Fire Detection

4 Fire Detection

4.1 Summary................................................................................................63
4.2 Basics.....................................................................................................65
4.2.1 Outbreak of a Fire ...................................................................................65
4.2.2 Development of a Fire.............................................................................66
4.2.3 Fire Phenomena......................................................................................67
4.2.4 Types of Fire ...........................................................................................69
4.2.5 Fire Detection System.............................................................................70
4.3 Fire Detectors ........................................................................................72
4.3.1 Detection Principles ................................................................................72
4.3.2 Detection Reliability.................................................................................84
4.3.3 Networking Technologies........................................................................92
4.4 Selecting the Appropriate Fire Detector.............................................94
4.4.1 Consideration of the Type of Fire............................................................94
4.4.2 Considering the Room Height.................................................................97
4.4.3 Considering Ambient Conditions.............................................................97
4.4.4 Considering Prevailing Deceptive Phenomena ......................................98
4.4.5 Fire Detectors for Explosion-Hazard Areas ............................................98
4.4.6 Summary.................................................................................................99
4.5 Number and Positioning of Fire Detectors.......................................103
4.5.1 Basics....................................................................................................103
4.5.2 Manual Call Points ................................................................................105
4.5.3 Point-type Smoke Detectors .................................................................105
4.5.4 Point-type Heat Detectors.....................................................................107
4.5.5 Linear Smoke Detectors .......................................................................108
4.5.6 Aspirating Smoke Detectors .................................................................110
4.5.7 Flame Detectors....................................................................................116

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4.6 Fire Detection Control Unit and Peripheral System ........................119

4.6.1 Control Unit ...........................................................................................120
4.6.2 Peripheral System.................................................................................123
4.6.3 Commissioning......................................................................................128
4.6.4 Selecting the Suitable Fire Detection Control Unit................................134
4.7 Linear Heat Detection Systems .........................................................135
4.7.1 Detection Principles ..............................................................................136
4.7.2 Selecting the Suitable System ..............................................................139
4.8 Planning ...............................................................................................140
4.8.1 Object-independent Planning................................................................140
4.8.2 Object-dependent Planning ..................................................................143
4.9 Installation, Commissioning and Acceptance .................................150
4.9.1 Installation .............................................................................................150
4.9.2 Commissioning......................................................................................151
4.9.3 Acceptance ...........................................................................................151
4.10 Profitability and System Evaluation..................................................152
4.10.1 Cost Blocks ...........................................................................................152
4.10.2 Service Life ...........................................................................................153
4.10.3 Extensions and Modernization..............................................................154
4.10.4 False Alarms .........................................................................................155
4.10.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................155

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4.1 Summary
The task of an automatic fire detection system is to detect fire as early as possible,
to alarm and activate the preprogrammed control functions. State-of-the-art fire
detection systems are capable of detecting fire extremely early and thus of mini-
mizing the damage that may be caused by fire. By an optimal product selection
and appropriate knowledge it is possible to set up systems that virtually rule out
false alarms.

A fire detection system consists of the control unit, the peripherals such as fire
detectors and contacts, as well as alarm and control devices activated by the
control unit.

In selecting, setting and positioning fire detectors, it is crucial to consider – in

addition to the actual prevailing risk – the type of fire to be expected, the room
height, ambient conditions such as air changes and possible deceptive phenom-
ena. In high-risk areas, multisensor fire detectors with state-of-the-art signal proc-
essing are used more and more frequently. For medium and lower risks, usually
optical smoke detectors with conventional signal processing (algorithm technology)
are applied.

State-of-the-art fire detectors allow an exact configuration of the detector behavior,

which meets the environmental conditions and the prevailing deceptive phenom-
ena. A fire detector in a hospital room must respond in a completely different way
than a fire detector in a foundry.

When arranging the fire detectors, one must be sure that the fire phenomena
(smoke, heat, radiation, gas) reach the fire detectors, giving special consideration
to the ceiling’s construction (e.g. the ceiling joists, special roof or ceiling shapes),
and a possible room division by alcoves, furniture or fixtures and fittings.

In rooms where strong deceptive phenomena occur, the ideal arrangement of the
fire detectors is of central significance. Even small changes of the detector position
bring about massive improvements of the immunity to deception, without reducing
the detection reliability.

In selecting the fire detection control unit, user-friendliness, a high degree of flexi-
bility and a very high degree of fail-safe operation must be taken into consideration.
The control unit is the point of interaction between people and the system and must
thus make easy and intuitive alarm and fault processing possible.

High flexibility in networking and parameter setting facilitate extensions and the
adaptation of the system behavior to a change of customer requirements.

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The availability of a fire detection system is crucial, which is why emergency power
supply and an integrated emergency operating function are mandatory, making fire
alarms possible in spite of a failure to a module or a power failure.

For economic reasons, a fire detection system's technology is chosen according to

the requirements and the specific risk situation. For an office building, a fire detec-
tion system with manual call points and optical smoke detectors with normal signal
processing is usually sufficient, but if production facilities in the chemical industry
shall be protected, for example, the use of advanced technology is a must.

A comprehensive product portfolio, highly reliable fire detectors with multisensor

technology and the use of an exceptional logic, high flexibility of the fire detection
control unit and its connection to the danger management system are topics to be
considered in setting up a fire detection system.

Minimize damage through reliable and early detection

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4.2 Basics
The knowledge of the outbreak of a fire and its development is decisive for fire
prevention and fire fighting. To ensure reliable, early detection in the case of fire, it
is equally important to be familiar with the different fire phenomena and the possi-
ble types of fire. The following four topics will be handled in detail hereinafter:
− outbreak of a fire
− development of a fire
− fire phenomena
− types of fire

Section 4.2.5 shows the setup of a fire detection system and the aspects to be
considered in its planning and implementation.

4.2.1 Outbreak of a Fire

For a fire to break out, combustible material (fuel) and an oxidation agent (usually
oxygen) must be available. Our environment is to a large extent made up of com-
bustible materials – and oxygen is virtually always sufficiently available. But an-
other condition must be fulfilled for a fire to break out: The ignition energy must be
the driving force to initiate oxidation. Ignition energy sources are manifold: Electri-
cal discharge (e.g. lightning), short-circuits, flying sparks, hot surfaces (light bulbs,
heating equipment, etc.), direct exposure to flames or bundled light, to name only
the most important ones. If a fire occurs, it provides the necessary energy to main-
tain the combustion process.

Oxygen Heat

Fuel

Figure 4.1: The fire triangle

Fire thus occurs by the interaction of fuel, oxygen and heat (energy).

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4.2.2 Development of a Fire

Apart from explosion-type processes, a fire normally develops more or less quickly,
depending on the combustible material. As fuel and oxygen are sufficiently avail-
able at the beginning of the fire development, it is to a large extent determined by
the available energy. Especially a flaming fire releases a lot of energy resulting in
exponential fire growth at this stage.

Flashover

Figure 4.2: Typical fire development

As shown in Figure 4.2, most fires pass through the following phases and events:
• Early stage: The incipient fire can be extinguished with a few deciliters of water;
little visible smoke occurs, but especially invisible aerosols are generated.
• Smoldering phase: In this phase, the fire can be extinguished by means of a
fire extinguisher or a similar extinguishing agent. Visible, partly dense smoke
occurs. Usually, combustion is incomplete, which is why rather a lot of (toxic) CO
is produced in this phase.
• Flaming phase: We are faced with an open fire to be fought by the fire brigade.
As enough energy is available, the combustion process is rather complete, re-
sulting in a high production of CO2.
• Flashover: The transition between an open, flaming fire and a total fire is called
flashover. This is the explosive fire spread, taking place exactly at the point
when the gases and aerosols produced during the previous phases ignite and
carry the fire into all rooms already penetrated by the smoke gases.
• Total fire: In this phase, the fire has reached larger building parts. In most
cases, the building or fire sector can no longer be saved and the fire brigades
concentrate their efforts on the protection of neighboring buildings and fire sec-
tors.

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Fire detection must occur as early as possible, so that intervention can start before
the flashover. Incipient fires should thus be detected in the early stage or in the
smoldering phase at the latest, so that there is enough intervention time left. The
problem is that the early stage and the smoldering phase can be of completely
different intensity and duration. Some smoldering fires may continue to smolder for
hours or even days before an open fire occurs.

With liquid fires, there is no smoldering phase at all; they directly develop flames.
With such fires, the intervention time is extremely short. Usually, damage can only
be limited by an automatic extinguishing system. Of course, there are other possi-
bilities, such as constructive measures, to slow down fire spread, thus prolonging
the intervention time – but this is usually very expensive.

Conclusion: The earlier a fire is detected, the more time there is for fire fighting,
and the less damage occurs. Earliest possible detection is thus the key to minimiz-
ing damage and winning precious intervention time.

4.2.3 Fire Phenomena

Fire phenomena are physical values that are subject to measurable change in the
development of a fire (e.g. temperature increase, light obscuration or flames).

The processes in material combustion can be principally viewed from the perspec-
tive of a conversion of energy and substances. The energetic conversion releases
energy into the environment. The substantial conversion produces – depending on
the substances present at the seat of fire – products in any physical state, ranging
from non-toxic to highly toxic.

The figure below indicates the concomitant phenomena of a fire with the associ-
ated fire phenomena (in parentheses).

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Periodic Visible
(sound) Ultraviolet Infrared Liquid (smoke)

Rectified Unordered Visible Solid Gaseous Invisible

(flow) (heat) (light) (ashes) (CO2) (fire gases)

Ordered Colloid

Molecular
movement

Conduction, Radiation Remanent Volatile

convection

After-effects Products

Energetic Substantial
conversion conversion

Figure 4.3: Schematic representation of fire phenomena

The energetic conversion releases energy by radiation and convection. The range
of radiation released during a fire can be divided, by wavelength, into ultraviolet
(UV), visible light and infrared (IR). Energy release by convection essentially takes
place through the ambient air. First, the kinetic energy of the air molecules is
increased, resulting in a temperature increase. The associated expansion leads to
an upward air flow. Due to this flow, cooler air and thus oxygen is guided to the fire
seat. These processes can also lead to periodic pressure fluctuations that are
perceived as sound in certain frequency ranges (e.g. the typical crackling of a fire).

The conversion of substances taking place in a fire is characterized by the various

chemical reactions that can occur at the seat of fire, depending on the substances
present.

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The substantial conversion of a fire is determined by the different chemical reac-

tions that may go on at the seat of fire. The solid or liquid conversion products
either remain at the fire seat (e.g. ashes) or are distributed into the direct environ-
ment of the fire. In the latter case, they form a so-called aerosol, as finely distrib-
uted solid or liquid suspended matters mixing with the ambient air. Gaseous
conversion products always spread through the air.

4.2.4 Types of Fire

The fire phenomena occurring with a smoldering or open fire differ in terms of type
and intensity.

Type of fire Smoldering fires Open fires (flaming fires)

(non-flaming fires)
Pyrolytic
decomposition Solid matters Liquid matters Gaseous matters
Properties Glowing fires (mostly ember- (flame (flame
and fire (carbonization
process) forming fire) combustion) combustion)
phenomena
Combustion Not independent, Independent Independent Independent Independent
process requires continuous after ignition after ignition after ignition after ignition
energy supply

Type of smoke Very light smoke Light smoke Dark smoke Very dark
(aerosol) smoke Depending on
the carbon
share of the
Optical Quickly Strongly Strongly gas, its
properties of Quickly spreading absorbing, absorbing, chemical
spreading
smoke spreading little spreading little properties and
High (except mixing with
Aerosol volume High High High pure alcohol: oxygen
none)

UV / IR radiation Low Low to High High Increases with

medium C-share

Heat convection Low Low to High High High

medium

Combustion Much CO, Much CO, Little to much Little CO, Little CO,
gases little CO2 little CO2 CO, much CO2 much CO2 much CO2

Sound None None None to much None to much None to much

Pressure Low to medium, Low to high,

increase None None depending on dep. on fire Low
the fuel phenomenon

Table 4.1: Fire types and fire phenomena

The main property of the pyrolysis fire is that it does not go on independently but
requires the continuous supply of new energy. The fire can be extinguished by
stopping the energy supply. The propagation of that fire type is thus restricted to
the size of the heat source, which is why we can also speak of overheating accom-
panied by chemical decomposition. As soon as the ignition temperature is reached,
the fire develops to a glowing or even an open fire.

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The glowing fire is an independent process. The glowing temperatures are high
and the particles produced are thus relatively small. The visible particles are only a
small part of the particle spectrum generated. Typical for a glowing fire are incipient
fires in hay or cotton bales.

Characteristic for open fires – with the exception of alcohol fires – is the production
of soot, i.e. black smoke. Although here, too, the major part of the particles gener-
ated is in the non-visible range. Studies have shown that in almost all cases,
including the early stage and smoldering phase, more invisible particles than
visible ones are generated.

Summarizing, we can state that large volumes of volatile fire aerosols are pro-
duced with almost all hostile fires. Smoke has thus become the most important fire
phenomenon for an early detection of fire. Depending on the size and concentra-
tion of the fire aerosols, they may be visible or invisible. In general, fire aerosols
are 10 to 10'000 times the size of gas molecules.

Viruses Bacteria
Pollen
Human
hair
Gases Fire aerosols
H2 Zinc oxide smoke
O2 Colophony smoke
CO/N2 Oil smoke
CO2 Ammonium chloride
Lamp soot
Tobacco smoke
Color pigments
Powdered milk
Insecticides
Carbon dust
Cement dust

Figure 4.4: Diameter of different molecules and suspended matters

4.2.5 Fire Detection System

The main task of an automatic fire detection system is to reliably identify a fire at
the earliest stage possible, to alarm and to activate the preprogrammed control
functions.

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Periphery Control unit Actions

Acoustic
alarm
Automatic
fire detectors

Optical alarming

Manual call point

Fire detection control unit

Escape route guidance

Automatic
contacts
Fire brigade

Logging

Figure 4.5: Setup and function of a fire detection system

The periphery comprises all field elements acquiring the actual state on site, which
is transmitted to the control unit in the form of hazard levels. The intelligent, auto-
matic fire detectors detect and analyze the different fire phenomena on site and
automatically report prevailing hazards to the control unit. Manual call points serve
for the direct alarm activation by people present in the danger zone. Automatic
contacts (e.g. from an activation of a sprinkler extinguishing system) report a fire
alarm indirectly.

The fire detection system is monitored, controlled and operated by the control unit,
which evaluates the hazard messages from the peripheral devices and activates
alarm and fire control installations. Additionally, it serves for operating the fire
detection system itself.

The measures initiated by the control unit serve for alarm and intervention. Optical
and acoustic alarm devices inform the people in the building and those responsible
for the building and call the fire brigade. Controls activate smoke extraction sys-
tems and stationary extinguishing systems. Optical escape route guidance and
voice alarm safely evacuate people from the building.

