or commutative) group. If this
condition is not satisfied, the group is called non-abelian.
Some examples of groups are

1. Set of integers under addition, (Z, +)

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Notes by E. Harikumar
E. Harikumar 2

2. Set of n × n matrices whose elements are real (or complex), under

matrix addition
3. Set of all real numbers under addition, (R, +)
4. Set of all non-zero real numbers under multiplication (R − 0, ×) .
5. Set of all complex numbers under addition, (C, +)
6. Set of all non-singular n × n matrices under matrix multiplication.

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7. Set of rotations in x-y plane, about z-axis, through all possible angles.
Assignment: Take last example given above and show that it satisfies all
group axioms listed above. Give four examples of groups and show that they
satisfy all the conditions listed above. Check whether they are abelian group
or not. Give at least one example for a non-abelian group.
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Field is a set of elements f0 , f1 , f2 , ....... ∈ F with two binary operations,
addition“ + ” and scalar multiplication “ · ” defined on it (i.e., we call (F, +, ·)
a triple) and satisfying the following three sets of conditions;
F-1 F is an abelian group under addition. Let f0 is the additive identity
F-2 Under scalar multiplication “ · ”,
i. ∀fi , fj ∈ F , fi · fj ∈ F (Closure)
ii. ∀fi , fj , fk ∈ F , fi · (fj · fk ) = (fi · fj ) · fk (Associativity)
iii. ∀fi , fi · f1 = fi = f1 · fi ( Existence of Identity)
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iv. fi · fi−1 = f1 = fi−1 · fi , ∀fi ∈ F except f0 which is the additive

identity. i.e., f0 does not have inverse under scalar multiplication
F-3 Distributive property
i. ∀fi , fj , fk ∈ F , fi · (fj + fk ) = fi · fj + fi · fk
ii. ∀fi , fj , fk ∈ F , (fi + fj ) · fk = fi · fk + fj · fk
In addition to above listed properties, if
∀fi , fj ∈ F, fi · fj = fj · fi , (1)
then the triple (F, +, ·) is called an abelian field2 .
Vector Space contains two sets, V and F satisfying the following conditions:
2
In many test books, set that satisfies F − 1, F − 2 and F − 3 (but excluding F −2(iv))
are called rings and F − 1, F − 2 and F − 3 and Eqn.(1) are called fields,i.e., what we
have defined as abelian field is called field.
E. Harikumar 3

1. Set of vectors v0 , v1 , v2 , .... ∈ V with a binary operation + (which we

call “vector addition”) defined is an abelian group, i.e., (V, +) is an
abelian group.
2. Set of scalars f0 , f1 , f2 , .... ∈ F is a field, i.e., (F, ∗, ·) is a field.
3. A. ∀fi ∈ F and ∀vi ∈ V , fi · vj ∈ V
B. ∀fi , fj ∈ F and ∀vk ∈ V , fi · (fj · vk ) = (fi · fj ) · vk
C. ∀vk ∈ V , f1 · vk = vk = vk · f1 where f1 is the identity under scalar

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multiplication defined in the field F
D. ∀fi fj ∈ F and ∀vj , vk ∈ V ,
i. fi · (vj + vk ) = fi · vj + fi · vk
ii. (fi ∗ fj ) · vk = fi · vk + fj · vk
These two properties are known as Bilinearity
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We say the triple, (V, +, F ) is a vector space.
A Linear Algebra consists of
1. set of vectors, vi ∈ V equipped with the operation vector addition +
2. set of fi ∈ F , which is a field (F, +, ·)

V is also equiped with

(a) vector multiplication  and
i. (V, +) is a vector space over the field F
ii. and vector multiplication  satisfies
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∀v1 , v2 ∈ V, v1 v2 ∈ V (2)

