1

WORK-TEXT

in

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
(Math 313)

Name of Student

Section

Seat No.

Instructor
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STANDARD INTEGRATION FORMULAS

(1)  du = u + c

(2)  adu = a du

(3) ( du + dv - dw) =  du +  dv -  dw

(4)  un du = nn + 1 + c , (n  -1)
n+1
(5)  u du =  du =
-1
lnu + c , u > 0
 u
(6)  a du = au + c
u
, a>0
lna
(7)  eu du = eu + c , e = 2.71828…

(8)  cos u du = sin u + c

(9)  sin u du = - cos u + c

(10)  sec2 u du = tan u + c

(11)  csc2 u du = - cot u + c

(12)  sec u tan u du = sec u + c

(13)  csc u cot u du = -csc u + c

(14)  tan u du = - ln cos u + c = ln sec u + c

(15)  cot u du = ln sin u + c = -ln csc u + c

(16)  sec u du = ln (sec u + tan u) + c = - ln (sec u - tan u) + c

(17)  csc u du = ln (csc u - cot u) + c = - ln (cscu + cot u) +

c

(18) . du . = arc sin u + c

 a2 - u2 a
(19) . du . = 1 arc tan u + c
u a + u
2 2
a a
(20) . du . = 1 arc sec u + c
u u - a
2 2
a a
 3

(21) . du . = 1 ln u - a + c
 u2 - a2 2a u+a
(22) . du . = 1 ln u + a + c
a - u
2 2
2a u-a
(23) . du . = ln (u +  u2  a2) + c
 u2  u2
(24) . du . = 1 arc tan u + c
a + u
2 2
a a
(25) . du . = 1 ln{(2au + b) + 2a(au2 + bu +
c) } + c
1/2

(au2 + bu + c)1/2 a
(26)  cosh u du = sinh u + c

(27)  sinh u du = cosh u + c

(28)  sech2 u du = tanh u + c

(29)  csch2 u du = - coth u + c

(30)  sech u tanh u du = - sech u + c

(31)  csch u coth u du = - csch u + c

(32)  u dv = uv -  v du
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Strength is born in the deep silence of long suffering hearts, not amid joy.
Exercise No. 1

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

Evaluate the following integrals:

1.  cos ½ y dy

2.  cos4 x sin x dx

3. . sin t dt .
(4 + cos t) 3/2

4.  tan2 by dy

5.  sin2 x tan x dx
 5

6. . (3x - 2) dx . Write as  . 3(x + 1) - 5 .

x2 + 2x + 17  (x + 1)2 + 16

7.  x2 e-x dx

8.  y sec2 y dy

9. . (4x - 1) dx .
(2x + 1)3/2

10. . dx .
 6

x(x2 - a2)

I. DEFINITIONS AND NOTATIONS

OBJECTIVES: After completing this topic, you will

be able to:

1. define differential equation.

2. differentiate dependent to independent variables.
3. identify the order and degree of differential equations.
4. define a solution.
5. discuss the types of solutions.
6. identify a linear and nonlinear differential equations.
1. A “differential equation” (abbreviated as D.E.) is one which
contains at least one derivative. Most often, a D.E. is written in
terms of differential – a more convenient form for analysis and
solutions.
2. When an equation involves one or more derivatives with respect
to a
particular variable, the variable is called an independent
variable. A
variable is called dependent if a derivative of that variable
occurs. In
the equation
L d2i + R di + 1 i = E  cos t
dt2 dt C
i is the dependent variable, t is the independent variable
and L, R, C, E and  are called parameters.
The equation
d2V + d2V = 0
dx2 dy2
has one dependent variable V and independent variable x
and
y
3. Ordinary differential equations are those in which all the
differential coefficients have reference to a single independent
variable.
Examples:
(1) dy = 1 - x2 - y
dx
(2) d3y2 - dy d2y5 = f (x, y)
 7

dx3 dx dx2
(3) d2y - 2  1 + dy24/3 = 0
dx2  dx 
4. Partial differential equations are those wherein there are two
or more independent variables and partial differential
coefficients with reference to any of them.
Example:
(4) x u + y u = 0
x y
(5) 
u - k 
2
2u + 2u5 = f (x, y)
t x2 y2
5. The “order” of a D.E. is the same as the order of the highest-
order derivative in the equation.
Example:
Equation
(1) first order
(2) third order
(3) second order
(4) first order
(5) second order
6. The “degree” of a D.E. is the same as the power (or exponent)
to which the derivative of the highest order in the equation
raised.
Example:
Equation
(1) first degree
(2) second degree
(3) third degree
(4) first degree
(5) first degree
7. The solution to a D.E. is the relation involving only the
variables and arbitrary constants free from any derivatives or
differentials, and consistent with, or satisfying, the given D.E.
8. Kinds of Solutions: There are three kinds of solutions of
differential equations. They are:
1. The general solution, which is the solution
containing a
number of arbitrary constants equal to the order of
the equation.

2. The particular solution, which is the solution

obtained
from the general solution by giving particular values
to the
constants.
 8

3. The singular solution, which is the solution not

containing
any arbitrary constant and is not deducible from the
general solution by giving particular values to the
arbitrary constants in it, save in exceptional cases.

Arbitrary constants maybe obtained from known

“boundary
conditions.”
9. The functional notation for the nth-order D.E. of the ordinary
type is:
Fdny , dn-1y , . . . . dy , x , y = 0
dxn dxn-1 dx 
10. A “first-ordered D.E.” is written in either of the following
common forms:

1. Implicit-Derivative: F  dy , x , y = 0
 dx 

2. Implicit-Differential: M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy = 0

3. Explicit-Derivative: dy = F (x, y)
dx
11. Considering the differential equation as derived from the
general solution, the latter is called the complete primitive of
the former.
12. An equation which is linear, i.e., of the first degree in the
dependent variable and its derivatives, is called linear
differential equation. From this definition it follows that the
most general (ordinary) linear differential equation of order n is
of the form:

Eq. 1 p0 (x)y(n) + p1(x) y( n - 1) + . . . + pn – 1(x) y’ + pn (x) y

= r (x)

A differential equation which is not linear, i.e., cannot be

put in
the form of Eq. 1, is said to be nonlinear. In general,
linear
equations are much easier to solve than nonlinear ones,
and most
elementary applications involve linear equations.

Examples:
 9

1. The equation y” + 4xy’ + 2y = cos x is a

linear
equation of the second order. The presence of the
terms x,
y’ and cos x does not alter the fact that the equation
is
linear because, by definition, linearity is determined
solely
by the way the dependent variable y and its
derivatives
occur in the equation.

2. The equation y” + 4yy’ + 2y = cosx is a

nonlinear
equation because of the occurrence of the product y
and
one of its derivatives.

3. The equation y” + sin y = 0 is nonlinear because

of the
presence of sin y, which is a nonlinear function of y.

Where the willingness is great, the difficulties cannot be great.

Exercise No. 2

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

Determine the dependent and independent variables of the following:

1. x2y” + xy’ + (x2 – 4) y = 0

2. 4u + 2u + 4u = 0

x4 x2y2 y4
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3. 2u + 2u + 2u = (x, y, z)

x2 y2 z4

4. x d2y - y dy 2 = 4
dx2 dx 

5. (y”)2 + 4y’ + 3y = x

6. (x + 2) dy = (1 – 2x) dx

7. sin x  d2y 3 - ex  dy 5 = xy
 dx2  dx 

8. x d4 y + 5y d2y - dy 6 = 0
dx4 dx2 dx 

9. 2z - 3 2y - 2z = 0

t2 t2 u2

10.  2y 2 - 7  2y 4 = t + u

 t2   t2 

Exercise No. 3

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

Describe each of the following giving its order and degree, and telling
whether it is ordinary or partial and linear or nonlinear.

Order Degree Ordinary/Partial

Linear/Nonlinear
1. y” + 3y’ + 2y = x4
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2. y’’’ + 6y” + 11y’ + 6y = ex

3. d(xy’) + xy = 0
dx

4. a2 2u = 2u
x2 t2

5. 2u = u u
x2 t

6. (y”)2 + 4(yy’)2 – xy = 0

7. x4(y’)4 + (x – 1) y’’’ = sin x

8. d2s 4 - ds = sint + cos t

 dt2 dt

9. dr + r = 2
d

10. dny + y3 - 1 = 0
dxn

II. FORMATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

OBJECTIVES: After completing this topic, you will be

able to:

obtain the differential equation by eliminating constants using

differentiation and elimination, isolation of constants, and
elimination by determinants.
 12

2.1 An inverse Problem: Elimination of Arbitrary

Constants

2.1.1 By Differentiation and Combination

One of the ways differential equations are obtained is the elimination

of arbitrary constants from a given equation. The general method to
eliminate n arbitrary constants is to differentiate the equation n times.

The n arbitrary constants may then be eliminated from the n + 1

equations. The result will be differential equations of order n.

Eliminate the arbitrary constants from the given equations by

combining after differentiation.

Example 2-1 y = c1 cos 3x + c2 sin 3x.

Solution: y’ = -3c1 sin 3x + 3c2 cos 3x

y” = -9c1 cos 3x - 9c2 sin 3x
= -9(c1 cos 3x + c2 sin 3x)
= - 9y
y” + 9y = 0 Ans.

Example 2-2 y = x + c1ex + c2e-2x (1)

Solution: y’ = 1 + c1ex - 2c2 e-2x (2)

y” = c1 ex + 4c2 e-2x (3)

Subtract Eq. (1) from Eq. (2).

y’ - y = 1 - x -3c2 e-2x (4)
Subtract Eq. (2) from Eq. (3).
y” - y’ = -1 + 6c2 e-2x (5)
Multiply Eq. (4) by 2.
2y’ - 2y = 2 - 2x -6c2 e-2x (6)
Adding Eqs. (6) and (5), we obtain

y” + y’ - 2y = 1 - 2x Ans.

Example 2-3 y = c1e-x + c2e2x + c3e-3x (1)

Solution: y’ = - c1e-x + 2c2e2x - 3 c3e-3x (2)

Adding Eqs. (1) and (2),
y’ + y = 3c2e2x - 2c3e-3x
 13

y” + y’ = 6c2e2x + 6c3e-3x
= 6 (c2e2x + c3e-3x)
= 6y - 6c1 e-x (3)
y’’’ + y” = 6y’ + 6c1e-x (4)
Adding Eqs. (3) and (4), we have

y’’’ + 2y” + y’ = 6y’ + 6y

y’’’ + 2y” - 5y’ - 6y = 0. Ans.

Example 2-4 y = ex(c1cos 2x + c2sin 2x) (1)

Solution: e-x y = c1cos 2x + c2sin 2x (2)

Differentiate Eq. (2).

e-x y’ - e-xy = -2c1 sin 2x + 2c2 cos 2x
Differentiating again, we get
e-x y” - e-xy’ - e-x y’ + e-xy
= - 4( c1cos 2x + c2sin 2x)
= - 4e y-x

y” - 2y’ + y = - 4y

y” - 2y’ + 5y = 0 Ans.

Example 2-5 y = c1 sin at + c2 cos at,

(a not to be eliminated)
Solution: y = c1 sin at + c2 cos at
y’ = a c1 cos at - a c2 sin at
y” = - a2 (c1 sin at + c2 cos at) = - a2 y
y” + a2 y = 0. Ans.

Example 2-6 y = Ax2 + Bex (1)

Solution: Differentiating twice, we obtain

y’ = 2Ax + Bex (2)
y” = 2A + Be x
(3)
Subtracting Eq. (1) from Eq. (2),
y’ - y = 2Ax - Ax2 = A(2x - x2) (4)
y” - y’ = 2A - 2 Ax = A(2 – 2x) (5)
Dividing Eq. (5) by Eq. (4), we have
y” - y’ = A(2 – 2x)
y’ - y A(2x - x2)

(2x - x2)y” + (x2 - 2)y’ + 2(1-x) y = 0Ans.