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4.3 Fire Detectors

The following categories of fire detectors are basically distinguished:
• Non-automatic fire detectors: Manual call points are non-automatic fire detec-
tors that have to be activated by a person in the case of fire.
• Semi-automatic fire detectors: We speak of semi-automatic fire detectors
when a fire detector may recognize a fire but alarm is activated manually. These
are usually camera systems equipped with appropriate software, which are ca-
pable of detecting changes to the recorded images, for example the generation
of smoke or open fires. As the reliability of these systems is presently not suffi-
cient to activate actions such as the direct alarm of the fire brigade or extinguish-
ing activation, these systems are usually semi-automatic. The system alerts
people to a possible danger, while the actual alarm must still be verified.
• Automatic fire detectors: These most frequently used fire detectors capture
fire phenomena such as smoke, heat, flames or gas and activate an alarm via
the control unit in the case of fire.
• Fire detectors for special applications: For applications with an increased fire
risk, where a normal fire detector cannot be used for different reasons, special
detectors are required. In mining or heavy industry, very robust systems are re-
quired that are capable of reliably detecting fires under extreme environmental
conditions. For example, sparks in transport ducts used in the textile industry
must be detected and appropriate measures must be initiated immediately, as
otherwise devastating consequences can occur. Normal fire detectors react
much too slow for such applications – systems reacting within a few milliseconds
are required here.

The following chapters exclusively handle detection principles, detection reliability

and the available networking technologies of automatic fire detectors.

4.3.1 Detection Principles

A fire detector must be capable of detecting at minimum one fire phenomenon
(smoke, heat, radiation, gas) reliably at an early stage. Increasingly, state-of-the-art
fire detectors are used that can detect several phenomena at once. These fire
detectors generally have a significantly better response behavior and are highly
immune to deception.

Of course, a smoke detector’s sensitivity does not only depend on the detection
principle but also on the specific detector design, the type of smoke and other
environmental factors, such as air humidity, etc. To be able to exactly determine
the sensitivity of a detector, a standardized procedure is used (see also section
4.4.1.1).

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4.3.1.1 Point-type Smoke Detectors

Most fires produce smoke, which can be detected by relatively simple detectors.
This is also the reason why state-of-the-art fire detection systems consist to more
than 80% of smoke detectors.

Based on the great significance of this fire detection principle, new and improved
point detectors have been continually developed in the past. The most important
principles are scattered light, extinction (light absorption) and ionization. Until about
1990, ionization was the most important principle. Today, however, most point
detectors work according to the scattered light principle. People speaking of optical
smoke detectors today usually refer to scattered light smoke detectors.

Scattered Light Smoke Detectors

As the name indicates, the scattered light smoke detector measures the light
scattered by smoke. The construction type, especially the position of light source
and receiver, has a strong influence on the detection behavior. In a scattered light
smoke detector, the photoelectric cell is arranged in such a way that it cannot
receive any direct light from the light source. When there is no smoke, the light hits
a labyrinth and is completely absorbed. If there are any smoke particles in the area
of the light beams, the light is scattered. Some light beams impinge the photoelec-
tric cell, which in turn generates a signal. Decisive for the signal intensity are the
smoke density and the optical properties of the smoke particles.

1 Light source
2 Lens
3 Photoelectric
cell
4 Signal
5 Smoke
particles
6 Labyrinth

Figure 4.6: Functional principle of the scattered-light smoke detector

(forward scatter)

The scattering capability of large, light smoke particles is extremely high. Soot
particles and black smoke scatter the light only faintly, which is why the scattered-
light smoke detector rather captures visible, light smoke particles and is especially
suited for the detection of such fire types whose smoke spectrum is marked by light
smoke. With a forward scatter detector, light smoke particles produce a much
stronger signal on the photoelectric cell than dark particles could. For this reason,
forward scatter detectors are best suited for the detection of smoldering fires with
light smoke particles. With the backscatter detector, the signal difference between
light and dark smoke particles is less distinct. Backscatter smoke detectors are
thus much more balanced in their detection behavior and are equally suited for the
detection of fires producing dark smoke particles.

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Extinction Smoke Detectors

The word “extinction” originates from Latin, designating physical processes result-
ing in attenuation or obliteration.

An extinction smoke detector measures the light attenuation caused by absorption

and scattering. A light source is focused on by a photoelectric cell from a certain
distance. When there is no smoke, the photoelectric cell measures a signal. When
smoke penetrates the space between the light source and the photoelectric cell,
the signal measured is slightly reduced. This signal reduction caused by absorption
and light scattering is proportional to the smoke density.

If the distance between light source and receiver measures only a few centimeters,
as it is the case with a point detector, this signal reduction in case of smoke is very
low (0.05% to 0.2%). Although the evaluation of such a low signal change is meas-
urable with state-of-the-art electronics, the required long-time stability still consti-
tutes a great challenge.

1 Light source 4 Signal

2 Lens 5 Smoke particles
3 Photoelectric cell 6 Lens

Figure 4.7: Functional principle of the extinction smoke detector

The extinction smoke detector detects light and dark, large and small aerosols and
is characterized by its uniform response behavior. This detector is suited for the
early detection of all fires producing visible smoke.

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Ionization Smoke Detector

As this detector produces electrically charged particles (ions) from neutral particles,
it is called ionization smoke detector.

The air between two electrodes, biased by a DC voltage, is ionized, i.e. made
conductive, by means of a slightly radioactive radiation source. Due to this ioniza-
tion, a weak electric current begins to flow in the sampling chamber. When smoke
particles penetrate the sampling chamber, ions attach to the smoke particles,
reducing the flow of electricity. This reduction is proportional to the number of
smoke particles in the measuring area.

1 Electrodes 4 Signal (electric current)

2 Radioactive radiation source 5 Smoke particles
3 Sampling chamber

Figure 4.8: Functional principle of the ionization smoke detector

The signal coming from the ionization smoke detector is proportional to the number
of smoke particles in the sampling chamber. Ionization smoke detectors are thus
particularly suited for the detection of open fires, as such fires produce a large
number of small, primarily invisible smoke particles. They are less suited for detect-
ing smoldering fires that produce only few, large smoke particles.

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4.3.1.2 Linear Smoke Detectors

Linear smoke detectors work according to the extinction principle, i.e. they meas-
ure the light attenuation caused by smoke. Systems accommodating the emitter
and receiver in the same housing use a remote reflector and have the advantage
that they need to be connected to the detector line at one point only, and that
maintenance is easier. In systems without a reflector, the emitter and receiver are
separate. Both systems, however, work according to the same measuring principle.

The emitter sends out a focused light beam. When there is no smoke, this light
beam reaches the receiver in its unattenuated intensity. However, if there is smoke
between the emitter and the receiver, the light is partly absorbed when impinging
the smoke particles and partly scattered by them, meaning that it changes direc-
tion. Only a part of the emitted light can reach the receiver. The signal reduction
indicates the average smoke density over the measuring section.

5 to 100m
Reflector

Receiver

Emitter

Figure 4.9: Functional principle of the linear smoke detector

Linear smoke detectors are used for measuring sections between 5m and 100m.
Even a low smoke concentration causes a signal attenuation of several percent.
The stability problem, which must be considered with point-type extinction smoke
detectors, virtually does not exist with linear smoke detectors.

As the linear smoke detector reacts on absorption and scattering, it is suited for
light and dark, large and small aerosols. It is characterized by its uniform response
behavior and is suited for the early detection of all fires generating visible smoke.

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4.3.1.3 Aspirating Smoke Detectors

Aspirating smoke detectors are also known as air sampling smoke detection sys-
tem or aspiration smoke detection (ASD). In the air sampling smoke detection
system, air samples from the monitored area are guided to the detection chamber
via a pipe network by means of a powerful suction system.

Pipe network Suction points

Detection
chamber

Suction mechanism

Figure 4.10: Functional principle of an ASD system

Depending on the manufacturer and the desired sensitivity, the detection chamber
accommodates a smoke detector, employing one of the detection principles de-
scribed in the following.

Point-type Smoke Detector

When no high sensitivity levels are required, the ASD systems are equipped with
point detectors. The smoke detectors used for ASD are usually of the same con-
struction as normal point detectors, but they are set to the highest sensitivity level.

Cloud Chamber
In a closed area, high air humidity is generated by means of a water bath. Then,
the smoke particles are guided through this zone. The high humidity condenses on
the smoke particles which act as condensation nuclei, resulting in fog. This fog is
illuminated with a pulsating LED to determine its density. The higher the density of
the fog, the higher the smoke density.

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Optical Smoke Detector

The sensor consists of a high-energy light source emitting a focused light beam
(e.g. laser) and of a receiver. Aerosols in the measuring section deflect the light,
which in turn impinges on the receiver's sensor electronics. This signal is evaluated
and serves for triggering an alarm.

Xenon
Permanently aspirated air is guided through a detection chamber and is illuminated
by a xenon lamp over a distance of several centimeters. Smoke particles deflect
the beams and produce a correspondingly strong signal due to the relative length
of the detection chamber. This signal is evaluated and serves for triggering an
alarm. These aspiration smoke detectors require periodic calibration, which is
reflected in the expenditures for maintenance. Xenon detectors work according to
the scattered light smoke detector principle.

Particle Counter
A focused light beam illuminates aspirated air. Smoke particles deflect the beam,
which impinges on an optical mechanism and generates an electric pulse. The
number of pulses per unit of time is proportional to the smoke density. When the
number of particles exceeds a predefined value, an alarm is triggered. With this
measuring principle, the air flow must be regulated, as an inconstant air flow would
disturb the result.

Comparison of the Detection Principles

A comparison of the different detection principles shows that there are both advan-
tages and disadvantages to each principle. In general, the higher the sensitivity,
the more susceptible the detector is to deceptive phenomena. In selecting the
system, the required maintenance expenditures must be taken into account.

Property Immunity to
Sensitivity deception Easy servicing
Detector type
Point-type
0 +++ ++
smoke detectors
Cloud chamber + 0 0
Optical smoke
++ ++ ++
detectors
Xenon ++ + 0
Particle counter +++ + +
+++ : Excellent
++ : Very good
+ : Good
0 : Moderate
Table 4.2: Comparison of ASD principles

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4.3.1.4 Point-type Heat Detectors

Heat detectors are equipped with a temperature-sensitive element and are only
suited for the detection of open fires.

Maximum Temperature Detector

With maximum temperature detectors, a maximum temperature is defined. Upon
achieving this temperature, the detector switches to alarm mode. These detectors
are based on the functional principle of a thermistor (semiconductor element with
temperature-sensitive resistor), a fusible element, a bimetal strip or the expansion
of a liquid.

These detectors only react when a certain temperature is exceeded, independent

of the smoke density and other characteristic values. For this reason, maximum
temperature detectors are suited for simple applications with a relatively low risk
only.

Rate-of-Rise Temperature Detector

With the rate-of-rise temperature detector, the temperature increase per unit of
time required to trigger an alarm is defined (°C/min). If the measured temperature
increase per unit of time exceeds this threshold, an alarm is triggered. Rate-of-rise
temperature detectors are usually based on the functional principle of a thermistor.

In practice, rate-of-rise temperature detectors are usually designed so that they

also switch to alarm mode when a predefined maximum temperature is exceeded –
similar to the maximum temperature detector.

As the reference value for alarm activation is the rate of rise, these detectors are
clearly superior to the maximum temperature detectors. However, they are still
restricted to low-risk applications and are only applied in situations where a smoke
detector would be subject to massive deceptive phenomena.

4.3.1.5 Linear Heat Detectors

Linear heat detection systems consist of a line-type sensor (a cable with a number
of sensors or a tube) and an evaluation unit. These systems are usually applied for
special applications only. For this reason, this type of fire detection is handled
separately in chapter “Linear Heat Detection Systems” starting on page 135.

4.3.1.6 Flame Detectors

Flame detectors convert the electromagnetic radiation emitted by flames into an
electric signal.

To rule out faults and deception by sunlight, reflected light, lamps and other light
sources as far as possible, the detection range of the detectors is shifted from the
visible to the invisible range. Most flame detectors therefore operate in the ultravio-
let or infrared range.

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Ultraviolet Visible Infrared

Intensity of
sunlight on
earth

Wavelength
UV IR
flame flame
detector detector

Figure 4.11: Application of UV and IR flame detectors

UV Flame Detector
UV flame detectors react on the electromagnetic radiation emitted by an open
flame in the short-wave range of UV radiation (at a wavelength of approximately
0.2µm).

1 Anode 4 Gas molecules

2 Cathode 5 Signal (electric current)
3 Sampling chamber 6 UV radiation

Figure 4.12: Functional principle of the UV flame detector

High-voltage is applied between the cathode and the anode. As soon as UV rays
impinge on the cathode, its surface emits electrons. These electrons hit the gas
molecules in the tube, ionizing them and thus initiating a snowball-type electron
flow from the anode to the cathode. The result of this process is a striking increase
of the current flow that is proportional to the intensity of the UV radiation emitted by
the fire.

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UV flame detectors are capable of detecting all types of open fires. With appropri-
ate sensitivity settings, they are also resistant to sunlight, special fluorescent lamps
and spark discharge. However, strong UV sources, such as welding flames, spe-
cial lamps, electric arc lamps and ionizing radiation (radioactivity or X-rays) may
cause false alarms. Any soiling of the detectors must be avoided as their sensitivity
will decrease. Especially an oil film on the sensor lid immediately renders a detec-
tor completely inoperable.

IR Flame Detector
IR flame detectors make use of the maximum intensity of the infrared-active flame
gases in a frequency range of 4.3µm, occurring during the combustion of carbona-
ceous materials (emission spectrum of hot CO2).

1 IR filter 4 Signal
2 Pyroelectric sensor (IR) 5 Flame radiation
3 Sampling chamber

Figure 4.13: Functional principle of the IR flame detector

The flame irradiation on the IR flame detector is filtered by the infrared filter in such
a way that only radiation with a wavelength between 4 and 5µm impinges on the
pyroelectric sensor. This sensor only responds on a change of the radiation inten-
sity (energy change) and generates an electric current proportional to that value.

Infrared flame detectors are suited for the detection of smokeless liquid and gas
fires as well as smoke-generating, open fires of carbonaceous materials. All or-
ganic, combustible materials such as wood, plastics, gases and oil products con-
tain carbon. Fires of purely inorganic materials such as hydrogen, phosphorus,
sodium, magnesium or sulfur cannot be detected by infrared detectors. As soon as
such materials are burned together with organic materials, like for example pack-
aging material, detection can be ensured.

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4.3.1.7 Gas Detectors

The gas sensors used in fire detectors detect either carbon monoxide (CO) that is
produced in case of incomplete combustion or carbon dioxide (CO2) produced in
case of complete combustion.

CO Detectors
With smoldering and glowing fires, combustion is mostly incomplete due to the low
temperatures. For this reason, the aerosol particles agglutinate to larger and thus
more easily visible parts (strong smoke generation), and a lot of toxic CO gas is
produced.

Most CO sensors in fire detection work according to the semiconductor principle

(for measuring principle, see section 3.4.1 on page 45). However, the market also
offers CO sensors based on an electrochemical cell (for measuring principle, see
section 3.4.3 on page 47).

CO sensors are suited for the early detection of smoldering fires but are only fit for
limited detection of open fires.

CO sensors based on the semiconductor principle have the disadvantage of high

cross-sensitivity (response to different gases) and are strongly influenced by hu-
midity. Gases and humidity thus bear an influence on the exact determination of
the CO concentration. Electrochemical sensors do not have this disadvantage.
However, they have a shorter service life and generate higher maintenance costs
(for a comparison, see Table 3.1 on page 49).

CO2 Detectors
In contrast to smoldering and glowing fires, open, flaming fires burn a considerable
load per unit of time. This is associated with a striking temperature increase and
high CO2 production.

