Chapter 2

Optical Fibers: Structures,

Waveguiding & Fabrication
 Outline
• Review of Maxwell’s Equations and Plane waves
• Nature of Light
• Parallel Slab Waveguide
• Optical Fiber
• Optical Fiber Material and Fabrication
 Theories of Optics
• Light is an electromagentic phenomenon described by the same
theoretical principles that govern all forms of electromagnetic
radiation. Maxwell’s equations are in the hurt of electromagnetic
theory & is fully successful in providing treatment of light
propagation. Electromagnetic optics provides the most complete
treatment of light phenomena in the context of classical optics.
• Turning to phenomena involving the interaction of light & matter,
such as emission & absorption of light, quantum theory provides
the successful explanation for light-matter interaction. These
phenomena are described by quantum electrodynamics which is the
marriage of electromagnetic theory with quantum theory. For optical
phenomena, this theory also referred to as quantum optics. This
theory provides an explanation of virtually all optical phenomena.
• In the context of classical optics, electromagentic radiation propagates
in the form of two mutually coupled vector waves, an electric field-
wave & magnetic field wave. It is possible to describe many optical
phenomena such as diffraction, by scalar wave theory in which light is
described by a single scalar wavefunction. This approximate theory is
called scalar wave optics or simply wave optics. When light propagates
through & around objects whose dimensions are much greater than the
optical wavelength, the wave nature of light is not readily discerned, so
that its behavior can be adequately described by rays obeying a set of
geometrical rules. This theory is called ray optics. Ray optics is the
limit of wave optics when the wavelength is very short.
Quantum Optics

Electromagnetic Optics
Wave Optics

Ray Optics
 Engineering Model
• In engineering discipline, we should choose the appropriate &
easiest physical theory that can handle our problems.
Therefore, specially in this course we will use different optical
theories to describe & analyze our problems. In this chapter we
deal with optical transmission through fibers, and other optical
waveguiding structures. Depending on the structure, we may
use ray optics or electromagnetic optics, so we begin our
discussion with a brief introduction to electromagnetic optics,
ray optics & their fundamental connection, then having
equipped with basic theories, we analyze the propagation of
light in the optical fiber structures.
 Electromagnetic Optics
• Electromagnetic radiation propagates in the form of two mutually coupled
vector waves, an electric field wave & a magnetic field wave. Both are
vector functions of position & time.
• In a source-free, linear, homogeneous, isotropic & non-dispersive media,
such as free space, these electric & magnetic fields satisfy the following
partial differential equations, known as Maxwell’ equations:
r
r ∂E
∇×H =ε
∂t
r
r ∂H
∇ × E = −µ
∂t
r
∇⋅E = 0
r
∇⋅H = 0
• In Maxwell’s equations, E is the electric field expressed in [V/m], H is the
magnetic field expressed in [A/m].

ε [F/m] : Electric permittivi ty

µ [H/m] : Magnetic permeabili ty

∇ ⋅ : is divergence operation
∇× : is curl operation

• The solution of Maxwell’s equations in free space, through the wave

equation, can be easily obtained for monochromatic electromagnetic
wave. All electric & magnetic fields are harmonic functions of time of the
same frequency. Electric & magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other
& both perpendicular to the direction of propagation, k, known as
transverse wave (TEM). E, H & k form a set of orthogonal vectors.
 Electromagnetic Plane wave in Free space

Ex
Direction of Propagation k
x

z z

y
By

An electromagnetic wave is a travelling wave which has time

varying electric and magnetic fields which are perpendicular to each
other and the direction of propagation, z.
S.O.Kasap, optoelectronics and Photonics Principles and Practices, prentice hall, 2001
Linearly Polarized Electromagnetic Plane wave
r
E = ê x E0 x cos(ωt - kz )
r
H = ê y H 0 y cos(ωt − kz )
where :
ω = 2πf : Angular frequency [rad/m]
k : Wavenumber or wave propagation constant [1/m]
2π
λ= :Wavelength [m]
k
E0 x µ
η= = [Ω] : intrinsic (wave) impedance
H0y ε
1
v= [m/s] : velocity of wave propagation
µε
 E and H have constant phase
in this xy plane; a wavefront
z E
E
k
Propagation
H

Ex
Ex = Eo sin(ωt–kz)

A plane EM wave travelling alongz, has the same Ex (or By) at any point in a
given xy plane. All electric field vectors in a givenxy plane are therefore in phase.
The xy planes are of infinite extent in thex and y directions.