 14

2.1.2 By Isolation of Constants

In this method at each step before differentiation, isolate one of the

arbitrary constants, free from any variable, so that it will disappear
after differentiation.

For the following problems, eliminate the arbitrary constants by

isolation.

Example 2-7 x sin y - xy2 = c

Solution: Differentiation once will eliminate the constant c.

x cos y y’ + sin y - 2xy y’ - y2 = 0

(x cos y - 2xy) y’ - y2 + sin y = 0 Ans.

Example 2–8 y = ax2 + bx + c

Solution: y’ = 2ax + b
y” = 2a
y’’’ = 0 Ans.

Example 2-9 y = Ax2 + Bex

Solution: Isolate B by multiplying the entire equation by e-x.

e-x y = Ax2 e-x + B

e-x y’ - e-x y = - Ax2 e-x + 2Ax2 e-x
y’ - y = - Ax2 + 2Ax = A (-x2 + 2x)
A = y’ - y
-x2 + 2x
Differentiating again, we get
0 = (-x2 + 2x)(y” – y’) - (y’ – y) (-2x + 2)
(-x2 + 2x)2
(2x - x ) y” + (x2 - 2) y’ + 2 (1 – x) y = 0
2

Ans.

Example 2-10 y = x + c1ex + c2e-2x

Solution: e2x y = xe2x + c1e3x + c2

e2x y’ + 2e2x y = 2xe2x + e2x + 3c1e3x
y’ + 2y = 2x + 1 + 3c1 ex
e-x y’ + 2 e-x y = 2x e-x + e-x + 3c1
e-x y” - e-x y’ + 2 e-x y’ - 2 e-x y
= - 2 xe-x + 2e-x - e-x
y” + y’ - 2y = 1 - 2x. Ans.
 15

Example 2-11 x2 y = 4 + cy

Solution: c = x2 - 4 ; 0 = 2x - -4y’
y2

4y’ + 2xy2 = 0
2y’ + xy2 = 0 Ans.

2.1.3 Elimination By Determinants

A third method of eliminating arbitrary constants is based on a

theorem in Algebra:
In order for a system of n + 1 linear equations in n unknowns
to be consistent, the determinant formed from the coefficients of
the unknowns and the terms free of the unknowns must vanish.
The determinant formed is called the eliminant of the arbitrary
constants.

For the following problems, eliminate the arbitrary constants using

determinants.

Example 2-12 y = Ax2 + Bex

Solution: Differentiate the equation twice.

y’ = 2Ax + Bex
y” = 2A + Bex
Form the determinant whose elements are the coefficients of the
arbitrary constants A and B, and the terms y, y” and y’’’, which
are free of the arbitrary constants.

y x2 ex y x2 1
y’ 2x ex = 0 or y’ 2x 1 = 0
y” 2 ex y” 2 1

Since ex is a common factor of the term in the third column.

Expanding the determinant, we obtain
(2x - x2)y” + (x2 - 2) y’ + (2 - 2x) y = 0. Ans

Example 2-13 y = c1 cos 3x + c2 sin 3x

Solution: Differentiate the equation twice.

y’ = -3c1 sin 3x + 3c2 cos 3x
y” = - 9c1 cos 3x - 9c2 sin 3x
Form the determinant
y cos3x sin 3x
 16

y’ -3 sin 3x 3cos 3x = 0
y” -9cos3x -9 sin 3x

Expanding the determinant and simplifying we obtain

y” + 9y = 0 Ans.

Example 2-14 y = x + c1ex + c2e-2x

Solution: Differentiate the equation twice.

y’ = 1 + c1ex - 2c2e-2x
y’ = c1ex + 4c2e-2x
Write the equations as
y = x + c1ex + c2e-2x
y’ = 1 + c1ex - 2c2e-2x
y’ = c1ex + 4c2e-2x
Form the determinant
y - x ex e-2x
y’ - 1 e x
-2e-2x = 0
y’ ex 4e-2x
Expanding the determinant and simplifying, we get

y” + y’ - 2y = 1 - 2x. Ans.

Example 2-15 y = c1 x2 + c2x3

Solution: Differentiate the equation twice.

y’ = 2c1 x + 3c2x2
y” = 2c1 + 6c2x

The determinant in this case will be

y x2 x3
y’ x 3x2 = 0
y” 2 6x

Expanding the determinant the result is

x2 y” - 4xy’ + 6y = 0. Ans.
Hold fast to dreams for if dreams die, life is broken-winged bird that cannot fly.
Exercise No. 4

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

 17

Determine the differential equations of the following by eliminating

constants using any method.

1. x sin y – y cos x = c

2. y = c1 + c2e2x

3. y = c1x + c2
x

4. y = c1x2 + c2x3

5. y = c1cos 2x + c2 sin 2x
 18

6. y = c1 x + c2 ex

7. y = c1 e2x + c2 x e2x

8. y = c1 ex + c2 x e2x + c3 x2 ex
 19

9. y = e2x(c1 cos x + c2 sin x)

10. y = c1 ex + c2e-x + c3 x2 e-x

2.2 Differential Equation of A Family of Curves

OBJECTIVES: After completing this topic, you will
be able to:

determine the differential equation of the given family of curves from

indicated properties.
 20

A family of curves of curves on a plane is usually

defined by an equation containing one or more
parameters together with the coordinates of a
point on the plane. The differential equation of
the family is obtained by eliminating
the parameters by the methods in Art. 2-1

In the following problems obtain the differential equations of the

given families of curves whose properties are indicated.

Example 2-16 All straight lines through the fixed point (h, k)

Solution: The equation of a line through the point (h, k) is

y - k = m(x - h)
y’ = m.
Hence, the required differential equation is

y - k = (x - h) y’ Ans.

Example 2-17 All straight lines

Solutions: The equation of a line whose slope is m and whose y-

intercept is b is

y = mx + b
Here m and b are arbitrary constants. Differentiating twice, we
have

y’ = m ; y” = 0 Ans.

Example 2-18 Straight lines with equal x- and y-intercepts.

Solution: The figure shows a straight line with x- and y-intercepts a

and b, respectively. Using the intercept form of the equation of
a straight line, we have
a

b
 21

x + y = 1. But a = b
a b

Hence, x + y = a. 1 + dy = 0
dx

dx + dy = 0 Ans.

Example 2-19 Circles with center on the y-axis.

Solution: Let the center be at (0, k) and radius = a

x2 + (y – k) = a2
2x + 2(y – k) y’ = 0
y - k = -x
y’ a
y’ = - y’ - xy” (0, k)
y’2

y’ = -y’ + xy”
3

xy” - y’3 - y’ = 0 Ans.

Example 2-20 Circles tangent to the y-axis.

Solution: Let (h, k) be the coordinates of the center of the circle.

Since the circle is tangent to the y-axis its radius r = h. The
general equation is

(x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = h2 (1)

x2 - 2hx + (y - k)2 = 0
2h = x + (y - k)2
x (2) . (h, k)
Differentiating Eq. (2), we have

0 = 1 + x  2(y - k)y’ - (y – k)2

x2
(y – k) - 2xy’ (y – k) - x2 = 0
2

y – k = xy’  xy’2 + 1 (3)

Differentiating Eq. (3), we obtain

y’ = xy” + y’  x . 2y’y” .  y’2 + 1

 22

2 y’2 + 1
after some simplification, we obtain

xy” y’2 + 1  xy’y”  (y’2 + 1) = 0. Ans.

Example 2-21 Parabolas with the vertex and focus on the y-axis.

Solution: Let the vertex be at (0, k). The general equation is

x2 = 4a( y  k)
2x = 4ay’ ; x = 2ay’ ; 1 = 2ay”
x = 2ay’ = y’
1 2ay” y”
xy” - y’ = 0 Ans.

(0, a)

(0, -a)

Start writing a new chapter, for if you live by the book you’ll never make history.
Exercise No. 5

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

 23

In the following problems obtain the differential equation of the given

family of curves whose properties are indicated.

1. All circles passing through the origin and (0, 4).

2. Straight lines with slope and y-intercept equal.

3. Straight lines with algebraic sum of the intercepts fixed as k.

4. All circles tangent to both x and y axes.

 24

5. The cissoids y2 = . x3 .
c - x

6. The strophoid y2 = x2(a + x)

a–x

7. The hyperbolas b2x2 - b2y2 = a2b2.

8. Parabolas with vertex and focus on the x-axis.

 25

9. The folium of Descartes x3 + y3 = 3axy.

10. The trisectrices of Maclaurin y2 (a + x) = x2

III. SOLUTIONS TO FIRST-ORDERED DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS
 26

OBJECTIVES: After completing this topic, you will be

able to:

1. classify the different forms of first-ordered differential equations:

separation of variables, homogeneous D.E., exact D.E., non-exact
D.E., first-ordered linear D.E., Bernoulli equation, D.E. linear in x
and y.
2. identify a variable-separable differential equation.
3. distinguish a homogeneous differential equation.
4. test the exactness of a differential equation.
5. write the given D.E. in the standard form of Bernoulli equation and
first-ordered linear differential equations.

3.1 Separation of Variables

2.If the variables in M(x, y) dx + N (x, y) dy = 0 can be

separated into the form
f(x) dx + g(y) dy = 0
the solution is by integration

 f(x) dx +  g(y) dy = c

3. TEST: The variables are

separable if the functions M and N are
factorable as follows:

M(x, y) = F(x) G(y)

N(x, y) = H(x)  (y)

Find the complete the solutions of the following D.E.:

Example 3-1 xcos2 y dx + tan y dy = 0

Solution: xcos2 y dx + tan y dy = 0 is reduced by dividing each

term
by cos2 y

x dx + tan y sec2 y dy = 0

Both terms are integrable by the “power” formula,

x2 + tan2 y = c or x2 + tan2 y = c1 Ans.

2 2
Example 3-2 xy3ln x dx - 2 dy = 0
 27

Solution: Division by y3 separates the variables into,

X lnx dx - 2 y-3 dy = =

The second term is integrated by the “power” formula,

while
the first is by “integration by parts”,

Let u = lnx du = dx/x

dx = x dx v = x2/2

Substitution gives,
x2 ln x -  x2 dx - 2 y-3 dy = c
2 2 x
and
x2 ln x - x2 + y-2 = c
2 4
Simplification gives,

X2(ln x2 - 1) + 4y-2 = c1 Ans.

Example 3-3 y’ = 2x + 2xy2

y + 2x2y

Solution: The given D.E. may be written as,

dy = 2x + 2xy2
dx y + 2x2y

and the variables are separated into,

2x dx - y dy = 0
1 + 2x2 1 + y2

Integration leads to the ln function

1 ln (1 + 2x2) - 1 ln (1 + y2) = c
2 2

Further simplification gives,

1 + 2x2 = c1 Ans.
1 + y2
 28

Always be nice to people on the way up, because you’ll meet the same people on the
way down.
Exercise No. 6

(Separation of Variables)

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

1. dy = tan x tan y dx

2. dx + x lnx ln y dy = 0

3. (4 + 9x2) dy -  9 – 4y2 dy = 0
 29

4. (xy – x) dx = (x2y2 - x2 + y2 - 1) dy

5. (xy + x) dx + (1 + x2

6. 2ex cot y dx - (4 + ex) csc2 y dy = 0

7. dy = (x + 1)(y – 2)
dx xy
 30

8. xln lny dy + dx = 0

9. 2ex cot y dx + (1 + ex) csc2 y dy = 0

10. dy = sin(x + y)
dx
 31

3.2 Homogeneous Differential Equations

(a) In M(x, y) dx + N(x, y) dy = 0, if

M(rx, ry) = rn M(x, y) and

N(rx, ry) = rn N(x, y)

Such that n = m, then the D.E is said to be

“homogeneous” of “degree n”. Here, r can either be a variable or a
constant.