CO2 is a very durable gas, which is why its chemical detection is rather difficult. To
detect CO2, opto-acoustic sensors and infrared absorption sensors are used today
(for measuring principles, see sections 3.4.4 and 3.4.5 starting on page 47).

CO2 sensors are suited for the detection of open fires but are only fit for limited
detection of smoldering fires.

CO2 is particularly produced by open fires generating a lot of fire gases. As thermal
sensor electronics are much more cost-efficient than CO2 measuring, and as the
two phenomena occur largely in parallel, gas measuring hardly has any additional
benefits.

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Summary
CO fire detectors have serious problems in detecting open, flaming fires, while CO2
fire detectors reach their limits when it comes to detecting smoldering fires. In fire
detection, pure gas sensors are thus rarely used. For special applications, how-
ever, they are used together with other sensor types, mostly in combination with an
optical and / or a temperature sensor (multisensor fire detector).

4.3.1.8 Multisensor Fire Detectors

Multisensor fire detectors are equipped with two or more sensors whose signals
are interlinked in an appropriate way. Such detectors are often – and rather impre-
cisely – referred to as “multi-criteria detectors”. They often detect different fire
phenomena and can thus detect fires earlier and more reliably. The market offers
multisensor fire detectors in virtually all conceivable combinations of smoke, heat
and gas sensors:
− smoke sensors (scattered light, extinction, laser, ionization)
− heat sensors (maximum, differential)
− gas sensors (CO, CO2)

Today, the most frequently used multisensor detectors identify smoke by means of
an optical sensor and heat with a heat sensor. Flame detectors also include multi-
ple sensor products. By intelligently interlinking the different sensor signals, the
response behavior and immunity to deception can be largely improved, resulting in
a much higher detection capability that it would be the case with separate sensors.
The crux of developing a multisensor fire detector is the selection of the best suited
sensor principles and combination of the sensors with optimum characteristics, so
that both the detection properties and the immunity to deception can be optimized.

1 Light source
2 Lens
3 Photoelectric
cell
4 Signal
5 Smoke
particles
6 Labyrinth
7 Temperature
sensor

Figure 4.14: Example of a multisensor fire detector

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The multisensor fire detector shown here is equipped with two scattered light
sensors (forward scatter and backscatter) and a heat sensor. The detection behav-
ior of such a detector is characterized by the following properties:
• Excellent detection of smoldering fires with light smoke particles by the forward
scatter sensor.
• Good detection of fires with black smoke particles by the backscatter sensor.
• Reliable detection of fires without visible smoke by the heat sensor.
• High reliability and immunity to deceptive phenomena such as vapor, exhaust
gases or heat sources due to the combination of the individual sensor signals.

The main advantage of multisensor fire detectors is that not only the strengths and
weaknesses of the different sensors can be balanced due to the combination of the
different measured quantities, but an interpretation of events becomes possible.
The result is an essential improvement of the response speed (early detection of
fires) and a considerably higher immunity to deceptive phenomena (no false
alarms).

4.3.2 Detection Reliability

The detection reliability is the key property of a state-of-the-art fire detection sys-
tem. The system shall only trigger a fire alarm when a fire has indeed occurred.
False alarms, i.e. alarms that have been triggered although there is no fire, result in
extra costs due to operational interruptions and unnecessary intervention by the
fire brigade. In addition, there is the risk that people become used to false alarms
and will not react quickly enough in case of emergency (see chapter “Information
Transfer of the Alarm” starting on page 162).

Type of false alarm Reason for triggering alarm

Deception alarm caused by Phenomena occurring are the same as, or

fire-simulation event similar to those of fire (deception)
Detectors are soiled, influence of
Fault
electromagnetic fields, defective components
Improper manipulation of the system, or
Erroneous operation
improper maintenance work

Willfully triggered false alarm Willful triggering of a fire detector

Not identifiable Reasons unknown

Table 4.3: False alarms

Most false alarms are triggered by deceptive phenomena such as cigarette smoke,
water vapor from showers or aerosols produced during welding. Fire detectors
without automatic drift compensation frequently cause false alarms when the
detector is excessively soiled.

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Basically, false alarms can never be completely ruled out. However, they can be
significantly reduced by taking appropriate measures:
• False alarms caused by fire-simulating events can be reduced by the correct
selection and arrangement of the fire detectors (detectors with intelligent signal
processing in locations with fewer deceptive phenomena).
• False alarms caused by faults can be reduced by paying attention to the quality
of the products applied in selecting the system.
• False alarms caused by erroneous operation can be reduced by user-friendly
control units and appropriate user training.
• Reducing willfully caused false alarms can usually be combated with additional
expenditures (e.g. access control, video monitoring).

4.3.2.1 Detector Sensitivity

State-of-the-art technology makes possible the production of highly sensitive fire
detectors. These detectors are capable of detecting incipient fires at an early
stage. However, they are also more sensitive to deceptive phenomena. The prob-
ability of deception can thus be reduced by using fire detectors with a lower sensi-
tivity level – which in turn reduces the possibility of detecting fires at an early stage.
The figure below shows the general correlation between detection reliability and
the probability of deception.

Probability of deception Genuine

alarm

Fire
development
Detection
reliability

False alarm

Time

Figure 4.15: Detection reliability and probability of deception

At the beginning of a fire, the intensity of the fire phenomena is still very low. Pos-
sible deceptive phenomena at this stage may produce a signal many times higher
than the signal actually wanted. To reduce the risk of false alarms, it would thus
seem logical to simply give enough time to fire detection – which, however, contra-
dicts the desire of early fire detection and the associated damage mitigation.

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4.3.2.2 Detector Design

A soiled detector sooner or later causes faults or even false alarms. It may as well
happen that the detector becomes less sensitive and responds too late in case of
fire. Since the point-type, optical smoke detectors are by far the most frequently
applied fire detectors, the aspects of detector design are explained using the
example of such a detector.

Soiling of detectors cannot be generally ruled out or avoided. The detector must
thus be designed in a way that particle deposits inside or at the outside of the
detector do not impair the detection behavior. In designing a detector, correspond-
ing measures must be taken in addition to the intelligent signal processing with drift
compensation. The following aspects must be taken into account:
• The inlet openings must be designed in a way that the penetration of fibers, dust
and insects is aggravated, at the same time ensuring the unhindered penetration
of smoke.
• The distance between the detection volume and the labyrinth must be long
enough, so that fibers and other particles that have nevertheless penetrated the
detector cannot reach the detection area.
• The encapsulation of the optics must be designed in a way that particles can
neither settle on the emitter nor on the receiver.

In addition to soiling, especially the penetration of external light can cause faults or
malfunction. This can be avoided by the design and nature of the labyrinth. To
reduce malfunction due to the impact of electromagnetic fields, corresponding
measures must be taken regarding the detector electronics. A sophisticated layout
of mechanics, sensor unit and detector electronics is the prerequisite for reliable
signal processing.

4.3.2.3 Signal Processing

By far the most effective way to improve detection reliability is the use of highly
intelligent fire detection systems capable of distinguishing between deceptive
phenomena and genuine fires. Apart from the high quality of sensor electronics,
especially the fire detection system's intelligence plays a key role, particularly the
processing and interpretation of the sensor signals.

The market offers fire detection systems in which the fire detectors transmit the
signals to the fire detection control unit, which is in turn responsible for signal
processing. Modern fire detection systems, however, almost exclusively work on
the principle of decentralized data processing. The sensor signals are directly
processed in the detector, and only the evaluated results are transmitted to the
control unit. The following paragraphs cover signal processing in the fire detector
used in systems with decentralized data processing.

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Threshold Value Technology

With this technique, the sensor signal is amplified and if an alarm threshold is
exceeded, the alarm is transmitted to the control unit either directly or after a
preprogrammed delay. Detectors are equipped with simple electronics and know
the two states: Alarm and quiescent condition.

Signal

Alarm threshold
Alarm

Time

Detector Evaluation (threshold value) Result

Figure 4.16: Signal processing based on threshold value technology

ASIC Technology
Detectors employing ASIC technology are equipped with comprehensive electron-
ics featuring an ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit). These highly inte-
grated modules enable fast and intelligent signal processing, making the detector
capable of detecting faults or soiling in addition to several hazard levels. In case of
minor soiling, the sensitivity is corrected automatically (drift compensation).

Signal Alarm
Alarm threshold 2
Alarm threshold 1

Fault
Time

Detector Sensor signals Evaluation Result

Figure 4.17: Signal evaluation based on ASIC technology

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Algorithm Technology
Fire detectors based on algorithm technology perform complex signal analyses at
short intervals and process large data volumes. They are therefore equipped with a
microprocessor. The sensor signals are broken down into mathematical compo-
nents and are offset against the defined and programmed algorithms (mathemati-
cal rules). The character of these algorithms is defined by their parameter setting.
The comparison of the calculated values with the default values stored in the
detector results in the corresponding hazard level.

Fire detectors with algorithm technology do not automatically guarantee an excel-

lent detection behavior, which is affected by the way the sensor signals are broken
down, the mathematical rules applied, the parameter sets available and the com-
parison with the default values stored in the detector. This is where knowledge
comes into play. Detectors using a sophisticated algorithm technology have the
following properties:
• Sensor signals: Dynamic detection behavior is only possible when the signal
progression is observed and compared throughout the complete period of time
the respective phenomenon is effective.
Signal progression is the collectivity of the following determinants:
− signal strength sensor signal (amplitude)
− rate of rise change of sensor signal
− fluctuation sudden changes of the sensor signal
• Mathematical rules: The mathematical rules must be set up in such a way that,
in combination with the available parameter sets, they allow for all types of fire
developments.
• Parameter sets: A parameter set is a set of data having an impact on the
mathematical rules and on the comparisons with the default values. By loading
the respective parameter set, the fixed mathematical rules are specifically set to
the fire phenomena and ambient conditions to be expected, and the results are
compared to the corresponding defaults. If a fire detector is installed in a produc-
tion hall, a parameter set must be loaded that assesses sudden changes nor-
mally caused by deceptive phenomena as relatively insignificant. If the same fire
detector is installed in a hospital room, however, a parameter set must be se-
lected that responds to rapid changes to the sensor signals, guaranteeing earli-
est possible fire alarm. As state-of-the-art fire detectors can be operated with a
wide array of parameter sets, they are suited for all types of special applications.
• Comparison with the stored default values: The stored default values are
based on a large number of real fires, thus reflecting the characteristics of many
different types of fire. The comparison between the calculated values and the
stored default values results in the danger level (e.g. 1 = possible hazard, 2 =
hazard, 3 = alarm). Additional evaluations enable statements about the detector
status (e.g. soiling or fault, diagnostic level).

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Parameter set

Algorithms
Danger level

Diagnostic level

Default values

Detector Sensor signal Signal splitting Calculation and Result

comparison with
default values

Figure 4.18: Signal processing in a smoke detector based on algorithm technology

ASAtechnology™ (Advanced Signal Analysis)

ASAtechnology™ is the continued development of algorithm technology. The
detection behavior can be adapted to the relevant application, owing to corre-
sponding parameter sets. The major difference between this technology and algo-
rithm technology is the real-time interpretation of the situation and, based on that,
the dynamic impact of the selected parameter set. The individual parameters of the
selected parameter set are no longer static; they are modified depending on the
sensor signals. The application range of the detector is extended, which is the
equivalent of larger detection dynamics. In the event of fire, a detector based on
ASAtechnology™ responds in a more sensitive way. In case of deception, it is
more robust than a detector using algorithm technology. The result is unparalleled
fire detection, combined with an inimitable immunity to deception.

The figure shows the signal processing of a multisensor fire detector with smoke
and heat as fire phenomena. Intelligent signal processing is based on the data
provided by the smoke and heat sensors.

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Realtime … dynamic impact

Parameter set interpretation of on the parameter
situation and … set

Algorithms
Danger level

Diagnostic level

Default values

Detector Sensor signals Signal splitting Calculation and Result

comparison with
default values

Figure 4.19: Signal processing in a multisensor fire detector based on ASAtechnology™

4.3.2.4 Multisensor Fire Detector

In a multisensor fire detector, the detection of an incipient fire and the decision on
alarm are based on the evaluation of several sensor signals. In comparison with
normal fire detectors, the detection reliability of such detectors is significantly
higher.

Point-type fire detectors with the sensor combination smoke / heat or smoke / gas
are typical examples of such multisensor fire detectors. They are designed to
detect fires at an early stage and are at the same time highly immune to deceptive
phenomena. However, there are multisensor detectors in which only one sensor is
required for fire detection, as all other additional sensors merely have the task of
detecting possible deceptive phenomena in order to increase the detection reliabil-
ity.

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A typical example is the modern flame detector with three sensors.

• A pyroelectric sensor measures the infrared radiation in the CO2 spectral range
between 4.0 to 4.8µm as it is typical for flames (Sensor A / flame detection).
• A second pyroelectric sensor measures the infrared radiation of sources of
deception in a range of 5.1 to 6µm (Sensor B / deception by hot objects, for ex-
ample).
• A silicon photo diode measures the solar irradiation in a range of 0.7 to 1.1µm
(Sensor C / deception by sunlight)

Sensor C Sensor A Sensor B

Hot objects
Sun
Transmission [%]

Alcohol fire

Wavelength

Figure 4.20: Infrared spectrum of sunlight, hot objects and alcohol fire

The IR radiation spectrum of the sun differs from that of hot objects and organic
fires. Thanks to these different characteristics and the three sensors, the flame
detector can distinguish between real fires and deceptive phenomena. If sensor
signal A is stronger than sensor signal B, and if sensor signal A is significantly
stronger than sensor signal C, a real fire has occurred. Otherwise it is a deceptive
phenomenon. If sensor signal A more or less has the same intensity as sensor
signal B, the signal is emitted by a radiator. If sensor signal C is simultaneously
significantly stronger than the two other signals, solar irradiation is the cause.

In addition to merely assessing the signal intensity, intelligent signal processing

also considers changes to the signals, thus increasing detection reliability. These
types of flame detectors are capable of reliably detecting a flaming fire even when
it occurs in the immediate vicinity of a deceptive phenomenon.

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4.3.2.5 Summary
Apart from the mechanical design and the sensor electronics applied, it is the
signal processing that determines the quality of fire detection. Early and absolutely
foolproof fire detection is the goal. When fire detectors are placed in a clean envi-
ronment, this is possible without any problems today. If, however, a detector shall
be able to detect a fire as early and safely as possible, even in environments
where different deceptive phenomena occur, we are still faced with a challenge.
Very fast fire detection combined with 100% detection reliability cannot be guaran-
teed. Fire detectors with intelligent signal processing and an appropriate detector
design, however, already come very close to this goal.

Intelligent
fire detection system A
Reliability of fire detection

Normal
fire
detection
system B

Fire development

Time until fire detection

Figure 4.21: Detection behavior depending on signal processing

Earliest possible detection combined with false alarm prevention

4.3.3 Networking Technologies

The task of a fire detector is to prevent the development of fires. There is no use in
a detector that identifies a fire but does not reliably transmit the information. For
this reason, fire detectors must be connected to a control unit, either hard-wired or
wireless. The two most important networking methods are discussed below.

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4.3.3.1 Collective Addressing

This type of networking is the oldest technology still in use today. Alarms are
transmitted to the control unit by the detector lines. The control unit merely sees
which line has transmitted the alarm, but not which detector. This method is thus
called “collective addressing” – referring to the collectivity of all detectors on a
detector line.