S.O.Kasap, optoelectronics and Photonics Principles and Practices, prentice hall, 2001
 Some Wave Parameters
• Wavelength is the distance over which the phase changes by 2π .
v
λ =
• In vacuum (free space): f
10−9
ε0 = [F/m] µ 0 = 4 ×10−7 [H/m]
36π
v = c ≅ 3 ×108 m/s η0 = 120π [Ω]
• Refractive index of a medium is defined as:
c velocity of light (EM wave) in vacuum µε
n= = = = µ rε r
v velocity of light (EM wave) in medium µ 0ε 0
µ r : Relative magnetic permeability
ε r : Relative electric permittivity
• For non-magnetic media (µr = 1) :

n = εr
 Intensity & power flow of TEM wave

r 1r r
• The Poynting vector S = E×H for TEM wave is parallel to the
2
wavevector k so that the power flows along in a direction normal to
the wavefront or parallel to k. The magnitude of the Poynting
vector is the intensity of TEM wave as follows:

2
E0
I= [W/m2 ]
2η
Connection between EM wave optics &
Ray optics
According to wave or physical optics viewpoint, the EM waves radiated by
a small optical source can be represented by a train of spherical wavefronts
with the source at the center. A wavefront is defined as the locus of all
points in the wave train which exhibit the same phase. Far from source
wavefronts tend to be in a plane form. Next page you will see different
possible phase fronts for EM waves.

When the wavelength of light is much smaller than the object, the
wavefronts appear as straight lines to this object. In this case the light wave
can be indicated by a light ray, which is drawn perpendicular to the phase
front and parallel to the Poynting vector, which indicates the flow of
energy. Thus, large scale optical effects such as reflection & refraction can
be analyzed by simple geometrical process called ray tracing. This view of
optics is referred to as ray optics or geometrical optics (GO).
 Wave fronts
(constant phase surfaces) Wave fronts
Wave fronts
k

λ λ P E
r
rays k
P λ
O

z
A perfect plane wave A perfect spherical wave A divergent beam
(a) (b) (c)

Examples of possible EM waves

S.O.Kasap, optoelectronics and Photonics Principles and Practices, prentice hall, 2001
 General form of linearly polarized plane waves
Any two orthogonal plane waves
Can be combined into a linearly
Polarized wave. Conversely, any
arbitrary linearly polarized wave
can be resolved into two
independent Orthogonal plane
waves that are in phase.
r
E = eˆ x E0 x cos(ωt − kz) + eˆ y E0 y cos(ωt − kz + δ )
r
E = E = E0 x + E0 y ;δ = 0 ORπ
2 2

−1
E0 y
θ = tan ( )
E0 x
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
 Elliptically Polarized plane waves

r
E = e x Ex + e y E y
= e x E0 x cos(ωt − kz) + e y cos(ωt − kz + δ )
2 2
 Ex   E y   E x  E y 
  +   − 2   cos δ = sin 2 δ
   
 E0 x   E0 y   E0 x  E0 y  [2-16]
2 E0 x E0 y cos δ
tan(2α ) =
E0 x − E0 y
2 2

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Circularly polarized waves
π
Circular polarization : E0 x = E0 y = E0 & δ = ±
2
+ Sign : Clockwise of Right Circularly
Polarized (RCP)
- Sign : Counterclockwise of Left
Circularly Polarized (LCP)

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Laws of Reflection & Refraction

Reflection law: angle of incidence=angle of reflection

Snell’s law of refraction:

n1 sin φ1 = n2 sin φ2
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
 Total internal reflection, Critical angle
Transmitted
(refracted) light
φ2
kt φ 2 = 90 o
n2 Evanescent wave
n 1 > n2
θ1
ki
φ1 kr φc
Critical angle
φ1 > φ c TIR
Incident Reflected
light light
n2 (c)
(a) sin φ c = (b)
n1

Light wave travelling in a more dense medium strikes a less dense medium. Depending on
the incidence angle with respect toφ c , which is determined by the ratio of the refractive
indices, the wave may be transmitted (refracted) or reflected. (a)φ1 < φ c (b) φ1 = φ c (c)
φ1 > φ c and total internal reflection (TIR).

n2
sin φ c =
n1
 Phase shift due to TIR
• The totally reflected wave experiences a phase shift however
which is given by:

δN n 2
cos 2
θ1 −1 δp n n2 cos2 θ1 −1
tan = − ; tan = −
2 n sinθ1 2 sinθ1
n1
n= 2.19a-b
n2

• Where (p,N) refer to the electric field components parallel

(Parallel Polarization, TM) or normal (Perpendicular
Polarization, TE) to the plane of incidence respectively.
 Optical waveguiding by TIR:
Dielectric Slab Waveguide

Propagation mechanism in an ideal step-index optical waveguide.