(b) The solution of such type of D.E is by either of the

following
substitution methods:
First: Let y = vx
dy = v dx + x dv

Here, y is eliminated and v introduced into the D.E.

In the final analysis, the D.E. takes the forms in which h the
variables are separable. After the solution, the variable y is
substituted back to the equation.

Second: Let x = uy
dx = u dy + y du
Solution is similar to that of the previous method,
except that here x is eliminated.

(c) Suggested Solution

If M is simpler than N: Use x = uy

If N is simpler than M: Use y = vx

For the following D.E., find the solution:

Example 3-4 (x3 + y3) dx - 3xy2 dy = 0

Solution: (x3 + y3) dx - 3xy2 dy = 0 is “homogeneous of

degree 3”

Here N = -3xy2 is simpler than M = x3 + y,

Use: y = vx and dy = vdx + x dv

 32

Substitute to the given D.E.,

(x3 + v3x3) dx - 3x (v2 x2) (vdx + x dv) = 0

Divide each term by x3 and simplify

(1 + v3) dx - 3v2 (vdx + x dv) = 0
and

dx - 3v2 dv = 0
x 1 – 2v3
Integration leads to the ln functions,

ln x + 1 ln (1 – 2v3) = c
2
Since y = vx and v = y/x , then

ln x + 1 ln (1 – 2y3/x3) = c
2
Simplification finally gives,

X3 - 2y3 = c1x Ans.

Example 3-5 xy dx - (x + 2y)2dy = 0

Solution: xy dx - (x + 2y)2dy = 0 is “homogeneous of

degree 2”.

Here, M xy is ismpler than N = -(x + 2y)2

Use: x = uy and dx = udy + ydu

Substitute to the given D.E.,

uy2 (udy + ydu) - (uy + 2y)2dy = 0

Divide each term by y2 and simplify,

u2 dy + uy du - (u + 2)2dy = 0
u2 dy + uy du - (u2 + 4u + 4)dy = 0

and uy du - 4(u + 1) dy = 0

Separation of variables gives,

u du . - dy = 0
4(u + 1) y
 33

1 ( 1 - . 1 .) - dy = 0
4 u+1 y

Integrate: 1 {u - ln(u + 1)} - ln y = c

4
Substitute x = uy or u = x/y and simplify,

x - y ln (xy3 + y4) = c1y Ans.

Example 3-6 (x + y sin y/x) dx - x sin y/x dy = 0

Solution: (x + y sin y/x) dx - x sin y/x dy = 0 is

“homogeneous of degree 1”.

Use: y = vx or v = y/x

dy = vdx + x dv

Substitute to the D.E.,

(x + vx sin v) dx - x sin v (vdx + x dv)= 0

Divide each term by x and simplify,

dx - x sin v dv = 0

and dx - sin v dv = 0
x

Integration gives,
ln x + cos v = c

Finally, using v = y/x,

ln x + cos y/x = c Ans.

 34

Exercise No. 7

(Homogeneous Differential Equations)

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

Find the general solution of the following differential equations.

1. (4x2 - y2) dx - xy dy = 0

2. dx = x2 + 2 x
dy y2

3. (3xy – 2y2) dx + (2x2 - 3xy) dy = 0

 35

4. dy - y  ln y = x
dx x x y

5. sin y  dy = x sin y + 1
 x  dx y x

6. x dy - y dx =  x2 + y2 dx
 36

7. (2x - y) dx - (x + 4y) dy = 0

8. (x + y sin x ) dx - (y + x sin x) dy = 0
y y

9. Find the particular solution of (y2 + 2xy) dx + 2x2dy = 0; x 1;

y = -2

10. y(x – 6y) dx - x (2x – 9y) dy = 0

 37

3.3 Exact Differential Equation

(a) The equation M(x, y) dx + N(x, y) dy =

0 is said to be “exact” if

M = N
y x
(b) Solutions:

(i) Direct:  Mdx + ( N -   Mdx) dy = 0

y
(ii) Indirect:  Mdx + f(y) = c
and  Ndy + g(x) = c

REMARKS: (a) The unknown functions f(y) and g(x) are

obtained from the comparison of these
two (2)
possible solutions.
(b) In integrating the functions M and N, “
partial”
integration is applied, that is, to hold y
constant when integrating relative to x
and to hold x constant in integrating with
respect to y. Same is true in partial
differentiation.

Find the solutions of the following D.E.

Example 3-7 (2xy - 3x2)dx + (x2 + 2y) dy = 0

Solution: (2xy - 3x2)dx + (x2 + 2y) dy = 0 is first tested for

“exactness”.

M = 2xy – 3x2 ; M = 2x

y
N = x + 2y ; N = 2x
2

x
 38

So, the given D.E. is exact.

Using the Direct Method,

 Mdx + ( N -   Mdx) dy = 0

y
 (2xy – 3x ) dx + { x2 + 2y -   (2xy – 3x2) dx}
2

dy = 0
y
x y – x + { x + 2y -   (x2 y – x3) } dy = 0
2 3 2

y
x y – x +  (x + 2y - x2) dy = c
2 3 2

Finally, x2 y – x3 + y2 = c Ans.

Example 3-8 (cos y + y cos x) dx - (x sin y - sin x) dy = 0

Solution: In the given D.E.,

M = cos y + y cos x
M = - sin y + cos x and
y
N = -x sin y + sin x
N = - sin y + cos x
x
Therefore, the D.E. is exact,

Using the Indirect Method,

(1)  M dx + f(y) = c
 (cos y + y cos x) dx + f(y) = c
x cos y + y sin x + f(y) = c

(2)  N dy + g(x) = c
 (-x sin y + sin x) dy + g(x) = c
x cos y + y sin x + g(x) = c

Comparison of the two (2) possible solutions (1) and

(2) shows that f(y) = g(x) = 0, so

x cos y + y sin x = c Ans.

Example 3-9 (ex + ln y + y/x) dx + (x/y + ln y + sin y)

dy = 0
 39

Solution: Here, the D.E. has

M = ex + ln y + y : M = 1 + 1
x y y x

N = x + ln x + sin y ; M = 1 + 1
Y y x
Use the Indirect Method

(1)  M dx + f(y) = c
 (ex + ln y + y ) dx + f(y) = c
x
ex + xlny + ylnx + f(y) = c

(2)  N dy + g(x) = c
( x + ln x + sin y) dy + g(x) = c
x ln y + y lnx - cos y + g(x) = c

Comparison of solutions (1) and (2) shows that

f(y) = - cos y and g(x) = ex, so

ex + xlny + ylnx - cos y = c

 40

Exercise No. 8

Exact Differential Equations

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

Find the general solution of the following differential equations.

1. (2xy - 6x2) dx + (x2 - y) dy = 0

2. (2x + 3y) dx + (3x - y + 5) dy = 0

 41

3. 3y (x2 - 1) dx + (x3 + 8y - 3x) dy = 0

4. (3x2 - 4y2) dx - (3y2 + 8xy) dy = 0

5. (2xy – 3y) dx + (x2 - 3x) dy = 0

6. (3x2y - sin y) dx x(x2 – cos y) dy = 0

 42

7. ( 1- 2xy + y2) dx + (2xy – x2) dy = 0

8. (x - 2y) dx + 2(y - x) dy = 0

9. (y2 - 2xy + 6x) dx - (x2 - 2xy + 2) dy = 0

10. (6x + y2) dx + y(2x – 3y) dy = 0

 43

3.4 Non-Exact Differential Equations

(a) The equation M(x, y) dx + N(x, y)

dy = 0

M  N
y x
then the D.E. is “non-exact”.

(b) Solution: A “non-exact” D.E. is solved by

other methods or more often by reducing it to an
“exact” form through the determination of an
“integrating factor” which, when multiplied to the D.E., reduces it
to

M Φ dx + N Φ dy = 0
such that

M Φ = N Φ
y x
where: Φ = Φ(x, y) is the integrating factor.

(c) Special Cases for Finding Φ

CASE 1: When Φ is a function of x alone,

Φ = Φ(x)

TEST: If 1 
M - N  = f(x)
 44

N  y x 

Then Φ = e f(x) dx.

CASE 2: When Φ is a function of y alone,

Φ = Φ(x)

TEST: If 1 
N - M  = g(y)
M  x y 
 g(y) dy
Then Φ = e .

CASE 3: When Φ = xm yn

TEST: If Mn - Nm = N - M

y x x y

reduces to an “identity” equation (one wherein the terms at the

left side are the same as on the right side) the exponents m and
n may be obtained by the comparison of terms from both sides of
the equation - that is, by equating coefficients of like terms.

Find the solutions of the following D.E.

Example 3-10 (x2 + y2 + 1) dx + (x2 - 2xy) dy = 0

Solution: M = x2 + y2 + 1 ; M = 2y
y
N = x - 2xy ;
2
N = 2x - 2y
x
so, D.E. is non-exact.

This is under CASE 1 with the “integrating factor”,

Φ = e f(x) dx

f(x) = 1  M - N 

N  y x 
= . 1 . (2y - 2x + 2y)
x - 2xy
2

= 2( -x + 2y) or - 2
 45

x (x – 2y) x

So, Φ = e (-2/x) dx = e-2lnx = x-2

Multiply the given D.E. by Φ = x-2

(1 + x-2 y2 + x-2) dx + (1 - 2x-1 y) dy = 0

The new functions M and N are,

Mn = 1 + x-2 y2 + x-2 ; Mn = 2 x-2 y

y
Nn = 1 - 2x y ; -1
Nn = 2x-2y
x

So, the reduced D.E. is now exact

Use the Indirect Method

(1)  Mn dx + f(y) = c
 (1 + x-2 y2 + x-2 ) dx + f(y) = c

x - x-1 y2 - x-1 + f(y) = c

(2)  Nn dy + g(x) = c
( 1 - 2x-1 y ) dy + g(x) = c

y - x-1y2 + g(x) = C

Comparison of solutions (1) and (2) shows that

f(y) = y and g(x) = x - x-1, so

x - x-1y2 - x-1 + y = c Ans.

Example 3-11 (2xy - y2 + y)dx + (3x2 - 4xy + 3x ) dy = 0

M = 2xy - y2 + y; M = 2x - 2y + 1
y
N = 3x - 4xy + 3x ;
2
N = 6x - 4y + 3
x
so, D.E. is non-exact.

This D.E. can be solved under CASE 2 with the

“integrating factor”.
Φ = e g(y) dy
 46

Where: g(y) = 1 N - M 

M  x y 
= . 1 . (4x – 2y + 2)
2xy - y2 + y

= 2( 2x - y + 1) = 2
y(2x - y + 1) y

So, Φ = e (2/y) dy = e2lny = y2

Multiply each term in the given D.E. by Φ = y2

(2xy3 - y4 + y3)dx + (3x2 y2 - 4xy3 + 3x y2 ) dy = 0

The new M and N functions are,

Mn = 2xy3 - y4 + y3 ; Mn = 6xy2 - 4y3 + 3y2

y
Nn = 3x2 y2 - 4xy3 + 3x y2 ; Nn = 6xy2 -
4y3 + 3y2
x
Having been reduced to an exact form , the D.E, may now
be solved
either by the Direct or Indirect Method, to give the final
answer,

x2y3 - xy4 + xy3 = c Ans.