To localize a hazard source in case of an alarm, the individual detector lines are
arranged in such a way that they can be easily traced; i.e. one detector line per
floor. In addition, external alarm indicators are often placed above the doors, so
that the alarm triggering detector and thus the seat of fire can be found within a
reasonable period of time.

4.3.3.2 Individual Addressing

Individual addressing was first introduced in the 1980s. Simpler systems still
transmit their information sequentially. This means that the detectors transmit their
information to the control unit one after the other, in accordance with their se-
quence on the detector line. Based on this sequence, the control unit “sees” which
detector has sent the information and is capable of indicating the alarm triggering
detector on the display. Systems with state-of-the-art networking technology,
however, make use of addressing methods known from information technology.

When fire detectors with individual addressing are exclusively applied, external
alarm indicators become superfluous as the alarm triggering detector is directly
indicated on the fire detection control unit.

Modern fire detection systems in which the signal analysis is performed in the
detector itself come to a preliminary alarm decision and thus only need to transmit
the corresponding alarm level. Fire detectors without built-in signal analysis how-
ever depend on transmitting the measured values of the sensor signals to the
control unit, which can then decide on alarm in real time.

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4.4 Selecting the Appropriate Fire Detector

Fires can develop explosively, fast (within a few seconds), normally (within a few
minutes) or slowly (within hours). This chapter only deals with classic fire detectors
used to detect fires developing from fast to slow.

This document neither handles special detectors, such as pressure and spark
detectors applied for explosion protection which must respond within a few milli-
seconds, nor does it deal with gas sensors as they are used for the detection of
smoldering fires in carbonization plant, or for the detection of combustion gases.

In selecting the best suited fire detectors, the following aspects must be taken into
account:
− the type of fire to be expected
− the room height
− the ambient conditions
− possibly occurring deceptive phenomena

4.4.1 Consideration of the Type of Fire

Based on their suitability, their reliability and the costs for acquisition and mainte-
nance, detectors are used as follows. Detection of:
− smoke: point-type and linear smoke detectors and aspirating smoke detectors.
− heat: point-type and linear heat detectors.
− radiation: IR and UV flame detectors.

The use of point-type multisensor fire detectors that are capable of detecting both
smoke and heat increases constantly.

4.4.1.1 Sensitivity of Optical Smoke Detectors

In practice, the sensitivity of optical smoke detectors is often given as a certain
smoke density in %/m. This value corresponds to the detector’s response value,
measured in a defined smoke channel with predefined test aerosol, defined air
speed and temperature (EN54-7). This smoke density is more precisely referred to
as the “light obscuration module”.

The light obscuration module is calculated as follows:

D = { 1 – (I/I0)1/d } x 100 [%/m]

D = light obscuration module

I0 = received light intensity without smoke
I = received light intensity with smoke
d = distance between emitter and receiver

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The measurements in the smoke channel are used for testing the detectors’ stabil-
ity and reproducibility and have little to do with the actual response behavior of the
detectors on real fires. It is thus absolutely thinkable that a smoke detector with
intelligent signal processing and a light obscuration module of 6%/m detects a real
fire earlier than a detector with normal signal processing and a light obscuration
module of 3%/m. The sensitivity required for approval conforming to EN 54 is
checked by means of the test fires described below.

4.4.1.2 EN 54 Test Fire

The EN 54 test fires serve as proof that the detectors have sufficient sensitivity to
certain fire phenomena. They are set up in such a way that each fire produces a
different, typical aerosol spectrum. Such fires are mandatory to achieve approval of
fire detectors. They are also quite often used for testing the response behavior of
existing fire detection systems.

EN Test fire TF1 TF2 TF3 TF4 TF5 TF6

Pyrolytic Glowing / Open synthetic
Open cellulose Liquid fire Liquid fire
Fire type smoldering fire smoldering fire fire
fire (wood) (n-heptane) (ethyl alcohol)
(wood) (cotton) (polyurethane)
Heat
Strong Negligible Negligible Strong Strong Strong
development
Upward
Strong Weak Very weak Strong Strong Strong
air flow
Smoke
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
generation
Aerosol Predominantly Predominantly Predominantly Predominantly
Partly invisible None
spectrum invisible visible invisible invisible
Visible Light, strongly Light, strongly
Dark Very dark Very dark None
property scattering scattering

Table 4.4: Test fires according to EN 54 and their properties

4.4.1.3 Fire Detectors and EN 54 Test Fires

EN 54 test fires are artificially induced, “ideal” fires that will rarely occur in practice,
as real fires usually produce a mix of smoke types. The advantage of the EN test
fires is that they produce reproducible fire phenomena and thus enable exact
comparisons between the response behavior of different detectors or sensors.

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Multicriteria detector (O&T)

Relative response sensitivity

Optical Flame detector

smoke (IR and UV)
detector

Linear Heat detector Ionization

smoke smoke
detector detector

Smoke Invisible Dark Light

Temperature Hot Ambient

EN 54
test fire

Figure 4.22: Response behavior of different fire detectors on EN 54 test fires

The figure above shows the qualitative, basic capability of the detectors to respond
to EN test fires. A heat detector cannot respond when a fire does not produce heat
(TF 2 and TF 3). The sensor design has an additional impact on the quantitative
response behavior of the sensors. The response of optical smoke detectors to
TF 1, for example, depends on the scattering angle.

4.4.1.4 Selecting the Right Fire Detector

The selection of the optimum fire detector is based on the expected fire phenom-
ena, generated by the incipient fire. For an office building, smoke detectors will
preferably be selected, as in this case fires will produce clearly visible smoke both
in the incipient phase and later. In a storage area where combustible liquids are
stored, flame detectors and / or heat detectors would be the right choice.

To be able to reliably detect all expected incipient fires, it may be necessary to

combine different fire detector types.

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4.4.2 Considering the Room Height

To make it possible for a fire detector to indeed detect a fire, the fire phenomenon
(i.e., smoke, heat, radiation) must reach the detector. As most detectors are
mounted on the ceiling, the room height limits the application range of the different
detectors. The application limit for the different fire detector types is defined in the
specifications. These values may vary from one country to another.

Typical limits for point-type detectors are:

− smoke detector max. 12.0m room height
− heat detector max. 7.5m room height
− flame detector max. 45.0m room height

If an incipient, smoke-generating fire shall be detected in the atrium of a shopping

center, the large room height neither allows for the use of point-type smoke detec-
tors nor heat detectors. Flame detectors can only detect such a fire after it has
developed from a smoldering to an open fire and if the fire seat is within the visible
range. Depending on the room geometry, an ASD is capable of detecting an incipi-
ent fire quite early, but the ideal solution in this situation is a linear smoke detector.
These detectors are able to monitor distances up to 100m. They can be installed
on walls at a height of 5m, for example, and can thus detect ascending aerosols
which do not reach the ceiling due to the thermal conditions.

4.4.3 Considering Ambient Conditions

Fire detectors must only be applied within the temperature range specified by the
manufacturer. Typical values for modern fire detectors are -25°C to +60°C. When
fire detectors are applied at temperatures below zero, icing up of the detectors
must be avoided, for example by installing heating elements.

When heat detectors are applied, it must be ensured that the minimum response
temperature is at least 10°C higher than the possible maximum ambient tempera-
ture.

Air movements deserve special considerations when smoke detectors shall be

installed. In the event of fire, major air circulations reduce the aerosol concentra-
tion, making a safe detection with normal fire detectors virtually impossible. For this
reason, rooms with a high degree of air movement are preferably equipped with
high-sensitive aspirating smoke detectors or with special smoke detectors installed
in the ventilation duct.

Fire detectors are electric devices that can be damaged by water or by the impact
of solid objects. In selecting fire detectors, it must be tested whether the detector
type chosen has the IP protection category required for the respective environment
(see section “IP Protection Categories”, page 315).

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4.4.4 Considering Prevailing Deceptive Phenomena

Statistics worked out in different European countries have shown that more than
90% of all alarms triggered in fire detection systems are false alarms. A large part
of these false alarms are deceptive alarms, i.e. alarms caused by external influ-
ence and not by an incipient fire. Possible deceptive phenomena may be:
− cigarette or cigar smoke
− vapor and heat produced during cooking or in the shower
− smoke produced by welding and soldering
− fog generated by fog generators used for show events
− exhaust gases from motor vehicles or emergency power units
− dust generated during grinding or filling work
− moisture condensation
− heat accumulated in case of insufficient ventilation

Due to their setup and the sophisticated signal processing, state-of-the-art fire
detectors are largely capable of distinguishing between deceptive phenomena and
genuine fires. If, however, massive deceptive phenomena are to be expected
within the area to be monitored, the fire detectors’ position deserves special con-
sideration, in addition to the selection of modern fire detectors with intelligent signal
processing.

When particular deceptive phenomena are to be expected, for example moisture

condensation in the entrance area of cold storage rooms or dust in recycling facili-
ties, aspirating smoke detectors are preferably installed. These systems can be
equipped with appropriate additional components, such as air filters or condensate
separators, so that the deceptive phenomena will not reach the detector and reli-
able fire detection can be guaranteed.

If deceptive alarms cannot be ruled out in spite of the optimum detector selection
and position, most fire detection systems offer technical measures by which decep-
tive alarms can be reduced. Among these, the most important ones are:
− verification of the alarm status with intermediate alarm storage
− multidetector or multizone logic

4.4.5 Fire Detectors for Explosion-Hazard Areas

Electrical operating equipment used in explosion-hazard areas must meet certain
safety requirements. Fire detectors used in explosion-hazard areas must comply
with a particular type of ignition protection so that they can be ruled out as potential
ignition source.

The term ignition protection sums up all measures taken in designing electrical
operating equipment in order to prevent the ignition of an explosive atmosphere.
Each type of ignition protection is advantageous for particular types of devices or
applications. This is based on the principle of isolating ignition sources. The most
important types of ignition protection for electrical operating equipment in explo-
sion-hazard areas are described in detail in the annex “Ignition Protection Classes”
on page 317.

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4.4.6 Summary
A fire detector must be able to early and reliably detect at minimum one of the fire
phenomena to be expected. Room height, environmental conditions and possible
deceptive phenomena must be taken into account. The impact of deceptive phe-
nomena on the detection behavior can be reduced by measures such as correct
positioning, suitable detector settings or structural separation of fire sectors.

In selecting the best suited fire detector, risks and costs play an important role as
well. If an area with high fire risk shall be monitored, an area in which strong de-
ceptive phenomena may occur and operating interruptions must be avoided at any
rate, fire detection must be as early, reliable and immune to deception as possible.
This is the case with automatic welding facilities, for example. In such areas,
different fire detector types are often combined, for example multisensor fire detec-
tors and flame detectors. In an office building with smoking ban, the use of smoke
detectors will completely suffice.

For use in dirty environments or explosion-hazard areas, fire detectors must meet
special requirements set up for the respective area.

The following paragraphs describe some typical application areas for the different
types of fire detectors.

Point-type Smoke Detectors

Point-type smoke detectors are used in areas where incipient, smoke-generating
fires are to be expected and where little or no deceptive phenomena occur. As it
has already been described in section 4.3.1.1, scattered light smoke detectors are
particularly suited to detect light smoke particles, whereas the strength of ionization
smoke detectors lies in the detection of small, dark smoke particles. As a radioac-
tive radiation source is used, and due to the resulting disposal problems, ionization
detectors are used less and less frequently.

Typical application areas for point-type smoke detectors are:

− rooms where smoking is prohibited such as
− hospitals
− nursing homes
− offices
− museums and exhibition rooms
− storage halls for paper, consumer electronics, etc.
− production facilities for electronic products
− EDP rooms (in combination with an ASD system)
− communication facilities

Point-type Heat Detectors

Point-type heat detectors are used in areas where incipient fires generate much
heat. Heat detectors should principally be used only in areas where process-
related deceptive phenomena such as intensive aerosol concentrations render the
use of other detector types impossible.

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Typical application areas for point-type heat detectors are:

− canteen kitchens with low ceilings
− interlocks in cooling facilities, where fog is produced by condensation
− storage halls for combustible liquids generating little smoke in case of fire
(mostly in combination with flame detectors)

Point-type Multisensor Detectors

The use of point-type multisensor fire detectors that simultaneously detect smoke
and heat is increasing steadily. Due to the intelligent interlinking of the sensor
signals, such detectors are characterized by early and highly reliable fire detection.
They are thus applied in all areas where early detection and high resistance to
deception are of equal importance.

Typical application areas for point-type multisensor fire detectors are:

− offices, conference rooms, hotel rooms, restaurants, etc., where smoking is
allowed
− rooms with kitchenettes in nursing homes
− production halls where deceptive phenomena may occur
− parking facilities for motor vehicles or Diesel locomotives
− all types of storage buildings (food and animal feed industries, cooling facilities)
− canteen kitchens with ceilings higher than 3m
− discotheques and other event centers in which artificial aerosols may be re-
leased

Linear Smoke Detectors

Linear smoke detectors are used in areas in which smoke-generating incipient fires
are to be expected and where point-type smoke detectors cannot be used.

Typical application areas for linear smoke detectors are:

− very high rooms (atriums, hangars)
− large halls in which the maintenance of point-type detectors would be more
difficult or more expensive than that of linear smoke detectors
− areas with strong operational danger of soiling of point-type detectors (sawmills,
spinning works)
− historical buildings in which point detectors are unwanted for esthetical reasons

Aspirating Smoke Detectors

Aspirating smoke detectors are used wherever smoke-generating fires must be
detected as early as possible and point-type detectors are too insensitive or not
sufficiently robust against soiling.

Typical application areas for aspirating smoke detectors are:

− rooms with a high concentration of valuable property where even smallest aero-
sol concentrations must be detected (EDP rooms, chip production facilities)
− very high rooms where the smoke concentration below the ceiling is strongly
diluted due to the large volume (atriums, hangars)
− large halls in which the maintenance of point-type detectors would be more
difficult, or where point-type detectors would be essentially more expensive than
aspirating smoke detectors

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− areas where point-type detectors are prone to operational soiling (recycling

facilities, heavy-duty industry)
− rooms where strong deceptive phenomena such as moisture condensation are
to be expected (entrance areas of cooling facilities)
− historical buildings in which point detectors are unwanted for esthetical reasons
− areas with increased danger of vandalism (e.g. in prisons)

Flame Detectors
Flame detectors are used in areas where open fires may occur very rapidly and
where large open areas must be monitored.

Typical application areas for flame detectors are:

− storage facilities for combustible liquids
− open storage halls or loading decks
− oil and fuel tank farms
− paint shops
− motor test stands
− recycling facilities

Example: Workshop
The following example shows some considerations on the selection of the optimum
fire detector in a workshop.

A workshop with a room height of 7m shall be monitored with fire detectors. Weld-
ing work is frequently performed in this workshop. In addition, there are Diesel-
driven forklift trucks. These deceptive phenomena might cause false alarms with
smoke detectors. The use of heat detectors shall thus be discussed to reduce or
avoid the risk of deceptive alarms.

The following prerequisites apply for heat detectors:

• In many countries, a category 1 heat detector with a response temperature of
62°C may be applied up to a maximum room height of 7.5m. The maximum ad-
missible monitoring area is 20m2.
• Calculations show that such a heat detector is able to detect a wood fire of
0.5m2 with a power of approx. 110kW and a flame height of approx. 1.2m. These
details are correct when the fire occurs directly underneath the detector and
when there is no air circulation. Assuming that the fire would occur a few meters
beside the detector and there would be slight air movements in the room, such a
detector sees a fire only when it produces several hundred kW of heat.