(v1 + v2 )v3 = v1 v3 + v2 v3 (3)
v1 (v2 + v3 ) = v1 v2 + v1 v3 (4)
Last two are the bi-linearity conditionds. In addition to the above, vector
multiplication may satisfy one more of the following conditions;
(v1 v2 )v3 = v1 (v2 v3 ) associativity (5)
(v1 v) = (vv1 ) = v1 existence of identity (6)
Note: This identity need not be same as the identity under addition or
multiplication.
v1 v2 = ±(v2 v1 ) (anti)symmetry under flip/exchange (7)
v1 (v2 v3 ) = (v1 v2 )v3 + v2 (v1 v3 ) derivative property (8)
E. Harikumar 4

Note that we do not insist existance of inverse for the vector multiplication.
Ex.1: Set of n × n matrices forms a real n2 dim. vetcor space under ma-
trix addition and scalar multiplication. Now include matrix multiplivcation
tomake this vector space an algebra - It is associative algebra with identity.
Identity element under + is (1) and identity element under  is In×n and
identity under scalar multiplication is 1 .
Ex.2: Set of real, n×n symmetric matrices (Aij ) = (Aij )T =⇒ Aij = Aji .
Since, in general,
AT = A, B T = B (AB)T = BA 6= AB (9)

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matrix multiplication is not closed in this case and thus matrix multiplication
do not make this set to an alrbgra. But if we define AB = {A, B} =
AB + BA and {A, αB + βC} = α{A, B} + β{A, C}, the (AB)T = AB
and this set becomes an algebra (here the is set is a vector space under matrix
addition and scalar multiplication).
AFEx. Set of n × n anti-symmetric matrices AT = −A, (AB)T = BA 6=
−AB, showing that it is NOT CLOSED under matrix multiplication. If we
define AB = [A, B] = AB − BA, and [A, αB + βC] = α[A, B] + β[A, C],
then this set forms an algebra. Note (AB)T = −(AB).
HW: Verify that this algebra do not have an identity and not associative.
If the above algebra satisfies an additional condition (known as derivation)
A(BC) = (AB)C + B(AC), (10)
then it is called a Lie algebra. i.e.,
[A, [B, C]] = [[A, B], C] + [B, [A, C]] (11)
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which can also be expressed as

[A, [B, C]] + [B, [C, A]] + [C, [A, B]] = 0. (12)
The above relation is called Jacobi identity.

Groups
Ex. 1: Let us consider the group of all possible permutations of points
1,2 and 3 (called P3 )
     
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
g0 = , g1 = , g2 =
1 2 3 1 3 2 3 2 1
     
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
g3 = , g4 = , g5 = (13)
2 1 3 2 3 1 3 1 2
E. Harikumar 5

Alternatively, one uses the the notation g0 = e, g1 = (23), g2 = (13), g3 =

(12), g4 = (231) and g5 = (312). Here (ac) means, a goes to c and c goes to
a, (acb) means, a goes to c, c goes to b and b goes to a.
The composition of these elements satisfy closure as can be seen

g0 · g3 = (1 2 3) · (2 1 3) = (2 1 3) = g3
g3 · g0 = (2 1 3) · (1 2 3) = (2 1 3) = g3
g0 · g1 = (1 2 3) · (1 3 2) = (1 3 2) = g1
g1 · g0 = ?

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g0 · g2 = ?(1 2 3) · (3 2 1) = (3 2 1) = g2
g0 · g5 = ?(1 2 3) · (3 1 2) = (3 1 2)
g0 · g4 = ?(1 2 3) · (2 3 1) = (2 3 1)
g3 · g1 = (2 1 3) · (1 3 2) = (3 1 2) = g4
AF g1 · g3 = (1 3 2) · (2 1 3) = (2 3 1) = g5 (14)

We note that this group is non-abelian as gi · gj 6= gj · gi . We find explicitly

g3 · g1 6= g1 · g3 (15)

H.W Show that g3 .g2 = g5 and g3 .g5 = g2

Let us find the inverse of these elements.