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Launching optical rays to slab waveguide
n2
sin φ min = ; minimum angle that supports TIR
n1

Maximum entrance angle, θ 0 max is found from

the Snell’s relation written at the fiber end face.

n sin θ 0 max = n1 sin θ c = n1 − n2

2 2

Numerical aperture:

NA = n sin θ 0 max = n1 − n 2 ≈ n1 2∆
2 2

n1 − n 2
∆=
n1
 Optical rays transmission through dielectric
slab waveguide
π
n1 > n 2 ; θ < θ c = − φc O
2

For TE-case, when electric waves are normal to the plane of incidence
θ must be satisfied with following relationship:

 πn1 d sin θ mπ   n1 cos θ − n 2
2 2 2 
tan  − = 
 λ 2   n1 sin θ 
 
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
 EM analysis of Slab waveguide
• For each particular angle, in which light ray can be faithfully transmitted
along slab waveguide, we can obtain one possible propagating wave
solution from a Maxwell’s equations or mode.
• The modes with electric field perpendicular to the plane of incidence (page)
are called TE (Transverse Electric) and numbered as: TE0 , TE1 , TE2 ,...
Electric field distribution of these modes for 2D slab waveguide can be
expressed as:
r
E m ( x , y , z , t ) = ê x f m ( y ) cos( ω t − β m z )
m = 0,1, 2,3 (mode number)

wave transmission along slab waveguides, fibers & other type of optical
waveguides can be fully described by time & z dependency of the mode:
j (ω t − β m z )
cos( ω t − β m z ) or e
TE modes in slab waveguide

r
Em ( x, y, z , t ) = ê x f m ( y ) cos(ωt − β m z )
m = 0,1,2,3 (mode number)
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
 Modes in slab waveguide
• The order of the mode is equal to the # of field zeros across the guide. The
order of the mode is also related to the angle in which the ray congruence
corresponding to this mode makes with the plane of the waveguide (or axis
of the fiber). The steeper the angle, the higher the order of the mode.
• For higher order modes the fields are distributed more toward the edges of
the guide and penetrate further into the cladding region.
• Radiation modes in fibers are not trapped in the core & guided by the fiber
but they are still solutions of the Maxwell’ eqs. with the same boundary
conditions. These infinite continuum of the modes results from the optical
power that is outside the fiber acceptance angle being refracted out of the
core.
• In addition to bound & refracted (radiation) modes, there are leaky modes
in optical fiber. They are partially confined to the core & attenuated by
continuously radiating this power out of the core as they traverse along the
fiber (results from Tunneling effect which is quantum mechanical
phenomenon.) A mode remains guided as long as n2 k < β < n1k
Example
Basic structure of all optical fiber
• Core—carries most of light
• Cladding—confines light to core
• In some fibers, substrate glass layer to add strength
• Inner jacket or primary buffer coating—mechanical
protection
• Outer jacket or secondary buffer coating—
mechanical protection

Source: Optical Cable Corporation

Three Types of Optical Fibers

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Optical fiber standard dimensions
• Core, cladding, jacketing standardized

• Jacket: 245 µm
Source: Corning
 Modal Theory of Step Index fiber
• General expression of EM-wave in the circular fiber can be written as:

r r r
E ( r , φ , z , t ) = ∑ Am E m ( r , φ , z , t ) = ∑ AmU m ( r , φ )e j ( ωt − β m z )
m m
r r r
H ( r , φ , z , t ) = ∑ Am H m ( r , φ , z , t ) = ∑ AmVm ( r , φ )e j ( ωt − β m z )
m m

r r
• Each of the characteristic solutions E m ( r , φ , z , t ) & H m ( r , φ , z , t ) is
called mth mode of the optical fiber.
• It is often sufficient to give the E-field of the mode.
r
U m (r , φ )e j ( ωt − β m z ) m = 1,2,3...
 r
• The modal field distribution, Um (r,φ) , and the mode
propagation constant, β m are obtained from solving the
Maxwell’s equations subject to the boundary conditions given
by the cross sectional dimensions and the dielectric constants
of the fiber.