For an objective-oriented protection setup of a fire detection system, it must thus

be clarified whether the protection objective allows for such a fire. Otherwise, a
different solution for an earlier detection of a possible fire must be found. Examples
are:
− smoke detectors with high immunity to deceptive phenomena
− smoke detectors with multidetector zones, with the alarm only being transmitted
when a predefined number of detectors (usually 2) are in alarm status
− flame detectors

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This example shows how complex the selection of the optimum fire detector can
be. In practice, of course, not each and every single fire detector can be planned in
this way, which is why highly experienced specialists are required to set up a fire
detection system.

Selecting the best suited detector type requires both profound technical knowledge
and a grasp for the application itself, its risk, the combustible load, the possible fire
progression and the probable and achievable fire size.

Selecting the optimum fire detector requires both knowledge and experience

In some cases, fire detection systems must be set up for objects in which one
cannot accurately predict how a fire will develop or the smoke will spread. In such
cases, the selection of the detector types, their settings and positioning must be
found out by means of simulation tools or optimized on site.

Development
Taking a closer look at automatic fire detectors applied today, more than 90% are
point-type fire detectors. Of these, approximately 75% are smoke detectors, 5%
are heat detectors and 20% are multisensor fire detectors. In many applications, a
clear shift from the “pure” smoke or heat detector to a multisensor fire detector can
be observed. The reason is that multisensor fire detectors make a more reliable
and nevertheless early detection of many different fire types possible. In addition,
the price difference to conventional, point-type smoke detectors has decreased
significantly over the past years. For special applications, ASD systems are applied
increasingly, as they can detect fires at a very early stage and may as well be
applied in rooms with strong deceptive phenomena, provided that additional meas-
ures are taken.

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4.5 Number and Positioning of Fire Detectors

The fire phenomena generated by fire (smoke, heat, radiation, gas) propagate
differently. This must be taken into account when planning and installing a fire
detection system, which is why the number of required detectors (or the coverage
area per detector) is largely determined by the propagation characteristics of the
respective fire phenomenon.

The number and positioning of fire detectors is frequently laid down in country-
specific directives, which always take priority.

4.5.1 Basics
The higher the room, the larger normally the distance between the seat of fire and
the detectors on the ceiling. This is why the intensity of the fire phenomenon to be
detected, i.e. smoke density, temperature increase or radiation intensity decreases
with increasing ceiling height. It must be taken into consideration that with an
increasing ceiling height an incipient fire may be larger due to the larger room
volume without increasing the danger of rapid fire propagation or flashover.
h3
h2

Heat
(convection)
Room height h1

Smoke

Radiation

Fire seat

Figure 4.23: Propagation characteristics of fire phenomena

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Smoke
The thermal characteristics of open fires transport the smoke particles, which
become diluted in the larger air volume, even to very high ceilings. This smoke
dilution must be accommodated by the use of smoke detectors with sensitive
response behavior.

Smoldering fires largely lack the thermal conditions to transport smoke. Such fires
are thus only recognized by detectors mounted on high ceilings after they have
developed to open fires.

Heat
The warm air ascending from the fire cools down with increasing distance, which
means that heat detectors are of limited use with increasing room heights.

Radiation
Although the radiation energy is reduced the larger the distance between fire seat
and detector, flame detectors can be used in very high rooms thanks to their high
response sensitivity.

Generally Applicable Facts

In arranging the fire detectors, it must be ensured that the fire phenomena reach
the fire detectors, so that the detector can indeed recognize a fire.

Each room to be monitored must be equipped with at least one automatic fire
detector.

Fire detectors must be principally arranged symmetrically and evenly throughout

the room.

The detector placement must comply with the prevailing room conditions (e.g. the
ceiling’s construction: ceiling with girders, special roof or ceiling shapes) or room
divisions (alcoves, furniture, equipment, etc.).

Additional considerations in placing fire detectors include:

• In some countries, flame detectors may be applied up to room heights of 45m. It
must be clarified, however, which fire size may still be detected with such an ar-
rangement, and whether the defined protection objective can still be achieved.
• When monitoring a room where very strong deceptive phenomena may occur,
the optimum arrangement of the fire detectors is crucial. Minor changes to the
detector position may lead to massive improvements relating to the immunity to
deception without impairing the detection reliability.
• In very special cases, experience alone does not suffice – tests on site become
necessary to determine the optimum detector position.

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4.5.2 Manual Call Points

Manual call points must be placed at a clearly visible location along escape routes,
for example in corridors, staircases, entrance halls, besides extinguishing posts
and in especially endangered areas at a distance of maximum 40m.

Figure 4.24: Positioning of manual call points along escape routes

Manual call points must be generally installed at a height of 1.5 to 1.7m above the
floor, in order to avoid erroneous operation, for example by mistaking them for light
switches in the dark).

4.5.3 Point-type Smoke Detectors

Point-type smoke detectors are installed either on the ceiling or where the strong-
est propagation and accumulation of smoke is expected. Point-type multisensor fire
detectors, which simultaneously detect smoke and heat, must be arranged in the
same way as point-type smoke detectors.

4.5.3.1 Impact of the Room Height

Point-type smoke detectors may normally be installed at a room height up to 12
meters. With increasing room height, the smoke density on the ceiling decreases,
as the total smoke volume spreads throughout a larger air volume. In addition,
smoke cooling off can no longer break through the heat cushion accumulating on
the ceiling of high rooms.

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This results in the conclusion that at increasing room height:

− the response sensitivity of the fire detection system must be higher, or an in-
creasingly larger incipient fire is required to trigger alarm
− the coverage area per smoke detector may be larger
− smoke from smoldering fires will hardly reach the ceiling and thus the detectors
− the smoke detectors must be placed at larger distances from the ceiling
These physical conditions must be taken into account in selecting the response
sensitivity and determining the distance to the ceiling.

Roof inclination (angle α)

Room height [m] < 30° > 30°
< 6 3 - 30cm 20 - 50cm
6 - 7.5 7 - 40cm 25 - 60cm
7.5 - 9 10 - 50cm 30 - 70cm
9 - 12 20 - 80cm 50 - 100cm

Table 4.5: Distance between ceiling and detector

4.5.3.2 Coverage Area

The coverage area is defined depending on the room height and the fire risk.

Room height

3 2 1 Coverage area per

smoke detector

Figure 4.25: Coverage area per smoke detector depending on the room
height and the hazard potential

Area 1 with minor hazard potential should only be selected when the following
conditions are fulfilled:
− any danger to human life can be ruled out
− neither valuable property nor irreplaceable goods are stored in the area
− the fire risk is very low
− other fire protecting measures prevent possible fire propagation
− no hazard can be caused in adjacent areas, for example by corrosive decompo-
sition products

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Area 2 with medium hazard potential can be selected for most applications.

Area 3 with high hazard potential is recommended in the following cases:

− increased danger to life
− valuable property or irreplaceable goods are stored in the area
− the loss of goods or installations could endanger the economic existence of the
owner
− the fire risk is classified as “high”

In artificially ventilated rooms, natural smoke propagation is impaired. The higher

the air movements, the more the smoke particles are discharged without the possi-
bility of a uniform smoke concentration building up. This reduced and locally differ-
ent smoke distribution leads to a delayed response of the fire detection system,
which may partially be compensated by reducing the coverage area and increasing
the detector sensitivity.

4.5.4 Point-type Heat Detectors

In contrast to smoke detectors, heat detectors must always be installed at the
highest point on the ceiling. To avoid false alarms and at the same time guarantee-
ing an acceptable response behavior, the static response temperature of heat
detectors must be between 10°C and 35°C higher than the highest temperature
that can occur by natural or operational developments in the immediate vicinity of
the detector.

4.5.4.1 Impact of the Room Height

Heat detectors of class A1 may normally be installed at room heights up to 7.5m.
The temperature at the ceiling, directly above the fire seat, decreases by the power
of two with increasing room height. This means that the response sensitivity of the
detectors must be set higher with increasing room heights, or else, that a larger fire
would be necessary to trigger alarm.

4.5.4.2 Coverage Area

The coverage area depends on the size of the room to be monitored and on the
inclination of the ceiling. With inclined ceilings, the heat ascends along the ceiling
inclination and up to the highest point, resulting in heat concentration in the ridge.
For this reason, both the basic coverage area and the detector distances may be
increased with inclined roofs. The maximum admissible distance between detec-
tors (s), or between a detector and the wall (½s) depends on the coverage area
and the roof inclination.

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Maximum coverage area (AM) and

Basic surface maximum distance between detectors (s)
area of the Roof inclination (angle α)
room to be < 10° 10° - 20° > 20°
monitored AM s AM s AM s
2
≤ 30m 30m2 7.8m 30m2 9.2m 30m2 10.6m
2 2 2 2
> 30m 30m 6.6m 30m 9.2m 40m 12.0m

Table 4.6: Coverage areas and distances between heat detectors

The distances between detectors and walls, equipment or stored goods must not
fall below 0.5m, with the exception of corridors, channels, ducts or similar construc-
tions with a width below 1m. If there are any girders, beams, etc., or air condition-
ing ducts closer than 0.15m under the roof, the lateral distance of at least 0.5m
must be considered as well.

4.5.5 Linear Smoke Detectors

Direct and unhampered visibility between the detector and the reflector must be
ensured. The monitoring ray must not be interrupted by moving objects such as
overhead cranes, ladders, etc.

The detector must be secured in a way that it is fixed and inflexible. It must be
taken into account that flexible wall constructions are unsuited, as a too large
deviation of the monitoring ray makes reliable detection virtually impossible. Con-
crete and brick walls meet these prerequisites, whereas wood or steel construc-
tions are mostly unsuited, as they may be affected by temperature or moisture
changes, wind or snow pressure.

4.5.5.1 Impact of the Room Height

Heat cushions below the ceiling can prevent ascending smoke from reaching the
ceiling. Linear smoke detectors must thus be installed below a heat cushion to be
expected (see Table 4.5 on page 106). With room heights above 12m, the distance
to the ceiling should be 60 to 120cm.

To make sure that smoldering fires or smaller fires with low fire thermals can be
detected in high rooms, a second and possibly third detector must be installed at
the assumed level of the smoke propagation of a smoldering fire. This differentia-
tion in levels becomes important in rooms higher than 6m.

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Detectors Reflectors

Figure 4.26: Detection of smoldering fires in high rooms

The table below exemplarily shows the detector mounting height for three different
room heights.

Detection level Upper Medium Lowest

Room height
6m ~ 6m 3 - 4m –
12m ~ 11m 6 - 7m –
20m ~ 19m 6 - 7m ~ 12m

Table 4.7: Mounting height depending on the room height

4.5.5.2 Coverage Area

The coverage area is determined by the distance between the detector and reflec-
tor and by the horizontal distance between the detectors. For linear smoke detec-
tors, a maximum distance of 100m between the emitter / receiver unit and the
reflector is admissible. The coverage width may be enlarged due to the smoke
propagation with increasing room height.

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Room
height

Maximum monitoring width

Figure 4.27: Monitoring width depending on the room height

The values given here apply for rooms with a low fire risk. To cover larger risks, the
monitoring width should be half the value shown above.

4.5.6 Aspirating Smoke Detectors

ASD systems are applied for room monitoring (storage rooms, cooling facilities,
hangars, etc.) and for object monitoring (control panels, IT and telephone facilities,
radio stations, etc.).

4.5.6.1 Sensitivity
If a fire occurs in a room, the smoke ascending due to the thermal conditions is
gathered by the suction openings and is guided to the smoke detector via the pipe
system. The ASD triggers an alarm as soon as the average smoke concentration
of all suction openings exceeds the alarm threshold. It does not matter whether this
value is caused by very high smoke concentration at one suction opening or by a
slightly higher smoke concentration at several suction openings.

The required ASD sensitivity can be calculated by means of the following formula:

SDP
SASD = x NDPS
NDP

SASD = required sensitivity of the ASD sensor

SDP = sensitivity at the point of suction as required by the fire protection con-
cept
NDP = selected number of suction points in the pipe system
NDPS = accepted smoke propagation (number of suction points in the smoke)

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As a general rule, ASD systems are classified in the following sensitivity catego-
ries:
− normal sensitivity with a smoke sensitivity of 1.0 to 0.1%/m
− high / highest sensitivity with a smoke sensitivity of 0.1 to 0.005%/m

If a fire shall be detected as early as possible, the ASD system must trigger an
alarm as soon as there is smoke at one suction point. Such systems usually re-
quire a very high ASD sensitivity.

In room monitoring, an alarm is often accepted even if the smoke propagation is

already so advanced that the smoke is aspirated by more than one suction point. If
smoke reaches two or three suction points, twice or three times as much smoke is
detected by the ASD. This is called accumulative effect or smoke accumulation. If
an alarm is also accepted when larger smoke propagation has already taken place,
an ASD system with lower sensitivity can be chosen.

Example: Recycling Hall

An ASD system shall be installed in a recycling hall to detect medium-sized fires.
The following preconditions are specified:
• The response behavior shall be similar to a system with point-type smoke detec-
tors (sensitivity at the suction point: 3%/m).
• The monitoring area of 800m2 shall be covered by a pipe network with 10 suc-
tion points.
• Alarm shall be triggered when the smoke on the ceiling reaches 3 suction points.

By applying the above formula, the required ASD sensitivity is calculated as (3/10)
x 3 = 0.9%/m.

Figure 4.28: Detection with accumulative effect in a hall

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4.5.6.2 Room Monitoring

With normal room monitoring, the pipe system and the suction points are selected
in a way that each suction point has a coverage area of 40 to 80m2, which is com-
parable to point-type smoke detectors. The pipe system is mounted below the
ceiling. In false floors and suspended ceiling with a corresponding combustible
load, the pipe system is mounted in such a way that the suction points are at the
highest possible point.

Due to the large air volume, strong smoke dilution can be observed in large high
rooms such as storage rooms, atriums or hangars. If a fire in such a room shall be
detected at an early stage, a correspondingly sensitive system must be chosen. In
addition, in high rooms, heat cushions often occur below ceilings, caused by strong
solar radiation or by air warming due to fire. Such heat cushions partially or com-
pletely avoid that the smoke reaches the ceiling. This must be taken into account in
placing the ASD suction pipes (see Table 4.5 on page 106).

Heat cushion

ASD unit

Figure 4.29: Pipe system below an inclined roof

In high storage rooms, the suction pipes are preferably mounted vertically. This
way, the heat cushion effect can be largely neutralized and, in addition, smaller
fires in the storage racks can be detected early thanks to this arrangement.

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ASD unit

Figure 4.30: Pipe system in a high-rack storage building

When planning ASD systems in special areas, additional points briefly mentioned
below must be taken into consideration.

Application in Strongly Soiled Environments

In addition to maintaining a reliable detection, ASD systems must also be resistant
to soiling in rough environments. Smallest particles are deceptive elements for
optical systems, leading to false alarms or, in the worst case, impairing the system
in such a way that it can no longer work reliably. For this reason, filters are built in
the pipe system in rough environments, filtering dirt particles before they can
penetrate the measuring system. In strongly soiled environments, the suction pipes
are additionally purged periodically to clean them from dirt or deposits. This guar-
antees a reliable transport of the aspirated air to the measuring system.