g0 · g0 = go
g1 · g1 = (1 3 2) · (1 3 2) = (1 2 3) = g0
g2 · g2 = (3 2 1) · (3 2 1) = (1 2 3) = g0
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g3 · g3 = (2 1 3) · (2 1 3) = (1 2 3) = g0
g5 · g4 = (3 1 2) · (2 3 1) = (1 2 3) = g0
g4 · g5 = (2 3 1) · (3 1 2) = (1 2 3) = g0 (16)

Let us now explictly check the associativity. We find

g0 · (g3 · g0 ) = g0 · (g0 · g3 ) = (g0 · g3 ) = g3

(g0 · g3 ) · g0 = (g3 · g0 ) · g0 = g3
i.e g0 · (g3 · g0 ) = (g0 · g3 ) · g0 (17)

Check for other elements (H.W)

Ex.2: Collection of rotation of a circle through multiples of angle θ = 2π n
radians form a group with ‘n’ elements (that is, a group of order n.)
Two rotation through 2π3
gives a rotation through 4π
3
, which is of the form
2π 3
n
where n = 2
.
E. Harikumar 6

Identity transformation is a rotation through 2π radians.

Inverse of a rotation through 2π
n
is (2π − 2π
n
) = (n−1)
n
2π.
Ex.3: Collection of rotation of a circle through an angle θ, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
forms a continious group.
Show that the elements
   
cosθ1 sinθ1 cosθ2 sinθ2
gθ1 = ; gθ2 = (18)
−sinθ1 cosθ1 −sinθ2 cosθ2

which are of the generic form

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cosθi sinθi
gθi = (19)
−sinθi cosθi

satiesfy group prostulates.

H.W Show that
AF √


!
1 0
0 1
 
;
1 0
0 −1
√ !

;
−√2
2
3
1
√ !
2
1
2
3

√ !
(20)

−√12 − 23 −√21 2
3
−
√2
1
− 23
; ; (21)
− 23 1
2
− 23 − 21 2
3
− 12

forms a finite group.

Ex4: Set of rigid transilations of the straight line forms a continuous
group

X → X 0 = X + a1 , − ∞ < a1 < ∞ (22)

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X → X 0 = X + a2 , − ∞ < a2 < ∞ (23)

X → X 0 = X + a3 , − ∞ < a3 < ∞ (24)
(25)

that is in general, the transformation where the parameter ai is a continuous

parameter, given genericaly as X →= X 0 = X + ai = X 0 , − ∞ < ai < ∞
forms a continuous group.
Note e−aP XeaP = X − a[P, X] = X + a, e−aP .e−bP = e−(a+b)P . Show that
the elements of the generic form e−aP forms a group, by expliitly showing
the closure, associativity, existance of identity and Inverse.
Ex.5:Set of Real number excluding 0, i.e, {R − 0} a group under multi-
plication. Similarly, we find for {C − 0} form a group under multipication.
Ex.6: Under addition R and C from group with 0 as identity.
Ex.7: We have seen that n × n matrices satisfying certain conditions
do form a group. The elements of these matrics may be real or complex
E. Harikumar 7

variables. A matrics acting on Rn or Cn will implement transformations

X → X 0 or z → z 0 .
Rotation matrices implementing transformation from (x, y) to (x0 , y 0 ) as
 0    
x cosθ sinθ x
0 = . (26)
y −sinθ cosθ y
Thsi can also ne writtten as

x0 = xcosθ + ysinθ, y 0 = −xsinθ + ycosθ (27)