Example 3-12 2y dx + (x - x3y3) dy = 0

Solution: M = 2y ; M = 2
y
N = x - xy ;
3 3
N = 1 - 3x2y3
x
This non-exact D.E. falls under Case 3 where the
“integrating
factor” is
Φ = x m yn

with m and n obtained from

Mn - Nm = N - M
y x x y
 47

2y n - (x - x3y3) m = 1 - 3x2y3 - 2
y x

2n - m + mx2y3 = -1 - 3x2y3

Note that this is an “identity “ equation,

where : 2n - m = -1
and m = -3
so, n = -2
and Φ = x-3y-2

Multiply the given D.E. by Φ = x-3y-2,

2x-3 y-1 dx + (x-2y-2 - y) dy = 0

The new M and N functions are,

Mn = 2x-3 y-1 ; Mn = - 2x-3 y-2

y
Nn = x y - y
-2 -2
; Nn = - 2x-3y-2
x
This is now an exact D.E. which can be solved by either
the Direct
or Indirect method, to give

2 x-2y-1 + y2 = c Ans.
Exercise No. 9

Non-Exact Differential Equations

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

Find the general solution of the following differential equations.

1. y(4x + y) dx - 2(x2 - y) dy = 0
 48

2. 3(x2 + y2) dx + x(x2 + 3y2 + 6y) dy = 0

3. 2(x – y + 2) dx + x(x – 2y + 2) dy = 0

4. y(2x + y – 2)dx – 2 (x + y) dy = 0

5. (xy + 1) dx + x(x + 4y – 2)dy = 0

 49

6. 2y (x2 – y + x) dx + (x2 – 2y) dy = 0

7. y(4x + y) dx – 2(x2 – y) dy = 0

8. (2y2 + 3xy – 2y + 6x) dx + x(x + 2y – 1) dy = 0

9. 2(2y2 + 5xy – 2y + 4) dx + x(2x + 2y –1) dy = 0

 50

10. (x2 – y2 – 4y – 1) dx + 2x(x + y + 2) dy = 0

3.5 First-Ordered Linear Differential Equations (FOLDE)

(a) This is a D.E. which is “first order” in the derivative and

“linear” in the dependent variables. In the standard
form, it is written as
dy + y P(x) = Q(x)
dx
(b) Solution: y Φ =  Q(x) Φ dx + c

where: Φ = e P(x) dx

NOTE: FOLDE is actually a “non-exact” D.E. where Φ is

obtained
under CASE 1.
 51

REMARK: For the case where the dependent variable is x,

FOLDE is
written in its standard form as

dx + x P(y) = Q(y)
dy
having a solution: x Φ =  Q(y) Φ dy + c

where: Φ = e P(y) dy

Find the solutions of the following D.E.

Example 3-13 dy + 2xy - 4x = 0

dx
Solution: The standard form of this D.E. in the FOLDE form is,

dy + 2xy = 4x
dx
where: P = 2x ; Q = 4x
2
Φ = e Pdx = e 2x dx = ex

Solution is: y Φ =  Q Φ dx + c
2 2
y ex =  (4x) ex dx + c
Integration gives,
2 2
y ex = 2 e x + c
2
y = 2 + ce -x Ans.

Example 3-14 t ds - (t3 e3t + 3st + s) dt = 0

Solution: Divide the D.E. by tdt and reduce to the FOLDE form,

ds - s (3 + t-1) = t2 e3t
dt
where: P = - (3 + t-1)
Q = t2 e3t
-1
 P dt  -(3 + t ) dt
and Φ = e = e
= e-3t - ln t
or t-1 e-3t

The solution is,

 52

s Φ =  Q Φ dt + c
s t-1 e-3t =  t2 e3t (t-1 e-3t) dt + c

Integration leads to,

s t-1 e-3t = t2 + c
2
and s = 1 t e3t + c t e3t.
3
Ans.
2

Example 3-15 y dx - 2x - 3y2 + 2 = 0

dy

Solution: Divide the given D.E. by y,

dx - 2 x = 3y - 2 y-1
dy y

which is now in the FOLDE form with,

P = - 2 ; Q = 3y - 2y-1
y
and Φ = e P dy = e -(2/y) dy = e-2 lny
Φ = y-2

Solution is: x Φ =  Q Φ dy + c

x y-2 =  (3y - 2y-1) y-2 dy + c

Integration gives,

x y-2 = 3 ln y + y-2 + c

which simplifies to,

x = y2 ln y3 + 1 + cy2 Ans.
Exercise No. 10

First-Ordered Linear Differential Equations

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

Find the general solution of the following differential equations.

1. dy + cot x = 3ecos x
dx
 53

2. dy + 1 + tan x  y = 2 sec x
dx x 

3. (1 - x2) dy - xy = 3x (1 - x 2)
dx

4. ydx = (ey + 2xy - 2x) dy

 54

5. dy - y = x + y
dx x x–1

6. dy = 2x – 2y cot 2x

dx
7. xdy - (x + 2)2 = y
dx

8. dy - 1 y = 1
dx xlnx x2lnx
 55

9. xdy + (x2 – 3y) dx = 0

2
10. y’ + (2x + 1) y = e-x

3.6 The Bernoulli Equation

(a) The Bernoulli equation is a “non-linear” D.E. having the

standard form

dy + y P(x) = yn Q(x)
dx
(b) The Bernoulli equation is reducible to a “linear” form
(FOLDE) by making use of the substitution

z = y1 – n
 56

which gives
dy = . yn . dz
dx 1 - n dx

With this, the Bernoulli equation is reduced to

dz + (1 - n) z P (x) = (1 - n) Q (x)
dx
or dz + z Pr (x) = Qr (x)
dx

where: Pr (x) = (1 – n) P(x)

Qr(x) = (1 – n) Q(x)

(c) Solution: y1 – n Φ =  Qr(x) Φ dx + c

where: Φ = e Pr (x) dx

REMARK: For the case where the dependent variable

is x, the
Bernoulli equation is,

dx + x P(y) = xn Q(y)
dy
Elements in the solution of this are similar to
the previous discussion.

Example 3-16 y’ + y - 3x2y2 = 0

X

Solution: The Bernoulli form of the given D.E. is,

dy + 1 y = 3x2 y2
dx x

with n = 2 ; 1 - n = -1
P = 1 ; Q = 3x2
X

The solution is

y1 -n
Φ =  Qr Φ dx + c

where: Pr = (1 – n) P = - 1
x
 57

Qr = (1 – n) Q = -3x2

Φ = e Pr dx = e -(1/x) dx
= e-ln x = x-1

Substitution and integration gives,

y-1 x-1 =  (-3x2) x-1 dx + c

y-1 x-1 = - 3 x2 + c Ans.

2

Example 3-17 3 dx + 3 x = 2x4y4

dy y
Solution: Divide the given D.E. by 3,

dx + 1 x = 2 y4 x4
dy y 3

which is now in the Bernoulli form

P = 1 ; Q = 2 y4
y 3
n = 4 and 1 – n = - 3

The solution is

x1 -n
Φ =  Qr Φ dy + c

where: Pr = (1 – n) P = - 3
x
Qr = (1 – n) Q = - 2y4

Φ = e Pr dy = e -(3/y) dy
= e- 3 ln y = y –3

Substitution and integration leads to,

x-3y-3 =  (-2y4) y-3 dy + c

Finally,

x-3y-3 = - y2 + c Ans.

Example 3-18 2 wt dt = t2 - 2w3

 58

Solution: The given D.E. is divided by 2 wt,

dt - 1 t = - w2 t-1
dw 2w

which is now in the Bernoulli form

Here, P = - 1 ; Q = - w2
2w
n = - 1 and 1 – n = 2

The solution is

t1 -n
Φ =  Qr Φ dw+ c

where: Pr = (1 – n) P = - 1
w
Qr = (1 – n) Q = - 2w2

Φ = e Pr dw = e -(1/2) dw
= e- ln w = w – 1

Substitution and integrate,

t2w-1 =  (-2w2) w-1 dw + c

t2 = - w2 + c Ans.
w

Exercise No. 11

Bernoulli Equation

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

Find the general solution of the following differential equations.

1. dy - 2 y =  y 3 sin x
 59

dx x 3

2. dy - y = 2 xy2 e-x
dx

3. xdy = y + y3 cos x
dx

4. dx - x cot 2y = x3 csc 2y
dy
 60

5. dy - 2 y =  y 3 cos x
dx x x

6. dx + 4 x = x4 y3
dy y

7. 3dy + 3 y = 2 x4 y4
dx x

8. 3xy’ + y + x2y4 = 0
 61

9. dy + y =  y
dx x

10. dy + y = 12e2x y
dx

3.7 D.E. Linear in x and y

(a) The standard form for this 1st-ordered D.E. is

(A1x + B1 y + C1) dx + (A2x + B2 y + C2) dy =

0

where: C1 and/or C2  0
 62

(b) Solutions:

CASE 1: When A1x + B1 y + C1 = 0 and

A2x + B2 y + C2 = 0 represent two
parallel lines, that is, when:

A2 = k A1 and B2 = k B1

(k – constant of proportionality)]

USE: v = A1x + B1 y
dv = A1 dx + B1 dy

and substitute to the D.E., eliminating either x or

y.

NOTE: This substitution will reduce to one where the

variables are separable.

CASE 2: When A1x + B1 y + C1 = 0 and

A2x + B2 y + C2 = 0 represent two
non-parallel lines,

USE: x = u + h and dx = du
y = v + k and dy = dv

where: (h, k) is the point of intersection of the

two parallel lines.

NOTE: This substitution method will reduce the D.E.

to one that is homogeneous of the first degree.

Example 3-19 (x + y - 1) dx + (2x + 2y + 1) dy = 0

Solution: This D.E. has the coefficients of dx and dy when equated

to
zero (0) represent two (2) parallel

x + y - 1 = 0 and 2x + 2y + 1 = 0

under CASE 1. with k = 2

Let v = x + y or dv = dx + dy

and substitute to the D.E.,

 63

(v – 1)(dv – dy) + (2v + 1) dy = 0

vdv – dv - vdy + dy + 2v dy + dy = 0

(v - 1)dv + (v + 2) dy = 0

(v - 1)dv + dy = 0
(v + 2)

Integrate after reducing the first term,

(1 - 3 .) dv + y = c
v + 2
v - 3 ln(v + 2) + y = c

Substitute v = x + y

x + 2y - ln (x + y + 2)3 = c

Example 3-20 (x - 4y - 9) dx + (4x + y - 2) dy = 0

Here, when the coefficients of dx and dy are equated to

zero (0),

x - 4y - 9 = 0 and 4x + y - 2 = 0
represent two (2) non-parallel lines with point of intersection at
(1, -2). this falls under CASE 2.

Let x = u + 1 and dx = du
y = v - 2 and dy = dv

and substitute to the given D.E.,

{ u + 1 - 4(v – 2) - 9} du + {4(u + 1) + v - 2 - 2} dv = 0

or (u - 4v) du + (4u + v) dv = 0

which is “homogeneous of degree 1”

Let u = zv
du = z dv + v dz

Substitute to get,

(zv – 4v) (z dv + v dz) + (4 zv + v) dv = 0

 64

Divide by v and simplify,

z2 dv - 4z dv + vz dz - 4v dz + 4z dv + dv = 0

(z2 + 1) dv + v(z - 4) dz = 0

dv + z - 4 dz = 0
v z2 + 1

Integrate to get,

ln v + 1 ln (z2 + 1 ) - 4 arc tan z = c

2
Substitute z = u/v,

ln v + 1 ln (u2/v2 + 1 ) - 4 arc tan u/v = c

2
Finally, substitute u = x - 1 and v = y + 2

to get
ln { (x – 1)2 + (y + 2 )2} - 8 arc tan x – 1 = c
y+2

Exercise No. 12

D.E. Linear in x and y

 65

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

Find the general solution of the following differential equations.