• Most important characteristics of the EM transmission along the fiber are

determined by the mode propagation constant, β m (ω) , which depends on
the mode & in general varies with frequency or wavelength. This quantity
is always between the plane propagation constant (wave number) of the
core & the cladding media .

n2 k < β m (ω) < n1 k

• At each frequency or wavelength, there exists only a finite number
of guided or propagating modes that can carry light energy over a
long distance along the fiber. Each of these modes can propagate in
the fiber only if the frequency is above the cut-off frequency, ωc
, (or the source wavelength is shorter than the cut-off wavelength)
obtained from cut-off condition that is:

β m (ωc ) = n2 k
• To minimize the signal distortion, the fiber is often operated in a
single mode regime. In this regime only the lowest order mode
(fundamental mode) can propagate in the fiber and all higher order
modes are under cut-off condition (non-propagating).
• Multi-mode fibers are also extensively used for many applications.
In these fibers many modes carry the optical signal collectively &
simultaneously.
 Optical Fiber Modes
• The optical fiber has a circular waveguide instead of planar
• The solutions to Maxwell’s equations
– Fields in core are non-decaying
• J, Y Bessel functions of first and second kind
– Fields in cladding are decaying
• K modified Bessel functions of second kind
• Solutions vary with radius r and angle θ
• There are two mode number to specify the mode
– m is the radial mode number
– ν is the angular mode number
Bessel Functions
 Bessel Function Relationships
• Bessel function recursive relationships
K −n (x ) = K n (x )
J − n (x ) = (− 1) J n ( x )
n

2n 2n
J n −1 (x ) = J n (x ) − J n +1 (x ) K n −1 (x ) = − K n (x ) + K n +1 (x )
x x
2
2
J 0 (x ) = J1 (x ) − J 2 (x ) K 0 ( x ) = − K1 ( x ) + K 2 ( x )
x x

• Small argument approximations

  x
 − ln   − 0.5772 n = 0
 2
K n (x ) → 
 (n − 1)!  2 
n

n>0
 
 2  x
 Mode designation in circular cylindrical
waveguide (Optical Fiber)
TEνm modes : The electric field vector lies in transverse plane.
TMνm modes : The magnetic field vector lies in transverse plane.
Hybrid HEνm modes :Ez component is larger than Hz component.
Hybrid EHνm modes : Hz component is larger than Ez component.
y
r
φ
x

ν= # of variation cycles or zeros in φ direction.

m= # of variation cycles or zeros in r direction.
 Example of TE Modes
Given n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.45, a = 5 µm. λ = 1.3 µm. Find
TE modes. The characteristic equation is given by:
J1 (ua) K1 ( wa )
+ =0
uJ 0 (ua ) wK 0 ( wa )

J1 (ua) / uJ 0 (ua)

− K1 ( wa ) / wK 0 ( wa )

Characteristic equation plot

 Ray Optics Theory (Step-Index Fiber)

Skew rays

When ν=0 (no φ-variation), rays lie in a plane that intersects the fiber
axis, which is called “meridional” rays. Hybrid modes has φ-variation,
resulting in “skew” rays.

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Characteristic Equation
• Under the weakly guiding approximation (n1-n2)<<1
– Valid for standard telecommunications fibers
Jν' (u a ) Kν' (w a )
ua = wa
Jν (u a ) Kν (w a )

u 2 = k12 − β 2 = n12 ko2 − β 2 w2 = β 2 − k 22 = β 2 − n22 k o2

J l' ( x ) = ± J l ±1 ( x ) m l
J l (x ) K l (x )
K ( x ) = − K l ±1 ( x ) m l
l
'
x x

• Substitute to eliminate the derivatives

Jν −1 (u a ) K (w a ) J (u a ) K (w a )
ua = − w a ν −1 or ua ν +1 = w a ν +1
Jν (u a ) Kν (w a ) Jν (u a ) Kν (w a )