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Note that the rotation in 2-dim. leaves the length ofthe vector invariant, i.e.,
x2 + y 2 = x02 + y 02 .
In problems in physics, we come across transformations that leaves phys-
ical results unaffected- to say more explicitely, we do come across trans-
formations thatleaves functional forms of Hamiltonian and/or Lagrangian
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invariant.
Thus by studying the class of transformations, we get useful insights
about the physical problems. Thus it is of importance to study these groups
of matrices which effect the invariant transformations - they can be groups
of finite dimensions or infinite dimensions matrices; they can be discreate or
continuous and also can be real or complex.
Ex.8: Set of n × n real matrices with non-zero determinant froms a group
under matrix multiplication. A subset of these with det = +1 forms a (sub)
group.
Ex.9: Set of n × n unitary matrices (uu† = u† u = I) form a group under
matrix multiplication.
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For a finte groiup, number of elements is known as the order of the

group.
We know that one can study and analyse the properties of a vector space
by studying its basis. Using basis makis this studies eassier. Similarly, one
can introduce bais for the other structures we have discussed, such as a
GROUP. Let us see this. Since ∀gi , gj ∈ G, gi gj = gk ∈ G, one can find the
smallest set of gi ’s from which one can generate the full G by applying the
group operations.
Ex. Consider the following elements of P3
   
1 2 3 1 2 3
g3 = , g1 = (28)
2 1 3 1 3 2

g3 g1 = g4 ; g1 g3 = g5 (29)
g3 g3 = g0 ; g3 (g1 g3 ) = g2 (30)
E. Harikumar 8

Thus from g1 and g3 , we can generate remaining elements of P3 . Thus g1

and g3 form the generators of the group P3 . HW:Is this unique? Is the dim
of generator unique?
Consider P3 again, (we are re-labeling g0 as e now), whose elements are
     
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
e= , g1 = , g2 = ,
1 2 3 1 3 2 3 2 1
     
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
g3 = , g4 = , g5 = (31)
2 1 3 2 3 1 3 1 2

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(Pl note alternatively, one uses the the notation g0 = e, g1 = (23), g2 = (13),
g3 = (12), g4 = (231) and g5 = (312). Here (ac) means, a goes to c and
c goes to a, (acb) means, a goes to c, c goes to b and b goes to a. ) ♣♣
I have made a mistake of identifying the elemnts of permutaion
group naively with roations of a triangle in the earlier draft. This
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is not correct. Pl see g4 and g5 . If I have to obtain g4 by rotating
the triangle(see fig below), I need to rotatte in the anti-clock wise
direction. Similarly, for g5 , i need to rotate the triangle in the clock-
wise directrion. But as we will see below, under isomorphism, g4
is mapped to D and g5 is mapped to F , not the other way♣♣
The multiplication table of this groups is given by
e (g1 )−1 (g2 )−1 (g3 )−1 (g4 )−1 (g5 )−1
e e g1 g2 g3 g5 g4
g1 g1 e g4 g5 g3 g2
g2 g2 g5 e g4 g1 g3
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g3 g3 g4 g5 e g2 g1
g4 g4 g3 g1 g2 e g5
g5 g5 g2 g3 g1 g4 e

From this multiplication table, we see that the group is non-abelian as g1 g2 =

g4 6= g2 · g1 .
Next consider the group of rotations of an equilateral triangle in 3-dimensions(
see the figure),
E. Harikumar 9

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We denote the rotation through an angle π about the axes, A, B and C
as A, B and C Respectively. Rotation about an axis, perpendicular to the
plane and passing through the center, through 1200 (2π/3) in the clockwise
direction is denoted a D and rotation about an axis, perpendicular to the
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plane and passing through the center, through 1200 (2π/3) anti-clockwise
direction is denoted a F. We denote identity transformation that leaves the
triangle unaffected by E. The multiplication table of this groups is given by
E A B C F D
E E A B C F D
A A E D F C B
B B F E D A C
C C D F E B A
D D C A B E F
F F B C A D E
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1. Thus rotations of a triangle in 3-dim form a group.

2. The multiplication table of that group (E, A, B, C, D, F ) is same as
that of P3 if we make the following identifications: g1 ≡ B, g2 ≡ C,
g3 ≡ A, g4 ≡ D, g5 ≡ F Note the last two identifications.