1. (2x – 3y + 2)dx – (3x + 2y + 1) dy = 0

2. (x + 2y + 1) dx + (2x + 4y – 3) dy = 0

3. (2x – 3y – 4) dx – (3x – 4y – 2) dy = 0

4. (x – 2y – 7) dx + (2x – 4y + 1) dy = 0
 66

5. (2x – y – 3) dx – (x + 4y + 3) dy = 0

6. (2x – y + 1) dx + (x – 2y – 1) dy = 0

7. (x – y – 6) dy = (x – y + 2) dx

8. (x – 2y + 5) dx + (x – 2y – 1) dy = 0
 67

9. (x – 2y + 4) dx + (2x – 4y – 1) dy = 0

10. (5x + 3y – 4) dx + (x + y – 2) dy = 0

IV. SPECIAL SECOND-ORDERED DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

CASE 1: d2y = f(x)

dx2
 68

Solution: y = x  f(x) dx -  x f(x) dx + c1x + c2

CASE 2: d2y = g(y)

dx2
Solution: x =  . dy . + c2
  2  g(y) dy + c1

CASE 3: d2y = f  dy 
dx2  dx 

Solution: x =  dp + c
f(p)
or y =  pdp + c
f(p)
where: p = dy
dx

CASE 4: d2y = f  x, dy 
dx2  dx 

Solution: Let p = dy and dp = d2y

dx dx dx2

CASE 5: d2y = f  y, dy 
dx2  dx 

Solution: Let p = dy and p dp = d2y

dx dy dx2

CASE 6: d { dy + y P(x) } = Q(x)

Dx

Solution: Let u = dy + y P(x)

Dx

REMARK: Cases 40 to 6 will reduce to first-ordered D.E. upon

the application of the suggested substitution. Appropriate
method/s is/are applied. (Methods 1 to 7, under Section 3)

Example 4-1 y” = x2 - 1

Solution: Under CASE 1, the solution of this D.E. is

 69

y = x  f(x) dx -  x f(x) dx + c1x + c2

where: f(x) = x2 - 1

Substitute to the D.E.,

y = x  (x2 - 1)dx -  x (x2 - 1) dx + c1x + c2

Integrate to give,

y = 1 x4 - 1 x2 + c1 x + c2
12 2

Example 4-2 y” = y + 2

Solution: Under Case 2, the formula is

x = . dy . + c2
  2  g(y) dy + c1

where: g(y) = y + 2 and

 g(y)dy = y2 + 2y
2
Substitute to the formula

x = . dy . + c2
 (y + 4y + c1)
2 1/2

Use the trigonometric substitution, thus

x = ln{2y + 4 + 2(y2 + 4y + c1)1/2} + c2

Example 4-3 y” = 3y’

Solution This 2nd-ordered D.E. is under Case 3

where f(p) = 3y’ or 3 dy

Dx

and p = dy
dx
Use the formula,

x =  dp + c1
f(p)
 70

x =  dp + c1
3p
and x = 1 ln p + c1
3
In the exponential form, this is reducible to

p = c1e3x = dy
dx
Variable separable method is applied,

dy = c1e3xdx
Finally,
y = 1 c1e3x + c2 Ans.
3

Example 4-4 xy” – 2x(y’)2 + y’ = 0

Solution: The D.E. is under Case 4 where the variable y is missing.

Let p = dy or y’
dx

dp = d2y or y”
dx

Substitute to the D.E.

x dp – 2x(p)2 + p = 0
dx

or dp + p = 2p2 (Bernoulli equation)

dx

Here, P = 1 ; Q = 2; n = 2
x

The solution is obtained to be

p-1x-1 = c1 – 2 ln x

and p = dy = . 1 .
dx x (c1 - 2ln x)

Separation of variables finally gives,

y = - 1 ln(c1 - 2ln x) + c2
 71

Example 4-5 yy” + 2(y’)2 = 0

Solution: This is under Case 4 where the variable x is missing.

Let p = y’ and p dp = y”
Dy

and substitute to the given D.E.,

y p dp + 2 p2 = 0
dy

or y dp + 2p = 0
dy

Separation of variables and integration gices

ln p + 2 lny = c

or ln p + ln y2 = c

ln py2 = c

py2 = ec = c1

p = c1y-2

Since p = dy = c1y-2
Dx

c1 dx = y2 dy

Finally, c1x = y3 + c2 Ans.

3

Example 4-5 d (dy/dx + y) = e-x

dx

Solution: This 2nd –ordered D.E. falls under Case 6

Let u = dy + y
dx

and so, du = e-x

dx
 72

or u = -e-x + c1

Substitute back to u = dy + y
dx

This is FOLDE where

P = 1; Q = -e-x + c1

and  = e P dx = ex

The solution is

y  =  Q  dx + c2

y ex =  (-e-x + c1 ) ex dx + c2
y ex = -x + c1 ex + c2

Finally,

y = c1 + c2 e-x - x e-x

Exercise No. 13

Special Second-Ordered D.E.

 73

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

.
Find the general solution of the following differential equations.

1. y” + y = 0

2. (x2 – 1)y” + xy” = 0

3. y” + 2y = 0

4. xy” + y’ = 0
 74

5. y” – (y’)2 - 1 = 0

6. y” + yy’ = 0

7. yy” - 2(y’)2 + y2 = 0

V. HOMOGENEOUS HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS (HOLDE)

1.The general form of the HHOLDE is:

 75

Normal Form:

A0 dny + a1 dn–1 y + . . . + an –1 dy + any = 0

dxn dxn-1 dx

Operator Form

(a0Dn + a1Dn-1 + . . . +an-1 D + an)y = 0

where: D = d ; Dr = dr (r  0)
dx dxr

The coefficients a’s are generally functions

of x.

2.Connected with the HHOLDE is an “auxiliary” equation

having the form,

a0mn + a1mn-1 + . . . + an-1m + an = 0

where m which replaced D, is called the auxiliary or

characteristic equation. The form of the solution of
HHOLDE depends upon the nature of the roots of the
auxiliary equation.

Four cases arises:

Case 1. The auxiliary equation has real and distinct roots. None
of
which is repeated. If the real and distinct roots of the
auxiliary equation are m1, m2, . . . mn-1, and mn, then the
solution of the HHOLDE is,

y = c1em1x + c2em2x + . . . + cnem n x

Case 2. The auxiliary equation has real and repeated roots.

Suppose a root mi of the auxiliary equation is real and
multiplicity p, then the part of the solution of HHOLDE for
this repeated root is

y = (c1 + c2x + c3x2 + . . . cpxp-1) emi x

Case 3. The auxiliary equation has some complex or imaginary

roots, none of which is repeated. If all the a’s are real
constants, then the complex roots of the auxiliary equation
 76

will occur in conjugate pairs. Let a  bi be such a pair.

Then the part of the solution of HHOLDE for this pair is

y = ea x (c1 cos bx + c2 sin bx)

Case 4. The auxiliary equation has some repeated complex or

imaginary roots. If the conjugate pair a  bi is a root of
the auxiliary equation repeated p times, then the part of
the solution of HHOLDE for these roots is

y = ea x [(c1 + c2x + . . . + cpxp-1) cos bx

+ (cp + 1 + cp+2 x + . . .+ c2p xp-1) sin bx]

REMARK: If the nature of the roots of the auxiliary equations

happen to be a combination of real and complex numbers, the
above cases may be collectively applied.

Examples for Case 1: All roots real and distinct.

Example 5-1 (D3 – 7D2 + 12D)y = 0.

Solution: The auxiliary equation is

m3 – 7m2 + 12m = m(m – 3)(m – 4) = 0

m = 0, 3, and 4

y = c1 + c2e3x + c3e4x . Answer.

Example 5-2 (D3 - 5D2 + 2D + 8)y = 0.

Solution: The auxiliary equation is

m3 - 5m2 + 2m + 8 = 0

By synthetic division the roots are found to be

M = 2, 4, and –1

The solution is: y = c1e2x + c2e4x + c3e-x

Answer.

Examples for Case 2: Auxiliary equation has repeated real roots.

Example 5-3 (D2 - 4D + 4)y = 0.

 77

Solution: The auxiliary equation is

m2 - 4m + 4 = 0 ; (m – 2)2 = 0

m = 2 (twice)

y = (c1 + c2x)e2x . Answer.

Example 5-4 (D2 - 6D + 9)2 y = 0.

Solution: The auxiliary equation is

(m2 - 6m + 9)2 = 0 ; (m – 3)4 = 0

m = 3 (4 times)

y = (c1 + c2x + c3x2 + c4 x3) e3x . Answer.

Examples for Case 3: Auxiliary equation has some complex roots,

none repeated.

Example 5-5 (D2 – 8D + 25)y = 0

Solution: m2 – 8m + 25 = 0 ; m = 4  3i.

y = e4x(c1 cos 3x + c2sin 3x). Answer.

Example 5-6 (D3 – 8D2 + 25 D)y = 0

Solution: m3 - 8m2 + 25m = 0 ; m(m2 – 8m + 25) = 0

m = 0 , 4  3i

y = c1 + e4x(c2 cos 3x + c3sin 3x).

Answer.

Example 5-7 (2D4 + D3 - 4D2 – 10D - 4)y = 0

Solution: 2m4 + m3 - 4m2 – 10m - 4 = 0

By synthetic division, we find the roots to be

m = 2, - ½ , and -1  I
 78

y = c1e2x + c2e-x/2 + e-x (c3 cos x + c4 sin x).

Answer

Examples for Case 4: Auxiliary equation has complex roots, some

repeated.
Example 5-8 (D2 + 36)2y = 0

Solution: (m2 + 36)2 = 0 ; m =  6i (twice)

y= (c1 + c2x) cos 6x + (c3 + c4x) sin 6x.

Answer.

Example 5-9 (D2 + 4D + 20)2y = 0

Solution: (m2 + 4m + 20)2 = 0; m = -2  4i (twice).

y = e-2x [(c1 + c2x) cos 4x + (c3 + c4x) sin 4x]

Answer.
 79

Exercise No. 14

Homogeneous Higher-Ordered Linear D.E.

Name: ____________________________ Score: ___________ Rating: ___________

Find the general solution of the following differential equations.

1. (D3 + 2D2 – D – 2)y = 0 Answer: y = c1ex + c2e-x + c3e-2x

2. D2(D + 2)4y = 0 Answer: y = c1 + c2x + e-2x(c3 + c4x

+
c5x2 + c6x3)

3. (D3 + 4D2 + D – 6)y = 0 Answer: y = c1ex + c2e-2x + c3e-3x

 80

4. (D3 + 6D2 + 25D)y = 0 Answer: y = c1 + e-3x(c2cos 4x +

c3 sin
4x)

5. (D2 – 2D – 3)3y = 0 Answer: y = (c1 + c2x +

c3x2)e3x + (c4 +
c5x +
c6x )e 2 -x

6. (D2 – 10D + 34)3y = 0 Answer: y = e5x[(c1 + c2x +

c3x2)cos 3x
+ (c4 + c5x +
c6x2)sin 3x]

7. (D – 2)2 (D + 3)4y = 0 Answer: y = (c1 + c2x)e2x +

(c3 +
c4x + c5x2 + c6x3 )
e-3x

8. (D2 + 12D + 40)4y = 0 Answer: y = e-6x[(c1 + c2x + c3x2

+c4x3)cos 2x + (c5 + c6x + c7x2 + c8x3)sin
2x]
 81

9. (D2 – 3D – 4)3y = 0 Answer: y = (c1 + c2x +

c3x2)e4x + (c4 +
c5x + c6x2)e-x

10. (D2 – 2D – 3)3(2D2 – 5D – 7)2y = 0 Answer: y = (c1 + c2x +

c3x2)e3x
+ (c4 + c5x + c6x2 + c7x3 + c8x4)e-x
(c9 + c10x)e7x/2

VI. NON-HOMOGENEOUS HIGHER ORDER LINEAR

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (NHOLDE)
6.1 NHOLDE with Constant Right-Hand Function

4.Operator Form:

(a0Dn + a1Dn-1 + . . . +an-1 D + an)y = f(x)  0

where: D = d ; Dr = dr (r  0)
dx dxr

5.Solution of the NHOLDE with Constant a’s and f(x) =

Fo (a constant)

CASE 1: When an  0

Solution: y = yc + yp

where: yp = F 0
an

yc is obtained by the method of Section 5

CASE 2: when an = 0

Solution: y = yc + yp
 82

where: yp = F 0 x k
k!an-k
(k = order of the lowest ordered
derivative)

yc is obtained by the method of Section 5

REMARK: For the case where the right-hand function

f(x) is not a
constant, three methods of solution are
commonly used:
(1) Reduction of Order; (2) Undetermined
Coefficients;
(3) Variation of Parameters. A special higher
order D.E. with variable coefficients, the Euler
equation will be discussed in example problems –
together with the above-mentioned methods of
solving a non-homogeneous higher linear D.E.
(NHOLDE) with f(x)  constant.