Application in Areas with High Air Circulation

Air conditioning equipment or air recycling systems can cause high air circulation,
which in turn sometimes produces essential smoke dilution, as the smoke is mixed
with fresh air before it reaches the detectors. In such conditions, it makes sense to
use ASD systems with increased or very high sensitivity. It also makes sense to
feed a sample of exhaust air to the ASD, in addition to the “pure” ambient air. The
exhaust air is monitored directly before reaching the room ventilation system’s
outlet opening.

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Exhaust
collector

Ceiling collector

ASD unit

Figure 4.31: Pipe system with high air circulation

Application in Humid Environments

In humid environments, water traps with sluice valves are installed in the suction
pipe.

Application in Refrigerating Warehouses

Due to the very dry air and the highly combustible isolating and packaging material,
refrigerating warehouses constitute a high fire risk. A fire in such a facility may
propagate quickly and cause a lot of damage, therefore early detection of a
spreading fire is of utmost importance in this case. In refrigerating warehouses,
ASD with high sensitivity are normally used. To prevent frost formation on the
suction openings, the pipe systems are provided with a blow-out mechanism. This
is of special importance in the entrance area where high relative air humidity pre-
vails due to the air circulation, resulting in a high tendency of frost formation.

Application in Areas Prone to Vandalism

In areas prone to vandalism, the suction pipe is mounted in the ceiling. Only very
small, almost invisible holes are present in the monitoring area. This type of instal-
lation can often be found in penal institutions.

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Application in Culturally Significant Buildings

In culturally significant buildings, for example with historic ceilings, point-type fire
detectors are often not wanted for aesthetic reasons. In buildings such as
churches, cathedrals, museums, libraries or other historical buildings, ASD sys-
tems are increasingly applied, systems in which the pipe system is integrated in the
ceiling and is thus invisible. The same applies to sophisticated modern buildings,
such as concert halls, hotels and office buildings.

4.5.6.3 Object Monitoring

IT systems, server racks, telephone systems, radio stations and other electronic or
electric facilities are potential fire risks due to their relatively high power consump-
tion. A typical electric fire is usually preceded by a rather long smoldering phase,
with the normally low smoke volume being additionally diluted by ventilation. If this
low smoke volume can be detected early enough, it usually suffices to disconnect
the endangered equipment from the power supply. This is exactly where ASD
systems in object monitoring come into effect: An incipient electric fire must be
detected as early as possible so that appropriate countermeasures can be initiated
and possible damage can be minimized. ASD systems for object monitoring are
designed in such a way that at least one suction opening is provided in each ob-
ject, for example in a server rack or control panel.

Ceiling
collector

Object
monitoring

ASD
unit

Figure 4.32: ASD for object monitoring

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4.5.7 Flame Detectors

The electromagnetic radiation of possible fires must reach the flame detector.
Within the range of sight, this is ensured by direct irradiation. If the direct view is
blocked, IR flame detectors can still detect due to the reflection on the metal sur-
faces. UV flame detectors, however, are powerless in such cases, as UV is not, or
only rarely, reflected. It must be taken into account that direct infrared radiation is
always many times stronger than indirect infrared radiation. Flame detectors
should thus always be installed within sight of the entire monitoring area and are
thus preferably placed in a high corner of the room.

UV + IR IR

Figure 4.33: Flame detectors with direct and indirect visibility

When placing the flame detectors, equipment or obstacles such as wings must be
taken into consideration. In a hangar, the area underneath the wings must be
monitored by flame detectors as well.

Figure 4.34: Positioning flame detectors in a hangar

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If several flame detectors are required in one room, they should be arranged so
that there is a high redundancy, that is, the monitoring areas of the individual flame
detectors should overlap.

Figure 4.35: Arranging flame detectors in large rooms

4.5.7.1 Detection Distance

Of essentially greater significance than the maximum admissible room height is the
detection distance in the project planning of flame detectors. The detection dis-
tance is the distance between the detector and the farthest point that still needs to
be monitored. The response sensitivity decreases approximately to the second
power with increasing distance. From this, it follows that the response sensitivity of
the flame detector must be significantly higher or that a larger, open fire is neces-
sary to trigger alarm.

This is clarified by the following examples:

• If the distance from the flame detector to the fire is 20m. For example, a flame
detector is capable of detecting a fuel fire with a surface area of 0.025m2, a
flame height of 0.6m and 18kW power.
• If the distance from the flame detector to the fire is 70m, a fuel fire with a surface
area of 0.25m2, a flame height of 2.2m and 400kW power is required to ensure
the detector triggers alarm.

4.5.7.2 Monitoring Area

Based on the maximum size of the fire to be detected and the response sensitivity
of the detector, the maximum detection distance (d) is determined. As flame detec-
tors with an angle of visibility of 90° are usually installed at an inclination angle of
45°, the maximum detection distance (d) of the room diagonal corresponds to a
cube. As this is by √3 longer than the side (a) of the cube, the maximum fixation
height is a = d/√3. This results in a monitoring area of a2 = ⅓d2.

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d=a√3

45°
a

a
45°

Figure 4.36: Monitored cube of a flame detector

Depending on the ratio of room surface and room height, it might make sense to
choose an inclination angle smaller than 45°. If, however, an angle > 45° is cho-
sen, the area directly underneath the detector with a visibility angle of 90° is no
longer within the visible range and thus not monitored.

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4.6 Fire Detection Control Unit and Peripheral System

The fire detection control unit evaluates the signals transmitted by the peripheral
devices, it controls the fire alarm and control installations and is also the point of
interaction between the operator and the system.

The term “peripheral system” summarizes the networking of the fire detection
control unit with the peripheral devices, such as fire detectors, alarm devices and
fire control installations.

Commissioning reveals how easily and flexibly a fire detection control unit can be
parameterized according to customer needs. Some of these aspects should al-
ready be taken into account when evaluating the fire detection system.

Control
Line interface
interface

Fire detection
control unit

Commissioning Maintenance

Figure 4.37: Fire detection control unit and peripheral system

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4.6.1 Control Unit

The fire detection control unit is the core element of each fire detection system.
Compact and medium-sized systems usually have only one control unit, whereas
more complex systems often consist of several networked control units. This
makes it possible to act upon all control units by one single procedure. In such a
system, sensors and actuators can ideally be allocated to different control units,
and control can be performed so that it acts on several control units. In addition,
the transmission of fire alarms and faults to the receiving equipment can be ef-
fected centrally by a main control unit integrated into the network. This essentially
reduces the connection fees and dedicated line fees. How comprehensive the
functionality is in the specific case must be clarified in advance for each individual
system.

4.6.1.1 Setup
Each fire detection control unit comprises a minimum of five components:
• Main processor: The main processor is the heart of every fire detection control
unit. It coordinates and controls the entire fire detection system.
• Operating panel: This panel consists of indicating, acoustic and operating
elements. The indicating and acoustic elements inform the operator on the sys-
tem status (alarm, fault, operating mode, etc.). The operating elements make it
possible to operate the system by acknowledging messages, or switching from
unmanned to manned mode.
• Line interface: The line interface communicates with the peripherals and
transmits information to the main processor.
• Control interface: The control interface transmits the information received (e.g.
fire door open) to the main processor and activates the control outputs required
by the main processor (alarm devices, fire control installations, etc.).
• Power supply: The power supply unit provides the energy required for the fire
detection system.

Depending on the requirements and size of the fire detection system, the setup of
the fire detection control unit can largely vary. For a small hotel with 30 rooms, for
example, a control unit will suffice in which the main processor, operating unit, line
interface and control interface are combined on one board. Complex systems are
equipped with several line and control plug-in units. With such systems, remote
operation and the possibility to operate the system from different locations is fre-
quently required. Such operating terminals are connected to the control unit via a
control unit bus designed in compliance with the highest safety standards.

Alternatively, there is the possibility of visualizing the control unit’s user interface by
a mere software solution on a PC. The connection to the PC can be established by
a LAN, for example (see Glossary, starting on page 297). This solution also makes
it possible to indicate and operate several networked control units on the monitor of
a danger management system (see chapters 7.2ff starting on page 240).

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4.6.1.2 Power Supply

In compliance with EN 54, two independent energy sources must guarantee the
power supply to the fire detection control unit. Both energy sources must be sized
such that in case of failure of one source, the operation of the system and the
alarm equipment can be maintained for a predefined period of time. The following
aspects must be taken into account:
• One of the two energy sources must be a permanent mains supply, the second
one a battery or equivalent.
• Parallel operation is mandatory, with the appropriately sized charging unit feed-
ing the fire detection system and at the same time charging the batteries con-
nected in parallel.
• The mains power supply of the fire detection system must be effected via a
separate, safe supply line.
• Devices that do not constitute part of the fire detection system must not be
connected to the system’s power supply!
• The battery’s capacity must be such that unimpaired operation of the fire detec-
tion system is possible during the required emergency operating time and that
the alarm devices can still be fed for a minimum of 30 minutes after the emer-
gency operating time has expired.
• The use of satellite power supply units is admissible. However, they must be
monitored for permanent operability.
• Messages received from the satellite power supply units must be indicated on
the control unit, just like fault signals.

Regarding the detection of fault signals and troubleshooting, the following emer-
gency operating times are recommended:

Emergency operating criteria Duration

Without fault signal transmission 72 hours
With fault signal transmission, unmonitored line 24 hours
With fault signal transmission, but with permanently 12 hours
manned signal receiving center at the installation location
With fault signal and monitored line 12 hours
Secured mains connection (e.g. emergency power Diesel 4 hours
generator for 24h operation) and fault signal transmission

Table 4.8: Emergency operating times as required by EN 54

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4.6.1.3 Functions
A state-of-the-art fire detection control unit must feature the following:
• Easy and safe system operation.
• Free adaptation of the control unit organization to changing customer require-
ments.
• Free programmable control outputs to use fire control installations.
• Manufacturer-specific battery charging characteristics and periodic endurance
testing of the batteries, in order to achieve optimum charging conditions and a
longer service life of the emergency power batteries.
• Real-time clock with date and automatic summer- / wintertime changeover.
• Event memory storing hundreds of events, sorted by information category, and
making them available on demand.
• Integrated emergency operating functions so that safe fire detection can still be
ensured in case of failure to a signal processing unit.

4.6.1.4 Operation
The user interface of a fire detection control unit must be set up so that the basic
functions such as alarm or reset alarm are easy to understand and to operate. This
makes sure that such operations can also be performed by persons who rarely
have to work on the system or who have received only elementary instructions.

Such a man-machine interface places high demands on an ergonomic arrange-

ment of the operating elements, on the representation of messages and on a
user-friendly operating structure. This is why state-of-the-art fire detection control
units are provided with so-called “soft keys“ – function keys for the display of
context-related commands used with the respective application. In case of fire,
for example, the location of the fire is indicated, and on the operating elements
only functions such as ”Acknowledging the alarm” or ”Resetting the alarm” are
released and the corresponding countermeasures texts are displayed.

Operation of a fire detection control unit not only comprises alarm processing.
Functions such as processing faults, switching from manned to unmanned, or
switching off detectors are other functions of a fire detection control unit. Since
functions like switching off detectors can impair safety, they must only be per-
formed by authorized and accordingly trained staff. State-of-the-art fire detection
control units thus offer the possibility of releasing commands in the menu structure
for some authorization levels only. The table below shows an example with 4
authorization levels.

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Level Authorization Authorized persons

1 - Acknowledging messages Competent person, e.g.
- Switching off acoustic elements on janitor
the operating panel
- Switching to manned / unmanned
2 - Commands from authorization Trained person,
level 1 e.g. company electrician
- Resetting alarms
- Switching off detectors
3 Switching detectors into revision Electrician or expert for
mode, commands from authorization danger management
levels 1 and 2 systems, e.g. maintenance
engineer
4 Opening the fire detection control Electrician or expert for
unit, exchanging modules, changing danger management
the system parameter settings, systems, e.g. maintenance
commands from authorization levels engineer acknowledged as
1, 2 and 3 installer

Table 4.9: Authorization levels for a fire detection control unit

4.6.1.5 Location
For the fire detection control unit, a location close to the main entrance or the fire
brigade access of the building to be monitored should be chosen. This location
must be agreed upon in advance with the organization (e.g. fire brigade) accepting
the fire detection control unit. It often suffices to place the fire department control
panel in the fire brigade’s main access, as in this case the fire detection control unit
can be placed in any room easily accessible for the wiring arrangement.

In larger building complexes where networked fire detection control units are used,
they are often installed in decentral locations, so that the lines to the detectors and
other peripheral devices can be kept as short as possible.

To keep influencing factors which might lead to false alarms or faults as low as
possible, only locations free from high electromagnetic interference (EMI) may be
selected for the fire detection control unit.

4.6.2 Peripheral System

Devices that are not an integral part of the fire detection control unit are allocated
to the peripheral system. In addition to the connected detector lines and the com-
ponents on these lines, the peripheral system includes the complete supply net-
work with alarm devices, fire detection control installations and fire department
control panels.

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4.6.2.1 Supply Network

With fire detection systems, the safety and reliability topic deserves top priority.
This applies especially to selecting and installing the supply networks to the fire
detectors, alarm devices, fire control installations, etc. When selecting and install-
ing, the following aspects must be taken into account:
• The peripheral devices must be operated via a separate supply network.
• Although state-of-the-art detector systems are highly immune to electromagnetic
interference, the detector lines should be separated from other lines and sys-
tems.
• To minimize electromagnetic interference acting on the system, always use
twisted pair cables with new installations.

4.6.2.2 Detector Line

The detector line links the peripheral devices to the fire detection control unit. Over
the last decades, information technology has led to major changes that are still
relevant for essential differences between system types in use today.

Topologies
The peripheral devices or line components of a fire detection system are con-
nected to the fire detection control unit via a stub or loop line. Additionally, modern
fire detection systems make it possible to use T-tabs without additional elements,
which increases the flexibility in wiring arrangement, at the same time reducing
system costs.

Stub line

Loop line

T-tab

Figure 4.38: Fire detection control unit with different detector lines

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For reasons of safety, stub lines today are only used in systems where fire detec-
tors with conventional technology are applied or where existing lines are reused.
Individually addressed elements on a loop line ensure a considerably higher fail
safety of peripheral devices. In case of an open line, all elements remain fully
operable, as the control unit may communicate with the elements from both sides
of the loop. When all connected elements (fire detectors, input / output modules,
alarm elements) use a separator function, the entire system remains fully operable
even in case of a short-circuit, as the short-wired line segment is decoupled by the
separators. Otherwise, at least every 32nd element must be equipped with a
separator conforming to EN 54.

Collective Connection
With a collective connection, all detectors with conventional technology are con-
nected in parallel to the same stub line (see section 4.3.3.1 on page 93). To indi-
cate an alarm or a fault, a detector increases its power consumption. This change
is evaluated correspondingly in the control unit.

With a collective connection, the following aspects must be taken into account:
• Only one alarm message or fault signal can be evaluated per stub line,
as the detectors are not individually identifiable.
• Communication is unidirectional, from the detector to the control unit.
• In compliance with the EN 54 standard, a maximum of 32 devices may
be connected to one line.
• A mixture of automatic and non-automatic fire detectors on a stub is
not permitted.
• A line terminating element is installed at the end of a stub, with a monitoring
current flowing through this element. Based on this principle, the fire detection
control unit can monitor the line up to the line terminating element, but not the
connection to each individual detector.