Two groups having same mutiplicate table are said to be isomorphic to each
other. Thus here we see that the group of permutatuins of three objects P3
and group of 3-dimensional rotaions of a triangle in a plane are isomorphic.
In the multiplication table, in each row and column, each element appears
once and only once, i.e, in each of the sequence

egi , g1 gi , g2 gi , g3 gi , g4 gi , g5 gi , ..... gi gi ( in general) (32)

each group element gi appears once and only once. This is called rearrange-
ment theorem.
E. Harikumar 10

Sub Group
(G, ·) is a group and H is a subset of G. Let e, h1 , h2 ......hi ∈ H and (H, ·)
is a group. Then H is called a subgroup of G, and denoted as H ⊂ G
Note that the subsets (e) and G are subgroups of G and known as trival
subgroups of G.
If S is a subset of the group G, the subgroup generated by S is the union
of all inverse and products of the elements of S and this subgroup is denoted
as < S >.

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Cyclic Group
Let A ∈ G then the sequence A, A2 , A3 , ....An = E is called the Period
of A. We can find the period of each and every elemnet of the group G. Here
‘n0 is called the order of the element A and its an integer.
AFExample: Consider the group of permutations of three objects, P3 . We
see from the multiplication table that g12 = e and thus the period of g1 is 2.
We find g2 and g3 are also of order 2. Since g42 = g5 , we get g43 = g4 (g4 )2 =
g4 g5 = e. So order of g4 is 3. Similarly, we find g5 g5 = g4 and g53 = g5 g4 = e
showing the order of g5 to be three.
The period of any element by itself is a group and known as cyclic group
of order ‘n’. In other words, a group G is called a cyclic group, if there exists
an element g in G, such that its period is the full group G, then G is called
a cyclic group.
In general, cyclic group need not be same as the group G and cyclic group
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will be subgroup of the original group we started with (here P3 ) and thus
we refer to cyclic subgroup. For example, (e, g1 ), (e, g2 ), (e, g3 ), (e, g4 , g5 ) are
cyclic subgroups of P3 .

Group of Prime Order

Let x ∈ G and then the period of x, i.e., (x, x2 , ....xn = e) = H will be
a cyclic subgroup of G. Let g and h be the order of G abd H, respectively,
Since g/h = l is an integer, if g is prime, h should be equal to g(we assume
that H 6= (e)) and hence H = G Then we see that G has to be a cyclic group.
We also see that all cyclic group are abelian! Therefore a group of prime
order must be cyclic abelian group.
E. Harikumar 11

Coset
If x ∈ G, x ∈
/ H and hi ∈ H, then the set of elements, (e x, h1 x, h2 x, .........) =
(hi x|hi ∈ H) = Hx is the Right Coset of G with respect to subgroup H.
Similarly, xH is the left coset.

1. The number of elements in a coset is same as that of H.

2. The cosets do NOT contain identity element and hence cannot be sub-
groups.

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3. Cosets do not have any elements common with H. If x ∈ G and x ∈
/ H,
Hx is Right coset.
Proof: Suppose hk X ∈ HX and let hk X = hl ∈ H. Then w efind
X = h−1k hl ∈ H. Then hk X is not a coset by definition( as X is an
element of H).
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4. If two right (left) cosets of H ⊂ G are either identical or disjoint.
Consider HX and HY , X, Y ∈ G and H ⊂ G. If ∃ a common element
hk X = hl Y , then we find (XY −1 ) = h−1
k hl ∈ H. Thus we see that
−1
H(XY ) ∈ H as H satisfies closure. But this then implyies HX =
HY . That is if there is one common element between HX and HY
then they are identical.