NOTE: In the solutions under section 6.1, yc and yp are

known as
the “complementary function” and “particular
integral”,
respectively. yp, being a particular solution, does
not
contain any arbitrary constants.

Example 6-1 Find the complete solutions of the following:

(a) (D2 + 4D + 4)y = 12

(b) (D3 - 9D)y = - 27

Solution :

(a) (D2 + 4D + 4)y = 12 is “non-homogeneous” with f(x)

= Fo = 12 and an = 4  0

(i) Complete solution: y = yp + yc

(i) For yp: Use CASE 1, SECTION 6.1

yp = Fo = 12 = 3
 83

an 4

(ii) For yc: Auxiliary equation is,

m2 + 4m + 4 = 0

(m + 2)2 = 0

r1 = r2 = -2 (Real and equal)

By Case II, Section 5

yc = e-2x(c1 + c2x)

(iii) Finally, y = yp + yc

y = 3 + e-2x(c1 + c2x)

(b) Likewise, (D3 - 9) y = -27 is “non-homogeneous” with

f(x) = Fo = -27 and an = 0.

(i) Complete solution: y = yp + yc

(ii) For yp: Use CASE 2, SECTION 6.1

yp = Fo xk = - 27x = 3x
k!an- k 1!(-9)

Here, k = 1 (order of the lowest

derivative)

an- k = -9

(iii) For yc: Auxiliary equation is,

m2 – 9m = 0

m(m – 3) (m + 3) = 0

r1 = 0 ; r2 = 3 ; r3 = - 3 (Real and
distinct

roots)

By Case 1
 84

yc = c1e0 + c2e3x + c3e-3x

(iv) Finally, y = yp + yc

y = 3x + c1e0 + c2e3x + c3e-3x

6.2 NHOLDE with Right-Hand Function in terms of the

Variable x
6.2.1 Reduction of Order Method

(1) Based form the roots of the auxiliary equation, write

the given D.E as

ao(D – r1)(D – r2) . . . (D – rn)y = f(x)

and let z = (D – r2) . . . (D – rn)y

This will reduce the D.E. to

ao(D – r1)z= f(x)

which is now a FOLDE (SECTION 3.5) and can be

solved in the form

z = g(x)

(2) Substitute this back into z,

(D – r2) . . . (D – rn)y = g(x)

and let v = (D – r3) . . . (D – rn)y

reducing to the form

(D – r2) v = g(x)

which is again a FOLDE and can be solved as

v = h(x)

(3) Once more substitute v to its original value and

repeat the procdure until the last factor is
erached, that is,

(D – rn)y =  (x)
 85

which will finally give,

y = yp = F(x)

REMARK: Since yp is a “particular” solution, the constant of

integration is
omitted in the procedure outlined above. The value of yc to
complete the solution by using the theorems on
homogeneous D.E.

Example 6-3 Find the complete solution of: (D2 – 4D + 4) y

= ex using
reduction of order method.

Solution:

General Procedure:

(i) In the given D.E., (D2 – 4D + 4)y = ex , the auxiliary

equation is,

m2 – 4m + 4 = 0
(m – 2)2 = 0

r1 = r2 = 2 (real and equal)

So, by Case 2, yc = e2x (c1 + c2x)

(ii) To get yp by the Reduction of Ordre method, write the

given D.E. in the factored form,

(D – 2) (D – 2)y = ex

Let z = (D – 2)y, and so

(D – 2)z = ex

or dz - 2 z = ex (FOLDE)
dx
with P = -2 ; Q = ex ;  = e-2x

So, by the formula,

z =  Q  dx
 86

z e-2x =  ex e-2x dx

z e-2x = - e-x

z = - ex

Now, (D – 2)y = z = - ex

or dy - 2y = - ex (FOLDE)

with P = -2; Q = -ex ;  = e-2x .

Finally, y =  Q  dx

y e-2x =  (-ex) e-2x dx

y e-2x = e-x

and y = yp = ex.

(iii) So, y = yp + yc

y = ex + e2x (c1 + c2x) Answer

Example 6-4 Solve (D2 – 6D + 8)y = 4e3x using Reduction of

Order.

Solution: The complementary function is

yc = c1e2x + c2e4x

Write the operator in the factored form:

(D – 2) (D – 4)y = 4e3x

Let (D – 4)y = z; then (D – 2)z = 4e3x or

dz - 2 z = 4e3x
dx

Solving this equation whose integrating factor is e-2x, we

find
z = 4e3x. There is no need to include a constant of
integration
since this is a part of yp. Next we solve
 87

(D – 4)y = z = 4e3x

whose solution is yp = - 4e3x

Hence, y = yc + yp = c1e2x + c2e4x - 4e3x. Answer.

Exercise No. 15

Non-Homogeneous Higher-Ordered Linear D.E.

(Reduction of Order)
 88

Name: ____________________________ Score: _________ Rating:

_________

Solve the following problems by Reduction of Order.

1. (D2 – 1)y = 2ex Answer: y = c1ex + c2e-

x
+ xex

2. (D2 – D – 2)y = 12x – 6e2x Answer: y = c1e2x + c2e-x –

6x + 3
-
2xe2x

3. (D2 – 2D + 1)y = e2x – x2 Answer: y = (c1 + c2x)ex +

e2x – x2
– 4x - 6
 89

4. (D2 – 5D + 4)y = 48x – 12ex Answer: y = c1ex +

c2e4x + 12x +
15 +
4xex

5. (D2 – 5D + 6)y = 15 sinx – 15 cosx Answer: y = c1e2x +

c2e3x + 3 sin x
 90

6. (D2 – D – 2)y = 4x2 Answer: y = c1e-x + c2e2x –

2x2 +

2x – 3

7. (D2 – 4D + 3)y = 20 cosx Answer: y = c1ex + c2e3x + 2

cos x
– 4 sinx
 91

8. (D2 – 1)y = 10 sin2x Answer: y = c1ex + c2e-

x
+ cos 2x
-
5

9. (D2 – 1)y = 10 e2xsinx Answer: y = c1ex + c2e-x

+
e2x( sinx – 2
cos x)

10. (D2 + 4D + 4)y = 12x2 e-2x Answer: y = (c1 +

c2x)e-2x + x3e–2x
 92

6.2.2 Undetermined Coefficients Method

This method for finding yp has a decided advantage over the

first, since it requires no integration processes but ony
differentiation. However, it can be applied only to special types
of the right-hand function, listed under the following rules:

RULE 1: When f(x) = K xpeqx ( q = 0; an  0)

yp = Axp + Bxp – 1 + . . . + Lx + M

RULE 2: When f(x) = K xpeqx (q = 0; an = 0)

yp = (Axp + Bxp – 1 + . . . + Lx + M) xr

where: r is the number of times 0 appears as a

root of
the auxiliary equation.

RULE 3: When f(x) = Kxp eqx (q  0)

yp = eqx (Axp + Bxp – 1 + . . . + Lx + M) xr

where: r is the number of times q appears as a

root of
the auxiliary equation.
RULE 3: When f(x) = Kxp eqx cos bx or Kxp eqx sin bx

yp = eqx (A1 xp + B1 xp – 1 + . . . + L1 x + M1 ) xr
cos bx
eqx (A2 xp + B2 xp – 1 + . . . + L2 x + M2 ) xr
sin bx
where: r is the number of times q + bi appears as
a root
of the auxiliary equation.
 93

Example 6-5 In the given D.E., (D2 – 4D + 4)y = e , we have

6.2.3 Variation of Parameters Method

6.3 The Euler Equation

VII. GEOMETRICAL AND PHYSICAL APPLICATIONS OF

ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
7.1 Geometrical Applications
7.1.1 Rectangular Curves

Example 7-1 Find the equation of the family of curves for

which the slope at any point (x, y) is x .
y

Solution: The slope at any point is equal to the derivative.

dy = x or xdx = ydy
dx y

Integrating, x 2 = y2 + C1 or

x2 - y2 = c2 , (c2 = 2c1). Answer.

Example 7-2 Find the equation of the family of curves for which
the slope at any point equals of the product of its coordinates.

Solution:

In this case, dy = xy or dy = xdx

dx dy

Integrating, ln y = x2 + k and
2
2
y = eek x /2

2
y=c ex /2 Answer.

7.1.2 Orthogonal Trajectories

An orthogonal trajectory of a given family of curves is a curve that is

perpendicular to every curve of the family. Thus, if dy/dx is the slope
of the given family of curves at any point, then for the orthogonal
trajectories,
 94

dy = - 1 .
dx O.T. dy
dx

Example 7-3 Find the equation of the system of orthogonal

trajectories of the parabolas x + y = a, a > 0.
Solution: From x + y = a, we have

1 + dy/dx = 0 or dy = - y .
2x 2y dx x

For the orthogonal trajectories,

dy = + x . or x dx = y dy.
dx y

Integrating, 2 x3/2 _
2 y3/2 = c or x3/2 _
y3/2 = c Answer.
3 3

Example 7-4 Find the equation of the system of orthogonal

trajectories of the family of circles x2 + y2 = cx.

Solution: Differentiating the given equation, we get,

x2 + y2 = cx , 2x + 2yy’ = c

x2 + y2 = (2x + 2yy’) x = 2x2 + 2xyy’

y’ = slope of the circles at any point

= y2 - x2
2xy
For the orthogonal trajectories,

dy = _
2xy = 2xy .
dx y – x2
2
x – y2
2

2xy = (x2 – y2)

2xydx - x2dy + dy = 0 ;
y2

x2 + y = k ; x2 + y2 = ky. Answer.
y
 95

To sketch the given family of curves and the orthogonal trajectories,

transform the equation to their standard forms. The standard forms
are:

For the given family of curves:

(x – c )2 + y2 = c2
2 4
For the orthogonal trajectories:

x2 + (y – k )2 = k2
a. 4

O.T.

Example 7-5 Find the equation of the system of orthogonal

trajectories of the ellipses 2x2 + y2 = c.

Solution:
2x2 + y2 = c , 4x + 2yy’ = 0 , y’ = -2x
y

For the orthogonal trajectories,

dy = + y ; 2 dy = dx

2lny = ln x + lnk

ln y2 = lnkx
 96

y2 = kx Answer.

Thus, the orthogonal trajectories are the parabolas y2 = kx, where k

is an arbitrary constant.