HE Modes EH Modes
 Lowest Order Modes
• Look at the ν=-1, 0, 1 modes
2π
x = ua y = wa V = x2 + y2 = a n12 − n22
λ
• Use Bessel function properties to get positive order and
highest order on top
J ( x ) K ( y ) J 0 (x ) K0 ( y)
 ν =-1 x − 2
= −y − 2 x = − y
J −1 ( x ) K −1 ( y ) J1 ( x ) K1 ( y )
J 2 (x ) K (y)
x =y 2
J1 (x ) K1 ( y )
 ν =0
J −1 ( x ) K (y)
x = − y −1
J 0 (x ) K0 (y) J1 ( x ) K (y)
x =y 1
J 0 (x ) K0 ( y)
J1 (x ) K (y)
x =y 1
J 0 (x ) K0 (y)
 Lowest Order Modes cont.
 ν =+1
J 0 (x ) K (y) J 2 (x ) K (y)
x = −y 0 =y 2
J1 (x ) K1 ( y ) x
J1 (x ) K1 ( y )

J 2 (x ) K (y)
x =y 2
J1 ( x ) K1 ( y )

• So the 6 equations collapse down to 2 equations

J 2 (x ) K (y) J1 ( x ) K1 ( y )
x =y 2 x =y
J1 (x ) K1 ( y ) J 0 (x ) K0 ( y)
lowest modes
 First Mode Cut-Off
• First mode
– What is the smallest allowable V?
– Let y
0 and the corresponding x
V
1 2
y   
J1 (V ) K1 ( y ) 2 y
V = lim y = lim =0
J 0 (V ) y →0 K 0 ( y ) y →0  y
− ln  − 0.5772
2

J1 (V ) = 0
– So V=0, no cut-off for lowest order mode
– Same as a symmetric slab waveguide
 Second Mode Cut-Off
• Second mode 2
1 2
y   
J (V ) K (y) 2 y
V 2 = lim y 2 = lim =2
J1 (V ) y →0 K1 ( y ) y →0  1   2 
   
2 y
2
J 2 (V ) = J1 (V )
V
2n
J n +1 ( x ) = J n ( x ) − J n −1 ( x )
x
2
J 2 (x ) = J1 ( x ) − J 0 (x )
x
2 2
J1 (V ) − J o (V ) = J1 (V )
V V
J o (V ) = 0

V = 2.405
Cut-off Condition
 Number of Modes
• The number of modes can be characterized by the normalized frequency
2π
V= a n12 − n22
λ
• Most standard optical fibers are characterized by their numerical aperture

NA = n12 − n22

• Normalized frequency is related to numerical aperture

2π
V= a NA
λ
• The optical fiber is single mode if V<2.405
• For large normalized frequency the number of modes is approximately
4
# Modes ≈ V 2
V >> 1
π 2
Fiber Modes
Electric Field Profiles
 Weakly Guided Modes
• The refractive index difference between the core and
cladding is very small, i.e., n1 − n2 << 1
• There is degeneracy between modes
– Groups of modes travel with the same velocity (β
equal)
• Modes are approximated with nearly linearly
polarized modes called LP modes
– LP01 from HE11 (Fundamental Mode)
– LP0m from HE1m
– LP1m sum of TE0m, TM0m, and HE2m
– LPνm sum of HEν+1,m and EHν-1,m
Lower-order LP modes
Plot of b-V
 Cut-off V-parameter for low-
order LPlm modes

m=1 m=2 m=3

l=0 0 3.832 7.016
l=1 2.405 5.520 8.654
Transverse Electric Field of LP11 mode
LP11 mode
 Fundamental Mode (HE11) Field Distribution

Mode field diameter (MFD)

Polarizations of fundamental mode

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Single mode Operation
• The cut-off wavelength or frequency for each mode is obtained from:

2π n 2 ω c n2
β lm (ω c ) = n 2 k = =
λc c

• Single mode operation is possible (Single mode fiber) when:

V ≤ 2 . 405
Only HE 11 can propagate faithfully along optical fiber
 Single-Mode Fibers
∆ = 0.1% to 1% ; a = 6 to 12 µm ;
V = 2.3 to 2.4 @ max frequency or min λ

• Example: A fiber with a radius of 4 micrometer and n1 = 1.500 & n2 = 1.498

has a normalized frequency of V=2.38 at a wavelength 1 micrometer. The
fiber is single-mode for all wavelengths greater and equal to 1 micrometer.