5. Order of G (i.e., total number of elements of G)=g

Order of H (i.e., number of elements of H)=h
Let the number of distinct cosets be l − 1
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Thus the sets H, HX1 , ......HXl−1 together have (h × l) elements. Since we

are finding cosets for all Xi ∈ G but Xi ∈
/ H, we find,

H ∪ HX1 ∪ HX2 ....... ∪ HXl−1 = G. (33)

Using previous results (see 3 and 4) we thus get h × l = g or g/h = l, where

l has to be an integer( as l − 1 is the number of distinct cosets of G), i.e.,

Order of the group G = Order of the sub group H×Number of distinct cosets
(34)
The l − 1 (or equivalently l) is called the index of subgroup H of G.
Example: Consider the subgroup S = (e, g3 ) ⊂ P3 . Then

Sg1 = (g1 , g4 ) Sg2 = (g2 , g5 ) (35)

Sg4 = (g4 , g1 ) Sg5 = (g5 , g2 ) (36)
E. Harikumar 12

Note that the order in which elements are listed in a set is not important
ands henceSg1 ≡ Sg4 and Sg2 ≡ Sg5 . Therefore distinct cosets are (g1 , g4 )
and (g2 , g5 ). So, S ∪ Sg1 ∪ Sg2 = G. The number of elements of S, Sg1 , Sg2
are 2 and that of G is 6. So, 6/2 = 3 = l. This is the index of S ⊂ G.

Equivalence Relation
If a relation (we use the notation ‘∼’ for relation) satisfies,

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ˆ a ∼ a reflexivity

ˆ ∀a ∼ b ⇒ b ∼ a symmetry

ˆ ∀a ∼ b and b ∼ c ⇒ a ∼ c transitivity,

then ∼ is called an equivalence relation. Let us illustarte this using a specific

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relation defined between elemnts of a set/group.

Conjugate Element
If A, B ∈ G, B is called the conjugate of A if ∃x ∈ G such that B = xAx−1
i.e., we are defining a relation between two elements of a set (here, the set is
a group).

Equivalence Class
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Let A ∈ G and ∼ denotes the conjugation defined above. Let us find

gi Agi−1 ∀gi ∈ G . That is, for a given element A, let us calculate gi Agi−1 for
all possible gi ∈ G and collect the resultants in to a set, i.e.,

eAe−1 , g1 Ag1−1 , ......gn Agn−1 ∈ G (37)

This set of elements is the equivalence class of A, denoted as [A] of A, under

conjugation.

1. If A 6= e, then [A] do not have e and hence it is not a subgroup of G.

In general [g] = {xgx−1 | for a given(fixed) g ∈ G and ∀x ∈ G}

2. For an abelian group, under conjugation, every element is a class, which

can be seen easily as gi Agi−1 = Agi gi−1 = Ae = A.
E. Harikumar 13

3. If [A] = [B], then A ∼ B. If A and B are not related by ∼ then [A]

and [B] will be disjoint.

Let us find the equivalnce class of g3 ∈ P3 . From the multiplication table,

we find,

e−1 g3 e = g3 , g1−1 g3 g1 = g2 , g2−1 g3 g2 = g1

Thus we find
[g3 ] = {g1 , g2 , g3 } (38)

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In physics, action of group elements results symmetry transformations (ex.
two dimensional rotations). In this case if B = xAx−1 , it means that the
transformation implemented on the physical system by applying x−1 , A and
x in sequence is same as the one effected by applying B.
Example: Consider conjugation of g3 with g5−1 , i.e.,
AF g5−1 g3 g5 = g4 g3 g5 = g4 g2 = g1 (39)

We can next see how this operation of conjugation acts on the triangle. To
see this, we apply g5−1 g3 g5 = g4 g3 g5 ≡ F −1 AF = DAF on the triangle.
F rotates the triangle through 2π/3 in the anti-clockwise direction, then A
rotates its about A axis through π and finally D rotates it through 2π/3
in the clockwise direction. The net change to the triangle is same as that
obtained by acting g1 ≡ B on the initial triangle (see Fig)
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Invariant Subgroup & Factor group