Collective addressing gradually disappears from the market and is offered today
only as a standard connection for simple, compact fire detection control units.
When replacing existing systems in collective technology, however, it may still be
necessary to continue using the existing supply network. In this case, intelligent
detectors with complex signal processing can be applied, which are operated on
the stub line in collective mode. Due to the individual parameter setting possibili-
ties, such modern fire detectors can be set to optimum detection behavior. If com-
plete lines shall be retained in a modernization project due to cost reasons, the
new control unit must be equipped with the corresponding line modules (see chap-
ter 8.5 on page 275).

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Addressable Connection
An addressable connection is a detector line system that can individually address
each detector (see section 4.3.3.2 on page 93). This makes it possible to individu-
ally indicate each detector that triggers an alarm and to assign a text indicated in
case of an event to this detector or detector zone. In addressable technology, the
topology types stub, loop or T-tab are principally possible. In some bus systems,
T-tabs can be implemented without additional modules, what considerably reduces
the costs for installing the supply network.

With an addressable connection, the following aspects must be taken into account:
• If the line is wired as a stub, a maximum of 32 detectors are permitted per stub
line, in compliance with the EN 54 standard.
• If the line is wired as a loop, a maximum of 128 detectors are permitted per loop
line, in compliance with the EN 54 standard.
• It must be ensured that, in case of a short-circuit, the relevant line segment is
isolated and that in case of an open line, access is possible from the opposite
side of the loop. The smaller the number of elements that fail in case of a short-
circuit, the better, which is why each bus element should contain separator ele-
ments.
• There must be a simple solution to localize detectors on the line. In this respect,
well-proven solutions are the addressing based on the physical sequence, or the
localization based on an unambiguous identification number.

Some features of state-of-the-art addressable bus systems are:

• Direct connection of input and output modules and of indicating and operating
elements on the detector line.
• Direct connection of acoustic alarm devices without extra power supply.
• Control of external, additional response indicators by any detector. Assignment
to the detector is made via the fire detection control unit. It is also possible that
several detectors control the same response indicator (e.g. with multidetector
zones).
• Automatic self-monitoring: The system periodically checks whether all devices
are available and operate correctly.

Costs
The costs for installing a fire detection system are an integral part of the overall
costs. To keep wiring costs as low as possible, it is important that a fire detection
system allows for the connection of freely arranged detector lines, no matter
whether these are stub lines, loop lines or T-tabs. In addition, it must be taken into
account that as many elements as possible can be operated on the same bus and
that no extra lines for external power supply are required.

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4.6.2.3 Alarm Elements

Optic and acoustic alarm equipment is used to alert people in the danger zone as
well as internal intervention forces. Alarm devices can be connected to the control
unit either directly or via a monitored output. Some fire detection control units also
offer the possibility of connecting addressable alarm devices to the detector line.
This has the following advantages:
• The alarm can easily be limited to specific fire sectors (e.g. floors).
• Step-by-step alarm can be accomplished without problems. In case of an alarm,
it is possible, for instance, to first locally act upon an acoustic alarm device, for
example in a hotel room. After verifying the alarm, all alarm devices in the fire
zone can then be activated.
• No additional lines are required for communicating with the control unit and for
feeding the elements. This reduces installation costs.
• As the elements on the loop line remain fully operable even in case of open-
circuit or short-circuit, no expensive wiring with cables for extended functional
maintenance is necessary in most countries.

Alarm elements, such as flashing lights or horns, have limited information contents,
which is why voice alarm systems are increasingly used in buildings (see chapters
5.4ff starting on page 166). These systems enable step-by-step alarm and evacua-
tion depending on the situation.

Alarm of external intervention forces like the fire brigade, is accomplished by

means of monitored dedicated telephone lines, dialup connection, radio connec-
tion, network connection or a combination of these transmission methods.

4.6.2.4 Fire Control Installations

Fire control installations are control functions activating structural and technical
equipment with damage-limiting effects in case of fire. Fire control installations
ensure that:
− the propagation of smoke and heat is limited
− smoke and heat can be extracted
− escape routes are unambiguously identified
− elevators can be moved to a defined position and can no longer be used
− automatic extinguishing systems are activated

The required systems are activated either decentralized via output modules on the
detector line or centralized, directly with monitored outputs such as relay contacts
or driver outputs in the fire detection control unit. Acknowledgement signals or the
execution of the fire control installations are monitored by allocated inputs.

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4.6.3 Commissioning
By commissioning the plant, the fire detection system is configured so that it re-
sponds in accordance with the messages received from fire detectors and other
devices and acts on the relevant control systems. Short-circuits and open-circuits
prevent fast and correct commissioning, which is why the fire detection control unit
is commissioned only after a thorough check of the supply network.

4.6.3.1 System Structure

Indication of messages and system operation must be clear and simple for the
operator. For this reason, the system structure of a fire detection system is set up
according to geographical and organizational aspects. The indication of a fire alarm
must precisely describe the fire location, for example “Alarm in main building, roof
floor, room 807“.

Main building Roof floor Room 807

Figure 4.39: Geographic layout (building structure)

In practice, the subdivision of the system structure into a logical and a physical tree
has proven worthwhile (see Figure 4.40). This allows for maximum flexibility,
completely independent from the effective hardware installation of the detector
network. For example, detectors connected to two different loop lines in the supply
network can be assigned to the same detector zone.

The logic structure reflects the geographic layout in a system. It may be flexibly
adapted to the room exploitation and is independent of the wiring arrangement in
the detector network.

The physical structure reflects the hardware. It is defined by the hardware installa-
tion and can be read in by means of a commissioning tool with modern fire detec-
tion control units.

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The commissioning process of a fire detection system links the logic and the physi-
cal structures. In doing so, it is defined which device is located where, for example
“Smoke detector with ID 253A25 is in room 311“.

Area
Main building

Logical structure
Section 3rd floor 4th floor

Zone Room Meeting Canteen

311 room

Element 1 1 2 1 2

Free assignment

Device

Function unit

Physical structure
(e.g. line interface)

Station

Figure 4.40: Interlinking the logical and physical structure

State-of-the-art fire detection control units make it possible to automatically read in

all peripheral devices and modules connected to the control unit. This process is
also called a “hardware read-in”. The automatically generated data allow for quick
and trouble-free commissioning of the fire detection system by means of the com-
missioning tool. Errors that may occur when the connected devices are acquired
manually usually produce high costs and are eliminated by these types of systems.

PC-based commissioning tools make it possible to enter customer texts corre-

sponding to the message and to concisely perform all parameter settings. In addi-
tion, it is possible to automatically draw up the complete system documentation
thanks to such tools.

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4.6.3.2 Detector Zones

To limit fire propagation in a large building, it is divided into different fire compart-
ments by means of structural measures. The intention of such a division also plays
a key role in the field of fire detection: Several fire detectors can be combined in a
detector zone. By creating fire detector zones, it is possible to easily act upon
complete areas, for example to switch off a detector zone or to create multidetector
logic (see section 4.6.3.4).

In buildings with large rooms, such as production facilities or open-plan offices, all
detectors in the room are combined in a detector zone. In a building consisting of
several smaller rooms, such as an office building, the detectors in several
neighboring rooms are combined in a detector zone. The detectors in a staircase
are equally often combined in a detector zone.

The directives and limits in creating detector zones may differ from one country to
the next, which must be taken into account in project planning.

For most countries, however, the following directives apply:

• Detector zones must be created only within the same fire sector.
• Automatic fire detectors and manual call points must be combined in different,
separate zones.
• One detector zone may comprise a maximum of 10 manual call points or a
maximum of 32 automatic fire detectors.

4.6.3.3 Setting the Parameters of Fire Detectors

Intelligent fire detectors can be ideally adapted to the ambient conditions by select-
ing the appropriate parameter set. Systems allowing for a time-dependent selection
of parameter sets are coming onto the market. This also facilitates the use of
optical smoke detectors in areas where conventional systems cause frequent false
alarms, for example in discotheques. During operating hours, the fire detectors
work with a parameter set that is specially set to the deceptive phenomena on fog
from the fog machines used in discotheques. The detectors recognize the pattern
of aerosol development created when fog machines are used, evaluate this event
as a deceptive phenomenon – in spite of the very high aerosol concentration – and
do not trigger alarm.

Outside normal operating hours, the detectors work with a parameter set that
already detects lowest aerosol concentrations and is thus capable of detecting a
smoldering fire. The parameters are set during commissioning by means of the
relevant tool. If the terms of use are changed, for example when the discotheque is
changed into a restaurant, the parameter sets of the respective detectors can be
adapted directly from the fire detection control unit.

In state-of-the-art fire detection control units, the complete system configuration is

stored in an internal memory, so that no manual reconfiguration or adaptation of
switch positions is required after replacing a defective detector. The fire detection
control unit recognizes that a detector has been replaced and reconfigures this
detector with the same parameter settings.

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4.6.3.4 Avoiding false Alarms

As already described in detail in chapter 4.3.2, false alarms may be largely avoided
by appropriately selecting and positioning fire detectors. Multidetector logic and
delayed alarm transmission are functions of a state-of-the-art fire detection control
unit additionally supporting efforts for early and nevertheless safe alarms.

Multidetector Logic
Multidetector logic is created wherever considerable deceptive phenomena may
occur, or where early fire detection is required for safety reasons, for example in a
Diesel engine depot. When only one detector within a detector zone transmits an
alarm message, only a prealarm is indicated on the fire detection control unit.
Alarm is only indicated when a predefined number of fire detectors transmit an
alarm message. In most cases, a two-detector logic is selected, meaning that two
alarm messages are required. Multidetector logic is possible as well, meaning that
three or four detectors must transmit alarm messages before an alarm is actually
indicated. Only now does the control unit actuate the optic and acoustic alarm
devices and / or a transmission unit and initiate the appropriate protective meas-
ures. As intelligent fire detectors are increasingly used, the significance of multide-
tector logic is continually decreasing.

Delayed Alarm Transmission

Delayed alarm transmission is also referred to as AVC (Alarm Verification Con-
cept). This is an organizational measure for which the fire detection control unit
must provide appropriate programming possibilities. The transmission of fire detec-
tion messages to an intervention center is delayed by the AVC until the alarm has
been verified by an authorized person.

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Alarm initiation

Manned/ Unmanned Manned

unmanned

Local alarm

Presence

Yes Yes No

Acknowledge Investigation Investigate Emergency Reset

No timer Yes
No

General External alarm

alarm

Figure 4.41: Delayed alarm transmission with AVC

When using delayed alarm transmission, the following aspects must be taken into
account in most countries:
• Delayed alarm transmission must only be active in system state “Manned”.
• An incoming alarm must be acknowledged within a maximum reaction time of 30
seconds. After that, the investigation delay begins.
• The maximum investigation delay must be 180 seconds.
• If another alarm is received during the acknowledging or investigation delay, an
external alarm must be transmitted immediately.
• Switching over to delayed alarm transmission (Manned) must be possible only
manually. Switching over to “Unmanned” must take place automatically, but
manual switchover must be possible as well.
• Alarms transmitted by manual call points must not be delayed.

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4.6.3.5 Alarm
After detecting a hazard, the fire detection control unit must trigger an alarm ap-
propriate to the respective hazard and situation. Older or simpler control units
merely act upon the acoustic and optical signal transmitters. State-of-the-art control
units allow for programming specific, application-related alarms. Such systems
make the following settings possible:
• Several alarm devices are combined in a zone.
• Each alarm device can be actuated individually or in a zone.
• Each alarm device or each zone can be actuated depending on the respective
hazard (selection of the tonality, sound intensity or flashing frequency).
• Alarm activation and transmission to external intervention forces can be set up in
a way that it is only effected after verification of the alarm (delayed alarm trans-
mission).
• In larger building complexes, an acoustic evacuation alarm is initiated only for
the relevant fire sector. In all other fire sectors, an acoustic warning signal for the
fire alarm can be activated, alerting the people present in that sector without
asking them to leave the building.

4.6.3.6 Fire Control Installations

During commissioning, the fire detection control unit must be programmed in a way
that, based on the messages received from the fire detection system, it activates
the control installations, retarding fire propagation and facilitating the evacuation of
people. This includes, among others, closing fire doors and fire dampers, switching
on smoke and heat extraction equipment and emergency lighting, or switching off
machines and equipment.

To give consideration to this multitude of requirements, the fire detection control

unit must include the following performance features:
• The possibility of programming complex controls (AND, OR, NOT functions).
• Flexible selection of control input criteria.
• Sufficient memory space for control zones to give consideration to growing
requirements relating to the extent and complexity of control systems.
• Any communication failure between the control unit and a line component, such
as an output module, must be recognized by the line component. In doing so,
the line component autonomously switches the outputs to so-called “fail-safe
position”. For example, fire doors and fire dampers must close autonomously in
such a case.
• For fire control installations, the system makes it possible to automatically ac-
cess the respective documentation – the correctness of the data must be en-
sured.

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4.6.4 Selecting the Suitable Fire Detection Control Unit

When selecting the fire detection control unit, the following questions must be
answered as a minimum requirement:
• What is the size of the area the control unit has to serve? How many peripheral
devices must be connected?
• Which kind of alarm is expected – simple, target-oriented, or multilevel?
• What control systems shall be possible? How many control systems are required
and how high is their complexity?
• Shall the control unit communicate with other control units or with a superordi-
nated system? How easily can it be networked?
• Are any extensions planned during the next years?

Depending on system size and on the answers to the aforementioned questions, a

compact or a modular control unit can be chosen. Compact control units are more
economic, but rather limited with regard to flexibility concerning hardware exten-
sions.

In smaller, clearly laid-out buildings, a simple alarm is often sufficient. In large

complex buildings frequented by many people, a control unit with the correspond-
ing alarm elements must be chosen, enabling a target-oriented alarm.

The number and complexity of the control systems to be served by the fire detec-
tion control unit is essential in selecting the right control unit. It must have sufficient
memory capacity and processing speed for the number of control systems to be
processed, and it must allow for the necessary links.

When several individual buildings shall be monitored, or when the control unit shall
be operated by a superordinated system, a control unit must be chosen allowing
for easy networking.

When it can be anticipated that the existing building structure will be extended, it is
strongly recommended to opt for a modular control unit. These control units have
the advantage of facilitating a flexible and cost-efficient adaptation to the system
size due to their possible extension with additional control and line modules.

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4.7 Linear Heat Detection Systems

Linear heat detection systems consist of a line-type sensor and an evaluation unit.
The sensor is either a cable with electrical or optical conductors, a cable with a
number of sensors or a pipe. These evaluation units are usually connected to a
superordinated system, enabling the visualization of measured values and the
control of extinguishing systems, ventilation systems, etc.

Visualization and PC with

control of software
− ventilation
− automatic
extinguishing
− etc.

LAN

Controller n
Controller 1

Evaluation

Evaluation
analysis

analysis
Signal

Signal
Control Control
outputs outputs

Sensor cable Sensor cable

Figure 4.42: Topology of a linear heat detection system

Linear heat detection systems are capable of triggering an alarm in case of a

defined temperature increase or when a maximum temperature is exceeded. They
are applied in areas in which temperatures need to be monitored over long dis-
tances, but also where harsh environmental conditions prevail, for example in the
case of corrosive gases, extreme temperatures, high humidity or soiling.