MFD (Mode Field Diameter): The electric field of the first fundamental
mode can be written as:
r2
E(r ) = E0 exp(− 2 );
W0
∞ 1/ 2
 2 E (r )r dr 
∫
2 3

MFD = 2W0 = 2  0∞ 
 
 ∫0
2
E ( r ) rdr 
 Birefringence in single-mode fibers
• Because of asymmetries the refractive indices for the two
degenerate modes (vertical & horizontal polarizations) are
different. This difference is referred to as birefringence, Bf :
B f = n y − nx

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Fiber Beat Length
• In general, a linearly polarized mode is a combination of both
of the degenerate modes. As the modal wave travels along the
fiber, the difference in the refractive indices would change the
phase difference between these two components & thereby the
state of the polarization of the mode. However after certain
length referred to as fiber beat length, the modal wave will
produce its original state of polarization. This length is simply
given by:
2π
Lp =
kB f
 Multi-Mode Operation
• Total number of modes, M, supported by a multi-mode fiber is
approximately (When V is large) given by:

4V 2 V2
M = ≈
π2 2

• Power distribution in the core & the cladding: Another quantity of

interest is the ratio of the mode power in the cladding, Pclad to the total
optical power in the fiber, P, which at the wavelengths (or frequencies) far
from the cut-off is given by:
Pclad 4
≈
P 3 M
Power Flow
Intensity Profiles
 Standard Single Mode Optical
Fibers
• Most common single mode optical fiber:
SMF28 from Corning
– Core diameter dcore=8.2 µm
– Outer cladding diameter: dclad=125µm
– Step index
– Numerical Aperture NA=0.14
• NA=sin(θ)
• ∆θ=8°
• λcutoff = 1260nm (single mode for λ>λcutoff)
• Single mode for both λ=1300nm and λ=1550nm
standard telecommunications wavelengths
Standard Multimode Optical Fibers
• Most common multimode optical fiber:
62.5/125 from Corning
– Core diameter dcore= 62.5 µm
– Outer cladding diameter: dclad=125µm
– Graded index
– Numerical Aperture NA=0.275
• NA=sin(θ)
• ∆θ=16°
• Many modes
 Fiber Materials
• Two major types: Glass optical fiber and
Plastic (or Polymer) optical fiber (POF)
• Glass fiber features:
– Advantages: low attenuation, cheap and abundant
raw material (mostly sand)
– Disadvantages: high installation cost, complexity,
requires skilled technicians, inflexible, easy-to-
break
 Glass Materials
• Oxide glass
– Silica (SiO2) is most
common; good over wide
range, especially around 1.5
µm
– Use dopants to change
refractive index.
• Metal Halide (Metal+Halogen)
– Fluoride glass : very low loss for mid-infrared (2-5 µm)
range)
• Active glass, like active electronic devices : can be used to
amplify or attenuate; erbium and neodymium are most common.
 Plastic Optical Fiber
• Advantages:
– Simpler and less expensive components
– Lighter weight
– greater flexibility and ease in handling and
connecting (POF diameters are 1 mm compared
with 8-100 mm for glass)
– Lower installation cost
• Disadvantages:
– High attenuation
– Limited production
 POF Material
• Typically,
– Core : PMMA (poly(methylmethacryclate))
(acrylic), PFP (perfluorinated polymers),
polysterene
– Cladding : Silicone resin, Fluorinated polymer
• Features: High refractive index difference (core
: 1.5-1.6, cladding : 1.46) ; Large NA
• Examples:
– Polysterene core (n=1.6), methy methacrylate
cladding (n=1.49) -> NA = 0.6
Comparison between glass fiber,
POF, copper wire
 Types of optical fibers &
Applications
• Single mode glass—long distance
communications
• Multimode glass—short distance
communications
• Plastic—consumer short distance, electronics
& cars
• Hybrid or polymer clad (glass core, plastic
cladding)—lighting, consumer applications
 Plastic optical fiber (POF)
• 1000 µm diameter, 980 µm core
• Strong
• Uses LEDs in visible range, 650 nm
• Not suitable for long-distance uses
• Does not transmit infrared

Source: Pofeska/Mitsubishi Rayon Co.