Let H ⊂ G and h is an element of H then, if

gi−1 hgi ∈ H∀gi ∈ G (40)

is satisfied for every elements of H. Then H is called invariant subgroup (or

normal divisor) of G.
E. Harikumar 14

Since gi−1 Hgi = H∀gi ∈ G, we find Hgi = gi H , i.e., all left and right
cosets are identical for invariant subgroup.
Complex (or class) K of a group is defined as a collection of group elements
(not necessarily, of all elements). We have seen that for any subgroup S,
there are (l − 1) distinct cosets. Thus each of S, Sx1 , Sx2 , .....Sxl−1 is a
complex/class K.
A complex (or class) can be multiplied by single element of the group or
by another complex(or class), i.e.,

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K = (K1 , K2 , ....Km ) (41)
Kx = (K1 · x, K2 · x, .......Kn · x) (42)
KR = (K1 · R1 , K1 · R2 , ...., K1 · Rn , K2 · R1 , k2 · R2 , ....., .Km · R1 , ...., Km · Rn )
= (Ki · Rj ), i = 1, 2..., m; j = 1, 2, ..., n (43)

Using these rules of composition of complexes, we find the set S 0 = (S, S ·

AF
x1 , ....., S · xl−1 ) forms a group if S is an invariant subgroup. To show this,
we note

S · S = S ∈ S0 (44)
S · (S · xi ) = (S · S) · xi = Sxi ∈ S 0 (45)
(S · xi = xi · S since S is invariant sub group )
(S · xi ) · (S · xj ) = xi · S · S · xj = xi · S · xj = S · xi · xj = S · (xi · xj )
= S · xk = coset corresponding to xk = xi · xj

Note that S is the identity element of this group. This group is called the
DR

Factor Group (or Quotient Group) associated with the invariant subgroup
S ⊂ G.

Class Multiplication
A class C is called complete if,

x−1 Cx = C ∀x ∈ G

We note, complete classes Ci and Cj

Ci Cj = x−1 Ci x−1 xCj x = x−1 (Ci Cj )x ∀x ∈ G, (46)

which shows that Ci Cj is also acomplete class. Then,

X
Ci Cj = αijk Ck (47)
E. Harikumar 15

where αijk = integer.

From the multiplication table of P3 , we find thr following complete classes

C1 = e, C2 = (g3 , g1 , g2 ), C3 = (g4 , g5 ) (48)

We find
C1 C2 = C2 , C 1 C3 = C3 (49)

C2 C2 = (g3 , g1 , g2 )(g3 , g1 , g2 )

T
= (g3 g3 , g1 g3 , g2 g3 , g3 g1 , g1 g1 , g2 g1 , g2 g3 , g1 g2 , g2 g2 )
= (3e, 3g4 , 3g5 ) = 3C1 , 3C3 (50)
Similarly, we find C2 C3 = = 2C2 . (51)

Homomorphism
AFLet (G, ∗) and (H, ·) are two groups. Then, homomorphism is a map,
F : G → H preserving the group postulates i.e.,

∀g1 , g2 ∈ G; F (g1 ), F (g2 ) ∈ H (52)

and
F (g1 ∗ g2 ) = F (g1 ) · F (g2 ) (53)
In general, it is a many-to-one map. If this map is 1-1 and on-to, then it is
an Isomorphism.
An isomorphism from G to itself is called Automorphism.
DR

F (eG ∗ gi ) = F (gi ) = F (eG ) · F (gi ) ⇒ F (eG ) = eH (54)

wheer eG , eH are the identity elements of G and H, respectively. Similarly

F (gi−1 ) = F (gi )−1 .
Example.1: {e} is a group. For any G, f : G → {e} exist.

f (gi ) = e, ∀gi ∈ G (55)

This is a many-to-one map- a trivial Homomorphism.