7.1.3 Isogonal Trajectories

7.2 Physical Applications of Ordinary Differential

Equations

7.2.1 Law of Exponential Change

In the physical world, there are

elements/objects which continually
undergo changes. Bacteria, for
example, increases its count with
time, while radioactive elements
decreases its “strength” or energy
as time increases. It may be
possible that the rate at which the
amount of this element or object is
proportional (or ONLY
approximately proportional) to the amount at any instant. In
which case, the complete behavior of the element or object as it
undergoes change may be defined by an exponential function –
in the following manner:

6. From the above stated rate of change,

dA = k A
dt
where: A is the amount of the element or object at any
instant.
 97

7. Separation of variables and integration gives,

Ln A = kt + C

or A = ekt + C = ekteC
Finally, A = C ekt
NOTE:
(ii)For the basic equation, A = C ekt , to be completely
defined, two (2) boundary conditions are necessary for
the determination of the arbitrary constants C and k.
(iii) From the resulting basic equation, the law that defines
this process is termed “law of exponential change.”
(iv) When k > 0: Change is known as “growth”.
When k < 0: Change is called “decay”.

Example 7-6: A certain radioactive element follows the “law of

exponential change” and has a “half-life” of 38 hours. Find (a) how
long it takes for 90% of the radioactivity of the element to be
dissipated; (b) the percentage of radioactivity that remains after 76
hours. (NOTE: “Half-life” of an element is the time required for 50%
of the radioactivity to be dissipated.)

Solution:

Let RP = percentage of radioactivity of the element at nay instant

Basic Equation: RP = C ekt.

Given: When t = 0 (present time); RP = 100%

When t = 38 hrs (half-life); RP = 50%

Required: When t = ? ; RP = 10%

When t = 76 hrs; RP = ?

From the GIVEN conditions,

(1) 100% = Ce0 and C = 100%

(2) 50% = C e38k = 100% e38j
and e38k = 0.50
38k = - 0.693
k = - 0.018

So, RP = 100% e-0.018t

(2) For RP = 10% (90% dissipation),

10% = 10% e-0.018t

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e-0.018t = 0.10
-0.018t = - 2.30
t = 128 hours. Answer.

(3) For t = 76 hours,

RP = 100% e-0.018(76)
RP = 25.5% Answer.

Example 7-7: A bacterial population follows the “law of

exponential change.” If between noon and 2:00 P.M. the population
triples, at what time would the population become 100 times what it
was at noon? At 10:00 A.M., what was the percentage of the bacterial
population in terms of the population at noon?

Solution: Let Pb = bacterial population at any instant

Basic Equation: Pb = C ekt

Given: When t = 0 (NOON); Pb = Po

When t = 2 hrs (2 P.M.); Pb = 3Po

Required: When t = ?; Pb = 100Po

(3) From the GIVEN conditions,

(1) Po = C eo or C = Po
(4) 3Po = C e2k = Po e2k

or e2k = 3
2k = 1.10
and k = 0.55
So, Pb = Poe0.55t

(4) (1) When Pb = 100Po,

100Po = Po e0.55t

e0.55t = 100
0.55t = 4.605
t = 8.37 hrs

Time is: 8:22.2 P.M. Answer

(3) When t = -2 hours (10 A.M.)

Pb = Poe0.55(-2) = 0.33 Po
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So, at 10:00 A.M., the bacterial population was 33%

of the population at noon.

Example 7-8: The rate of change of the male population of a

particular barangay is proportional to the male population at any
time. If the present male population of the barangay is 30,000 and
ten (10) years ago, there were 20,000 males in the barangay, when
will the population double its present count? How many males were
there 4 years ago?

Solution: Let Pm = male population of the barangay at any instant

Basic Equation: Pb = C ekt

Given: When t = 0, Pm = 30,000
When t = - 10 years; Pm = 20,000

Required: When t = ? ; Pm = 60,000

When t = -4 years; Pm = ?

From the GIVEN conditions,

(1) 30,000 = Ce0 or C = 30,000

(2) 20,000 = C e-10k = 30,000 e-10k

e-10k = 0.667
– 10k = - 0.405
k = 0.405

So, Pm = 30,000 e0.0405

(1) When Pm = 60,000

60,000 = 30,000 e0.0405t
e0.0405t = 2
0.0405t = 0.693

t = 17.10 years

(2) When t = - 4 years,

Pm = 30,000 e0.0405(-4)

Pm = 25,514
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Exercise No. 20

Law of Exponential Change

Name: ___________________________ Score: _________ Rating: _________

Solve the following problems.

1. Radium decomposes at a rate proportional to the quantity

present. If at the end of 20 years approximately 1% of the original
quantity has decomposed, how long will it take for one-half of the
original quantity to decompose? (Answer: 1,379 years)
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2. A certain radioactive substance has a half-life of 50 hours, that is,

half of the original quantity has decomposed at the end of 50
hours. How long will it take for 95% of the substance to dissipate?
(Answer: 216 hours)

3. If I represents the intensity of light which has penetrated to a

depth of x meters, then the arte of change of I is directly
proportional to I. If I at a rate of 10 m is 4/9 of the intensity at the
surface, find the intensities at depths of 20 meters and 40 meters.
(Answers: 0.1975 Io, 0.0390 Io)
 102

4. The rate of population growth of a certain country is proportional

to the number of inhabitants. If the population of a certain
country is now 4o million and 50 million 10 years later, what will
be its population 20 years from now?
(Answer: 62.5 million)

5. The rate at which a chemical substance decomposes is

proportional to the amount of the substance still unchanged. What
is the proportional constant if the amount of the substance
changes from 1000 grams to 500 grams in 2 hours? (Answer: -
0.347)
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6. A certain radioactive element changes at a rate proportional to the

amount at any instant (law of exponential change). How many
grams of the element will be left in 300 years, if 100 grams was set
aside 50 years ago and at present is only 90 grams?
(Answer: 48 grams)

7. A certain radioactive element dissipates at a rate proportional too

its amount instantaneously present. If one-half of any given
amount of the element dissipates in 1,600 years, what fraction will
dissipate during the second century?
(Answer: 8.3% or about 2/25 part)
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8. A certain spherical object increases in mass at a rate proportional

to the instantaneous surface area of the object. If half its mass
was gained in 100 seconds, how long will its take its radius to
increases to twice its initial value. In 200 seconds, what
percentage increase of its radius was gained by the object?
(Answer: 385 seconds; 52%)

7.2.2 Law of Newton on Cooling

The Newton’s Law on Cooling” is stated as

follows: “The rate of change of the temperature
of a body placed in a medium of constant
temperature is proportional to the difference
between the temperatures of the body and
medium – provided this differences is NOT
large.” In differential equation form

dTb = k(Tb - Tm)

dt

which when solved by separation of variables,

Tb = C ekt + Tm
where: Tb = variable temperature of the body
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Tm = constant temperature of the medium

Example 7-9 The temperature of a metal is 20C. It is

submerged in a large body of liquid of temperature 5C. After one (1)
minute, the temperature of the metal dropped down to 10C. When
will the metal’s temperature be 6C? After 30 seconds, what will be
temperature of the metal?

Solution: Basic Equation: Tb = Cekt + Tm

Where: Tm = 5C (liquid medium)

GIVEN: When t = 0; Tb = 20C

When t = 1 min; Tb = 10C

REQUIRED: When t =? ; Tb = 6C

When t = 0.50 min ; Tb = ?

(i) From the GIVEN conditions,

(1) 20 = C e0 + 5 or C = 15

(2) 10 = C ek + 5 = 15 ek + 5

or ek = 5
15
k = - 1.10

So, Tb = 15 e-1.10t + 5

(ii) (1) When Tb = 6C,

6 = 15 e-1.10t + 5

e-1.10t = 1
15
- 1.10t = - 2.71

t = 2.46 min Answer

(2) When t = 0.50 min (30 seconds)

 106

Tb = 15 e-1.10(0.50) + 5

Tb = 13.65 C Answer

Example 7-10 At a certain time, a thermometer reading 70F is

taken outdoors where the temperature is 15F. Five minutes later, the
thermometer reading is 45F. After another five minutes, the
thermometer is taken back indoors where the temperature is fixed at
70F. What is the thermometer reading ten minutes after it was
brought back indoors? When will the reading, to the nearest degree,
return back to its original reading of 70F?

Solution:

Basic Equation: Tb = Cekt + Tm

Where: Tm = 15F (gas medium)

GIVEN: When t = 0; Tb = 70F

When t = 5 min; Tb = 45F

REQUIRED: Tb = ? after 10 minutes outdoors and another 10

minutes indoor

t = ? when Tb = 69F (indoor)

(i) From the GIVEN conditions,

(1) 70 = C e0 + 15 or C = 55

(2) 45 = C e5k + 15 = 15 e5k + 15

or e5k = 30
55
5k = - 0.606
k = - 0.1212

So, Tb = 55 e-0.1212t + 15

NOTE: This equation is true for the case where the

thermometer
is outdoors.
 107

(ii) Five (5) minutes further, the thermometer was taken

back indoors. The reading here is,

Tb = 55 e-0.1212t + 15

Tb = 31.4F

So, in bringing back the thermometer indoors,

Tb = 31.4F when t = 0

and the temperature of the medium, Tm = 70F,

resulting into
a new relation,

Tb = C ekt + 70

Substitute Tb = 31.4F when t = 0

31.4 = C e0 + 70 or C = -38.6

and so, Tb = -38.6 e-0.1212t + 70

(iii) When t = 10 min (indoors),

Tb = -38.6 e-0.1212(10) + 70

Tb = 58.5F Answer

(iv) When Tb = 69F

69 = -38.6 e-0.1212t + 70

e-0.1212t = 1 .
38.6
t = 30 minutes

NOTE: The value of k for the case when the thermometer is inside is
the same as when it is outside.
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Exercise No. 21

Newton’s Law on Cooling

Name: ___________________________ Score: _________ Rating: _________

1. If in air at 60 C a body cools from 90 C to 80C in 10 minutes, find

its temperature 20 minutes later. (Answer: 73.35C)
 109

2. A thermometer reading 50 C is taken outside where the

temperature is 30 C. Five minutes later the reading is 40C. Find
the temperature reading 10 minutes later after the thermometer
was brought outside.(Answer: 35C)

3. In Problem 2, find the time it will take for the temperature to drop
from 50 C to within 30.5 C. (Answer: 26.62 minutes)
 110

4. A 12:00 noon a thermometer reading 60 C is taken outside where

the air temperature is 24 C. At 12:02 P.M. the reading is 32 C. At
12:06 P.M. the thermometer is taken back indoors where the
temperature is 60C. What is the thermometer reading at 12:10
P.M.? (Answer: 58.24 C)

5. A thermometer reading 10C is brought into a room where the

temperature is 32C. Two minutes later the thermometer reading
is 15. Determine the temperature reading 5 minutes after the
thermometer is first brought into the room. (Answer: 20.26C)
 111

6. A thermometer reading 45C is brought outside where the

temperature is 25C. Five minutes later the thermometer is 33C.
Find (a) the thermometer reading 10 minutes after the
thermometer was brought outside; and (b) the time it will take for
the reading to drop to 26C.
(Answer: 28.2C)

7. At 1:00 P.M. a thermometer reading 35C is taken outside there the

air temperature is 6 C. At 1:04 P.M. the reading is 18 C. At 1:09
P.M. the thermometer is taken back indoors where the temperature
is 35 C. What is the thermometer reading at 1:15 P.M. ? (Answer:
29.84C)
 112

8. The rate at which a body is cooling to the difference in the

temperatures of the body and the surrounding medium. If a body
cools from 120 to 70F in one (1) hour, after placing it in a medium
whose temperature is 20F, how long will the body cool to 30F?
After 2 hours, what will be the temperature of the body? (Answer:
45F, 3 hours, 19 minutes)
 113

7.2.3 Simple Electric Circuits

1ohm

L
E 1H

12V

1F

(1) A simple electric circuit (SEC) is one in which an inductance L

( henry), a resistance R (ohm), and a capacitance C 9farad), are
connected in series with a source of electromotive force, EMF of
E volt). The differential equation necessary to solve the various
problems relative to this circuit is derived with the use of the
Ohm and Kirchhoff’s laws.