Requirements for fabricating useful
optical fiber
• Materials must be extremely pure
– Impurity < 1 part per billion for metals
– Impurity < 1 part per 10 million for water
• About 1000 times more pure than traditional chemical
purification techniques allow
• Dimensions must be controlled to extremely high degree
– Core size, position, cladding size tolerances ~ 1 micron or
less
– Roughly 1 wavelength of light
– Refractive indices must also be very precisely controlled
• Must be made in long lengths
• Must have tensile strength
 Fiber Fabrication Procedure
• Direct-melt : like traditional glass-making,
fibers made directly from the molten state of
purified components of silicate glasses
• Vapor phase oxidation : Three Steps are
Involved
– Making a Preform Glass Cylinder
– Drawing of preform down into thin fiber
– Jacketing and cabling
 Fiber Fabrication (cont’d)
• First SiO2 particles are formed by reaction of
metal halides vapors and oxygen, then
collected on a bulk glass and sintered ->
preform
• Preform : A solid glass rod or tube which is a
scale model of desired fiber.
• typically around 10 to 25 nm in diameter and
60 to 120 cm long.
 Purification of silica :
a two-step process
• First: use distillation
– Heat silica to boiling point (2230o C), condense
gas
– Metals are heavier and do not boil at this
temperature
– Yields impurity levels of ~ 10-6
• Second stage takes place when fiber fabricated
 Fiber fabrication process
• Called “Outside Vapor Deposition Process” or
OVD process
• Stages
– Laydown
– Consolidation
– Drawing
 First stage: Laydown
• Vapor deposition from ultrapure vapors
• Soot preform made when vapors exposed to
burner and form fine soot particles of silica
and germanium (From particles of silica and germania)

Source: Corning
Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation (OVPO)
 Laydown (continued)
• Particles deposited on surface of rotating bait
rod
– Core first
– Then silica cladding
• Vapor deposition process purifies fiber
material as impurities do not deposit as rapidly
• Preform is somewhat porous at this stage
 Second stage: consolidation
• Bait rod removed
• Placed in high-temperature consolidation
furnace
– Water vapor removed
– Preform sintered into solid, dense, transparent
glass
• Has same cross-section profile as final fiber,
but is much larger (1-2.5 cm, final: 125 µm =
.0125 cm)
 Third stage:
drawing
• Done in “draw tower”
1850-2000o C
• Glass blank from consolidation
stage lowered into draw furnace
• Tip heated until “gob” of glass falls
– Pulls behind it a thin strand of
glass Source: Corning
• Gob cut off
• Strand threaded into computer-
controlled tractor assembly
• Sensors control speed of drawing to
make precise diameter
Fiber Drawing
 Drawing (continued)
• Diameter measured hundreds of times per second
– Ensures precise outside dimension
• Primary and secondary coatings (jackets) applied
• At end, fiber wound onto spools for further processing

Gob forming,
Source: Corning
Draw tower

Source: Axsys
 Other methods used to make fiber
• Vapor phase axial deposition (VAD)
– Batch process
– Preforms can be drawn up to 250 km
– Flame hydrolysis
• Soot formed and deposited by torches
VAD process (continued)

Source: Dutton
Other methods used to make fiber
(continued)
• Modified chemical vapor deposition
(MCVD)
– Silica formed inside silica tube in gaseous phase
reaction
– Soot deposited on inside of tube
– Burners traverse tube
• Sinters soot
• Produces highly controllable RI profile
– At end, tube evacuated, sides collapse
MCVD process

Source: Fotec
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition
(MCVD)
Plasma-Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition
(PCVD)
 Basic cable construction: types
• Tight buffered
– No room for fibers to move inside of cable
• Loose tube
– Multiple fibers loose inside of outer plastic tube
– Advantage is that with extra length of fiber inside tube due
to curling, less likelihood of damage in sharp bends
• Loose tube with gel filler
– Multiple fibers immersed in gel inside of plastic tube

Source: Dutton
 Typical indoor cable
• Single core or double core
– Utilize substrate for additional strength (aramid or
fiberglass)

Source: Dutton
 Tight buffered indoor cable
• Application: building risers
• 6 or 12 fibers typically
• Central strength member supports weight of cable
• Tight buffering means that fibers are not put under
tension due to their own weight

Source: Dutton
 Outdoor cable
• More rugged, larger number of fibers per cable
– 6 fibers/tube, 6 tubes = 36 fibers
– 8 fibers/tube, 12 tubes = 96 fibers
• Steel or plastic used for strength member
• Outer nylon layer in locations where termites are a
problem

Source: Dutton
Outdoor cable (continued)

Source: Dutton
 Submarine cable
• Smaller number of fibers because mechanical requirements
much greater
– 4 to 20 typically
• Must withstand high pressure, damage from anchors,
trawlers, etc.
• Cables for shallow water are in greatest danger
– Typically heavily armored

Source: Dutton
Fiber Cross-sections