Example.2: (R2 , +) and (C, +) are groups. f : (R2 , +) → (C, +) can be
defined as
f (x, y) = x + iy ∈ C (56)
For every pair of x and y, this defines an element of C uniquely. f is thus
an isomorphism.
E. Harikumar 16

Example.3: (R, +) is a group and (R+ , ·) is also a group where R+ is the set
of positive reals. We see

for λ ∈ (R, +), r ∈ (R+ , ·) (57)

we define
f : (R, +) → (R+ , ·) (58)
as
f (λ) = eλ (59)

T
Thus we have r = eλ and
ri · rj = e(λi +λj )
∀r ∈ (R+ , ·), ∃r−1 such that r · r−1 = 1. Correspondingly, we have

r1 · r1−1 = eλ1 e−λ1 = e0 = 1 (60)

AF
Zero is the identity in (R, +). Thus f (λ) = eλ = r is 1-1, on-to map and
thus this is an isomorphism.

Commutator
Let a, b ∈ G. The commutator of a and b is defined as,

(a, b) = aba−1 b−1 and [a, b] ∈ G (61)

If (a, b) = e, then ab = ba (62)

DR

(a, b)−1 = [b, a] (63)

c(a, b)c−1 = (cac−1 , cbc−1 ) (64)
Commutator subgroup of G, Q(G, G) is the set of product of any number
commutator of pairs of element, i.e., collection of elements

(am , bm )(am−1 , bm−1 ).........(a1 b1 ) ∀m (65)

and all choices of a, b ∈ G

1. Q(G, G) is an invariant subgroup of G

2. The factor group G/Q(G, G) is abelian. If G is abelian,

Q(G, G) = {e} (66)

E. Harikumar 17

Centralisation of x in G is the set of elements of G which commutes with

x ∈ G i.e., if x ∈ G, centralisation of x
CG (x) = {∀gi ∈ G |(x, gi ) = e} (67)
Center of the group z(G) is the set of elements of G that commutes with
all elements of G. G ⊃ CG (x) and z(G) are abelian subgroup of G. If G is
abelian, then z(G) = G.
Given a group G, we can construct a series of group from it,

T
G1 = Q(G, G); G2 = Q(G1 , G1 ), ....Gj+1 = Q(Gj , Gj ) (68)
Here we see G ⊃ G1 ⊃ G2 ⊃ ....... ⊃ Gj+1 and Gj+1 is a normal subgroup of
Gj
Gj for all j. Further Gj+1 is abelian. If Gj+1 = {e} for some finite value of
j + 1, then G is called Solvable group.
Next we start with G, Q(G, G) = G1
AF G2
G3
=
=
Q(G, G1 )
Q(G, G2 )
......... .. ..............
Gj+1 = Q(G, Gj )
Here each Gj is a group. Further
1. For each j, Gj+1 is an invariant subgroup of Gj ,
Gj
2. Gj+1
is abelian
If for some finite j, Gj = {e} then G is Nilpotent. If G is nilpotent it implies
DR

that G is solvablebhut not the converse.

G is simple if G has no non triviail, invariant subgroup. G is semi-simple
if G has no non-trivial, abelian invariant subgroup.
G is simple ⇒ G is semi simple. If G is solvable then Q(G, G) == G is
a proper invariant subgroup of G. Hence G is not simple.
G is solvable ⇒ G is not simple
G is simple ⇒ G is not solvable

Direct Product
Let (G1 ) and (G2 ) are two groups with ai ∈ G1 and bi ∈ G2 . Then we
defuine their direct product as G1 × G2 = {(ai , bi )|ai ∈ G1 , bi ∈ G2 }. We
have
E. Harikumar 18

1. (a1 , b1 )(a2 , b2 ) = (a1 a2 , b1 b2 )

2. (ae , be ) is the identity element

3. (ai , bi )−1 = (a−1 −1 ∼

i , bi ) is the inverse G1 × G2 = G2 × G1 .

One can also find G1 ⊗ G1 ⊗ G1 ⊗ ....... ⊗ G1 in the same way.

T
AF
DR