(2) The first law of Kirchhoff states that “the algebraic sum of all the
potentials around a closed electric circuit is zero.” Applying in
this law to the SEC being considered, we have

E – EL – ER – Ec = 0

where: EL = L dI (volt)
dt

ER = RI (volt)

EC = Q (volt)
C

So, L dI + RI + Q = E
dt C
 114

and L d2Q + RdQ + Q = E

dt2 dt C

NOTE: (i) The two (2) basic equations used in SEC are:

(1) When the capacitance is not present,

L dI + RI = E
dt

(2) With the capacitance in the SEC,

L d2Q + RdQ + Q = E
dt2 dt C

or ( LD2 + RD + 1 ) Q = E
C

With D = d
dt

(ii) The inductance L is a circuit parameter which opposes a

change in
the current I (ampere) causing a potential drop of EL.
(iii) The resistance R is a circuit parameter which opposes the
current I causing a potential drop ER.
(iv) The capacitance C is a circuit parameter which opposes a
change in the voltage causing a potential drop EC.
(v) The current I is the rate of change of the electric chanrge
Q(coulomb) or

I = dQ
dt

and so
dI = d2Q
dt dt2

Example 7-11 A coil of inductance 1 henry and resistance 10 ohms

is connected in series with an EMF of Eo sin 10t volts. When t = 0,
the current is zero. If I = 5 amperes when t = 0.1 second, what must
be the value of Eo?
 115

Solution: This is a SEC where there is NO capacitance, and so the

basic equation is,

L dI + RI = E
dt

where: L = 1 henry

R = 10 ohms

E = Eosin 10t volts

(i) Substitute all known values,

1 dI + 10 I = E osin 10t (FOLDE)

dt

with P = 10; Q = E osin 10t ;  = e10t

(ii) Solution is: I  =  Q  dt + C

I e10t =  E osin 10t e10t dt + C

Evaluate the integral to get,

I e10t = E o ( e10t ) (10 sin 10t – 10 cos 10t) + C

200
or I = E o (sin 10t – cos 10t) + C e-10t
20

But I = 0 when t = 0, giving C = Eo

20

So, I = E o (sin 10t – cos 10t + e-10t)

20
(iii) Finally, for t = 0.1 second, I = 5 amperes,

5 = E o (sin 1 – cos 1 + e-1)

20

giving Eo = 149 volts

 116

Example 7-12 A sinusoidal EMF 110 sin 400t volts is connected in

series in a circuit with an inductance of 0.1 henry, a resistance of 10
ohms, and a capacitance of 250 microfarad. Find the steady-state
solutions of the charge Q and the current I in terms of the time t. Also
determine the maximum values of the steady-state Q and I.

Solution: This is SEC contains all the parameters L, R, and C.

Basic Equation: ( LD2 + RD + 1 ) Q = E

C

where: L = 0.10 henry

R = 10 ohms
C = 250 x 10-6 farad

E = 110 sin 400t volts

(i) Substitute all known values,

(0.10D2 + 10D + 4000)Q = 110 sin 400t

NOTE: The “steady-state” solutions for this SEC with

“sinusoidal” EMF
are:

(1) Qss = _
Eo (X sin t + R cos t)
Z2

(2) Iss = Eo (R sin t - X cos t)

Z2
With  = 400

X = L - 1 = 30 (“reactance”)
C

Z2 = R2 + X2 = 1000 (‘impedance”)

(ii) With the computed value, we have

Qss = - 0.00275 (3 sin 400t + cos 400t) Answer

and
Iss = 1.10(sin 400t – 3 cos 400t) Answer
 117

(iii) To dtermine the maximum values of Qss and Iss sset their
derivatives rto zero, solve for the time t and
substitute back to the basic equations of Qss and Iss.

(1) dQss = _
0.00275 (1200 cos 400t – 400 sin 400t) = 0

or 400 t = 1.25 radians

So, max. Qss = -0.00275( 3 sin 1.25 + cos 1.25)

= 0.0087 coulomb Answer

(2) dIss = 1.10 (400 cos 400t + 1200 sin 400t) = 0

or 400t = - 0.32 radian

So, max. Iss = 1.10( - sin 0.32 - 3 cos 1.25)

= 3.48 amperes Answer

Example 7-13 A coil of inductance 1 henry and negligible

resistance is connected in series with a capacitance of 10 -6 farad
and an emf E volts. Considering Q and I are both zero when t =
0, find the charge Q and current I when t = 0.001 second with
(a) E = 100 volts; (b) E = 100 sin 500t volts.

Solution: The basic equation here is (LD2 + RD + 1 )Q = E

C
Where: L = 1 henry

R = 0 (negligible)

C = 10-6 farad

E = 100 volts; 100 sin 500t volts

(i) Substitute given values (for E = 100 volts),

(D2 + 106) Q = 100 (NHOLDE with Constant Right-Hand

Function)

(ii) (1) Auxiliary equation: m2 + 106 = 0

with roots: r1 = 1000i ; r2 = -1000i

 118

so, Qc = eo(C1cos 1000t + C2 sin 1000t)

(2) Particular integral, Qp = 100 = 10-4

106
So, complte solution is: Q = Qc + Qp

Q = C1 cos 1000t + C2 sin 1000t + 10-4

and I = dQ = - 1000C1 sin 1000t + 1000C2 cos 1000t

dt

(iii) Values of C1 and C2; Using the boundary conditions: I =

Q = 0

When t = 0, which gives C1 = - 10-4 and C2 = 0

Q = 10-4 (1 – cos 1000t)

and I = 0.10 sin 1000t

When t = 0.001 second,

Q = 10-4 (1 – cos 1000t) = 4.60(10)-5 coulomb

Answer
and I = 0.10 sin 1 = 8.40(10) -2
ampere
Answer

(iv) For E = 100 sin 500t volts,

(D2 + 106) = 100 sin 500t

a NHOLDE with “sinusoidal” emf

Here, Qc = C1 cos 1000t + C2 sin 1000t, which is the

same as in
the previous case.

The value of Qp is given by the formual

Qp = Eo (X sin t + R cos t)

_

Z2
where:  = 400

X = L - 1 = -1500 (“reactance”)
C
 119

Z2 = R2 + X2 = 2.25(10)6 (‘impedance”)

Eo = 100

(v) Substitute to Qp,

Qp = 1.33(10)-4 sin 500 t

and so Q = Qc + Qp

Q = C1 cos 1000t + C2 sin 1000t + 1.33(10)-4 sin

500 t

and I = dQ = 1000(-C1 sin1000t + C2 cos1000t) +

0.067 cos 500t
dt

Using the boundary condition: I = Q = 0 at t = 0

To give C1 = 0 and C2 = -6.79(10)-5

(vi) Finally,

Q = - 6.70(10)-5 sin 1000t + 1.33(10)-4 sin 500t

and I = - 6.70(10)-2 cos 1000t + 0.0670 cos 500t

When t = 0.001 second

Q = - 6.70(10)-5 sin 1 + 1.33(10)-4 sin 0.50

= 7.40(10)-6 coulomb Answer

and I = -6.70(10)-2 cos 1 + 0.0670 cos 0.50

= 2.20(10)-2 ampere
 120

Exercise No. 22

Simple Electric Circuits

Name: ___________________________ Score: _________ Rating: _________

1. For the circuit in Figure 1, find the current at any instant, and
show that as time goes on the current approaches the limit E/R.
(Answer: I = E/R (1 – e-Rt/L)

2. A coil of inductance 2 henrys and a resistance of 10 ohms is

connected with an emf E = 200 sin 20 t volts, where t is the time in
 121

seconds. I = 0 when t = 0. Find I when t = 0.05 second. (Answer:

2.11 amperes

3. An inductance of 2 henrys and a variable resistance R = 4/(t + 10)

are connected in series with a constant emf of E volts. If I = 0
when t = 0, determine E so that I = 50 amperes when t = 5
seconds.
(Answer: 28.42 volts)

4. A coil of inductance 1 henry and negligible is connected in series

with a capacitance of 4 x 10-6 farad, and an emf of E = 200 volts.
When t = 0, Q = 0 and I = 0. Find Q and I at any time t. (Answers:
Q = 1/1,250(1 – cos 500t;
 122

I = 2/5 sin 500t)

5. When a resistance R (ohms) and a capacitance C (farads) are

connected in series with an emf E (volts), the current I (amperes) is
given by the equation

R dI + 1 I = dE
dt C dt
If R = 1,000 ohms, C = 5 x10-4 farad, and I = 10 amperes for t =
0, find
the current for t = 1 second and E = 100 volts. (Answer: 1.35
amperes)
 123

6. An inductance of 1 henry, a resistance of 1,200 ohms, and a

capacitance of 10-6 farad are connected in series with an emf E =
100 sin 400t volts. If the charge and current are both zero when t
= 0, find the expression for current I at any time t thereafter.
[Answer: I = e-600t (0.091 (sin 8oot + 0.036 cos 800t) + 0.036 cos 800t
+ 0.021 sin 400t]

7. An inductance of 4 henrys and a resistance of 30 ohms are

connected in series with an emf of E volts. If I = 0 when t = 0,
determine I when t = 0.01 second if E = 220 volts. (Answer: 0.533
ampere)
 124

8. A coil of inductance 1 henry and a resistance of 10 ohms is

connected in series with an emf E = 100 sin 10 t volts. I = 0
when t = 0. Find I when t = 0.2 second. (Answer: 7.30 amperes)

9. An inductance of 2 henrys and a variable resistance R = 4/(t + 10)

ohms are connected in series with an emf E volts. If I = 0 when t =
0, determine E such that I = 40 amperes when t = 5 seconds.
(Answer: 22.70 volts)

10. An inductance of 1 henry and a resistance of 2 ohms are

connected in series with an emf of Ee-t volts. When t = 0, I = 0.
Determine the value of E if I = 20 amperes when t = 1 second.
(Answer: 86.1 volts)
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11. An inductance of 1 henry, a resistance of 100 ohms and a

capacitance of
10-4 farad are connected in series with an emf E = 220 volts. The
charge and current are both zero when t = 0. Find I when t =
0.002 second.
(Answer: 0.342 ampere)

12. A coil of inductance 2 henrys and negligible resistance is

connected with a capacitance of 2 x 10-6 farad and an emf E = 200
volts. If the charge Q and the current I are both zero when t = 0,
find Q and I when t = 0.001 second.
(Answer: Q = 0.000 0488 coulomb; I = 0.094 ampere)
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13. An inductance of 1 henry, a resistance of 3,000 ohms, and a

capacitance of 5 x 10-7 farad are connected in series with an emf of
E = 200 e-1,000t volts. If the charge and current are both zero when t
= 0, find I when t = 0.001 second. (Answer: 0.0194 ampere)

14. An inductance of 1 henry, a resistance of 1,600 ohms, and a

capacitance of 10-6 farad are connected in series with an emf of 200
sin 500t volts. Find the general expression for the charge Q.
[Answer: Q = e-800t(C1cos600t +C2sin 600t) - 1/7,750 (15sin500t +
16cos500t)]
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15. An inductance of 1 henry, a resistance of 1,200 ohms, and a

capacitance of 10-6 farad are connected in series with an emf E =
200 sin 600t volts. The charge and current are both zero when t =
0. (a) Find the value of Q and I at any time t. (b) Find I when t =
0.002 second.

7.2.4 Law of Newton on Dynamics

7.2.5 A Problem on Chemical Solution

7.2.6 Unsteady Flow in Orifices
7.2.7
7.2.8 Heat Flow Problems
7.2.9 Different Types of Vibrations
7.2.10 Motion of a Falling Body Under a
Resistance
Proportional to the Square of the Velocity
7.2.11 The Tractrix
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