Typical application areas for linear heat detection are:

− road and railroad tunnels
− cable trays and ducts
− conveyor system and transport ducts
− escalators
− gas and long distance energy / heating lines
− process monitoring in the chemical industry
− mines and oil platforms
− tank farms
− paint shops

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4.7.1 Detection Principles

The market offers a number of linear heat detection systems based on the most
different detection principles and system characteristics. The most frequently used
detection principles are described below.

4.7.1.1 Sensor Cable with Heat-sensitive Polymer

The sensor cable consists of two electrically conductive wires embedded in a heat-
sensitive polymer. As soon as the temperature threshold is reached, this isolation
starts to melt. The wires touch and generate a short-circuit, which in turn generates
an alarm. To monitor different temperatures, cables with different polymers are
used.

This measuring principle produces an alarm as soon as a temperature threshold is

exceeded. With some systems, the approximate location of the short-circuit, i.e. the
location of the fire seat, can be determined by measuring the residual resistance.

By default, cables with activation temperatures between 60°C and 200°C are
available. The maximum sensor length is between 1 and 2km. By nature, the cable
is destroyed by such an event, which is why the cable needs to be replaced after
detection.

4.7.1.2 Sensor Cable with Temperature-sensitive Isolation

The sensor consists of a cable with electrically conductive wires and insulation with
a negative temperature coefficient. This means that the insulation reduces its
electric resistance as the temperature rises. This signal is evaluated for alarm.

Alarm is activated as soon as the measured value falls below a defined resistance
value. The measured resistance, however, depends on the cable length and the
ambient temperature. The measured value is assumed to be the average value
over the complete cable length. One local hot spot has the same effect as a minor
temperature increase over a longer distance.

The cable is not capable of locating the fire position. By default, cables with activa-
tion thresholds between 50°C and 250°C are available. The maximum sensor
length is between 1 and 2km, depending on the system.

4.7.1.3 Sensor Tube

These systems make use of the law of nature according to which the pressure of a
gas varies in function of the temperature changes if the volume of the gas remains
constant. A fire heats up the copper sensor tube and thus the air contained therein.
A pressure transducer at the end of the tube registers the pressure change and
provides a signal that is proportional to the average temperature.

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The alarm is activated as soon as a defined signal threshold is exceeded. The

sensor tube is not capable of locating the fire position. Systems available today are
designed in a way that activation temperatures up to 150°C are possible. The
maximum sensor length is below 200m.

4.7.1.4 Cables with Integrated Temperature Sensors

With these systems, temperature sensors are mounted at equal intervals onto a
screened flat cable serving as data and feed line. The values measured by the
sensors are polled by an evaluation unit and serve for alarm activation.

The values measured by the different sensors can be evaluated by means of an

appropriate software tool. Several sensors may be combined to groups, or mul-
tisensor logic can be created. These systems facilitate temperature measurements
with differential and maximal characteristics. Localizing the heat sources is possi-
ble within the accuracy of the sensor intervals.

Systems available today support activation temperatures up to approx. 150°C. The

maximum sensor length strongly depends on the interval between the sensors.
The maximum number of sensors is limited by supply and data transmission.
State-of-the-art systems make sensor lengths up to 2.5km possible, at sensor
intervals of 8m.

4.7.1.5 Measuring Temperatures with Fiber-Optic Cables

This system is based on a laser beam being sent through a fiber-optic cable. As
the fiber-optic cable reflects a small part of the laser radiation at any point, the
backscatter can be measured by a receiver connected at the same end as the
laser source.

The fiber-optic cable is a doted quartz glass, i.e. a form of silicon oxide (SiO2). The
infrared electromagnetic laser radiation emitted is reflected in different ways by the
fiber-optic cable:
− Rayleigh scattering
− Stokes scattering
− Antistokes scattering

The Rayleigh scattering has the same wavelength as the laser beam, whereas the
stokes scattering has a slightly higher and the anti-stokes scattering a slightly lower
wavelength. The two stokes scattering types are also referred to as Raman scatter-
ing. While Stokes scattering is temperature-independent, Antistokes scattering is
affected by the thermal energy of the fiber-optic cable’s local temperature. The
intensity increases with the temperature. The temperature of the fiber-optic cable
thus results from the intensity ratio between Stokes and Antistokes scattering.

By means of runtime measurements, it is possible to measure the associated

Raman scattering for each cable spot. The local cable temperature is then deter-
mined by the ratio between stokes and anti-stokes scattering.

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The following illustration shows the spectral position of Raman scattering.

Controller
Optical waveguide
Laser
Laser beam

Backscatter

Evaluation

Laser beam
Intensity

Measured value

Antistokes Stokes

Figure 4.43: Principle of Raman scattering

The sensor cable can be divided into sensor sections from 1 to x meters by using
appropriate electronic and software components. These sections are then handled
as individual sensors. This means that several sensors can be combined in groups,
or multisensor logic can be created. This measuring principle allows temperature
measuring and alarm triggering according to the differential and / or maximal
characteristics. Based on the accuracy of the sensor sections, it is possible to
localize the heat sources.

Depending on the fiber-optic cable type, systems available today make activation
temperatures up to 400°C possible. With a given sensor section length up to 4m,
current systems allow sensor lengths up to 16km.

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4.7.2 Selecting the Suitable System

The table below shows the properties of the different principles of linear heat
detection systems.

System Heat- Temperature- Sensor Tempera- Fiber-optic

sensitive sensitive tube ture cable
Properties polymer isolation sensors

Selectable temperature thresholds No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Increase and fixed value evaluation No No No Yes Yes
Possibility of creating zones No No No Yes Yes
Pre-alarm possible No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Temperature measurement No No No Yes Yes
Ambient temperature compensation No No No Yes Yes
Max. activation temperature 200°C 250°C 150°C 150°C 400°C
Automatic resetting No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Localizing the heat spot No / partially No No Yes Yes
Maximum sensor length 2'000m 2'000m 200m 2'500m 16'000m

Table 4.10: Properties of different linear heat detection systems

The most suitable system has to be chosen depending on the field of application,
the risk and the price:
• If the operator wants to ensure with the simplest available means that a trans-
former will be switched off from the mains in case of overheating, it suffices to
use a cable triggering alarm when a predefined temperature is exceeded. When
such an event is expected rarely or not at all, no automatic resetting is required.
• To monitor the temperature of a reactor in the chemical industry, it is important
that the system reliably produces a prealarm and an alarm message. The possi-
bility of creating zones or localizing the heat spot is not normally necessary.
• To monitor a road tunnel with a linear heat detection system, it is mandatory to
create zones, compensate the ambient temperature and localize the heat spot,
i.e. the fire seat.

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4.8 Planning
National standards and guidelines describe how fire detection systems must be
planned, installed and operated. Adhering to these regulations is a prerequisite for
the approval of an automatic fire detection system by the authorities, the fire bri-
gade and insurance companies. Protection-objective oriented fire detection sys-
tems can only be designed if the prevailing risk is clarified, the protection objective
is known and the resulting requirements on the fire detection system are specified.
Such systems are complex and costly and must be executed by experts.

4.8.1 Object-independent Planning

The planning process of a fire detection system must consider the following
factors:
− extent of monitoring
− selection of the type of fire detectors
− coverage area and arrangement of the fire detectors
− design of the fire detection control unit, supply network and energy supply
− detector zones
− alarm and controls
− alarm organization

4.8.1.1 Monitoring Extent

The monitoring extent is defined as follows:

Monitoring extent Description

Complete protection Protection of all parts of the building
Selective protection Protection of one or several fire sectors in the building
Escape route Protection limited to measures serving the
protection safeguarding of escape routes
Targeted monitoring Protection of particular devices or function(s) in the
building, which do not constitute a fire sector
Equipment protection Protection of certain devices or pieces of equipment

Table 4.11: Variants of the monitoring extent

The local requirements define which areas must be provided with what monitoring
extent. These requirements are limited to complete protection, selective protection
and escape route protection. Targeted monitoring and equipment protection are
not usually laid down in the specifications.

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The threat plays a key role in the definition of the monitoring extent:
• If there is any threat to persons, as a general rule, all rooms frequented by
people, whether permanently or temporarily, as well as the adjacent rooms must
be included in the monitoring extent.
• If there is any threat to assets, as a general rule, all areas must be monitored.
This does not include areas that only contain a limited combustible load or that
do not facilitate fire spread.

For most buildings, the monitoring extent defined in the specification lists and
tables is sufficient. With certain types of buildings, however, the monitoring extent
must be determined for each area, based on the prevailing risks and the defined
protection objective. The following examples illustrate which deliberations are
required to define the monitoring extent of particular objects:
• A fire in a nuclear power station can have disastrous consequences. Therefore,
everything is done to prevent fire. The probability of occurrence is thus very low.
As the calculated risk is the product of the probability of occurrence and the ef-
fects, the effects of a fire must be minimized as well. In addition to a number of
structural measures such as fire compartments or the reduction of the combusti-
ble load, a fire must be detected as early as possible wherever it occurs, and
appropriate measures must be initiated. This means that complete protection is
required in all critical buildings.
• In a hospital, the protection of patients has top priority. This means that com-
plete protection is almost always required. All rooms, aisles and staircases must
be monitored by a fire detection system.
• Considering a metal-processing factory, the focus is on the protection of the
production facilities. A storage room with a low combustible load need not be
monitored by a fire detection system if fire spread is limited and possible dam-
age in this area is acceptable.

4.8.1.2 Selecting the Fire Detectors

To select the ideal fire detector, the type of fire to be expected and the associated
fire phenomena are definitely in the center of all deliberations. Primarily, smolder-
ing fires are detected with smoke detectors, while flame or heat detectors are most
suitable for the detection of open liquid fires. In addition to the type of fire, however,
the room height, the ambient conditions and the possible deceptive phenomena
must be taken into account as well. More detailed information on selecting the ideal
fire detectors can be found in chapter 4.4.

4.8.1.3 Monitoring Areas and Arrangement of Fire Detectors

Monitoring areas and arrangement of the fire detectors shall be in accordance with
the type of fire detectors and the room geometry such as surface area, height,
shape of the roof and ceiling. This topic is covered in detail in chapter 4.5.

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4.8.1.4 Fire Detection Control Unit, Supply Network and Energy Supply
The fire detection control unit serves for operating the fire detection system. In
addition, it evaluates the hazard messages received by the peripheral devices and
the fire alarm and control installations.

The supply networks must guarantee the reliable communication between the
control unit and the peripheral devices.

It is mandatory that fire detection systems be fed by two independent energy

sources.

Detailed information on the topics of fire detection control unit, supply network and
energy supply can be found in chapter 4.6.

4.8.1.5 Detector Zones

A detector zone is a combination of detectors for which an own indicator for mes-
sages and faults is provided on the indicating equipment. Detector zones must be
defined in such a way that quick, unambiguous indication and location of the fire is
possible.

Depending on the type of fire detectors, room size and special areas, such as false
floors, particular restrictions apply for the creation of detector zones, referring to
the number of detectors or the size of the monitoring area, for example. It is impor-
tant that unambiguous identification of the fire location is always guaranteed.

4.8.1.6 Fire Alarm and Control Devices

One significant task of a fire detection system is to activate and control the fire
control installations such as smoke extraction equipment or extinguishing systems.

The fire detection control unit must include at least one control device for an alarm
system to alert people. Depending on the alarm organization, alarm areas may be
defined, and additional acoustic and / or optical signal transmitters can be used for
the purpose of alerting people. The signals from these alarm devices must differ
from the usual operating signals.

4.8.1.7 Alarm Organization

The alarm organization is one of the focal points in setting up a fire detection
system. This includes all measures serving for alarm, rescuing, avoiding fire
spread, fire fighting and orientation in the event of fire.

To define the alarm organization and the measures in connection with it, the sys-
tem operator, fire brigade, planner and installer of a fire detection system must
work in close cooperation.

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Especially the following measures must be ensured:

− warning endangered persons
− fire alarm signaling to public and internal intervention forces
− avoiding a quick fire spread by closing doors
− activating smoke and heat extraction ducts
− fire fighting

4.8.2 Object-dependent Planning

Based on a few examples, this section shows what deliberations are necessary to
plan and install a fire detection system, and which types of fire detectors are re-
quired for the different applications.

4.8.2.1 General
Authorities, insurance companies and fire brigades require automatic fire detection
systems for many buildings such as hospitals, hotels, museums or industrial facili-
ties. In most countries, there are also regulations specifying how such a system
must be set up, and what products are approved.

As in many other fields, economy calls for selecting the system technology in
accordance with the requirements and the risk situation:
• Collective systems are only used on the simplest application conditions, or for
low-risk applications. This system technology is exclusively distinguished by its
price.
• The addressable technology with threshold value technology is still very widely
spread, but is rarely used in new systems. Such systems are used only for low
or medium risk situations and with average degree of severity.
• Systems with individual addressing and algorithm technology are still character-
ized by their very good detection behavior. Their application is recommended
with medium risks or average requirements.
• For high risks and requirements on the detection behavior, the use of advanced
technology is indispensable. The savings resulting from early, reliable fire detec-
tion outbalance the high acquisition costs, as damage is minimized in the case
of fire and false alarms can be virtually ruled out.

Early and safe fire detection due to object-dependent planning

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4.8.2.2 Administrative Buildings

Risk
A modern administrative building largely consists of office rooms, meeting rooms
and corridors. To minimize the combustible load and the risk of fire, only hardly
combustible materials are used wherever possible. Electric installations, electronic
devices and glowing cigarettes are possible ignition sources. Fire usually develops
within a few minutes and remains locally limited in case of early detection com-
bined with appropriate fire fighting.

The probability of a fire in such a building is rather low, due to the average com-
bustible load and the existing ignition sources. Damage is mostly locally limited; the
risk in such a building can be assessed as low to medium-sized.

If the administrative building has an EDP room, this area must be considered
separately due to its high risk.

Protection Objective
In an administrative building, the protection of people clearly has first priority. In the
event of fire, people must by no means be endangered and early alarm and
evacuation must be guaranteed. Containing and extinguishing the fire has second
priority, so that material damage can be limited. This means, for example, that
damage must at any rate be limited to one floor only. Any possible operational
interruption must be short-term and locally limited.

Fire Detection System

In addition to other protective measures, such as safeguarding escape routes or
controlling fire sectors, the fire detection system must be set up in such a way that
it detects a defined fire size, for example a burning stack of paper, and that it
activates the alarm devices and fire control installations.

In a building of this type where smoking is prohibited, the operator has to expect
very weak deceptive phenomena. Monitoring is possible with individually ad-
dressed fire detectors with threshold value technology. Also, no preliminary clarifi-
cations are required. If the system is set up in compliance with the regulations, i.e.
the coverage area is taken into consideration and only approved fire detectors are
used, the required protection objective can be achieved.

Optical point detectors are installed in the offices and corridors. In rooms higher
than 3 meters and frequented by smokers, multisensor smoke detectors with
algorithm technology are recommended.

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4.8.2.3 Recycling Facility

Risk
In a recycling facility for paper and synthetic materials, the combustible load is
extremely high. Electric installations, motors driving the production machines and
many rotating parts are potential ignition sources. A fire can cause machine failure
strongly impairing the production. Damage and resulting operational interruption
can cause enormous costs or even bankruptcy.

The risk in such a recycling facility must thus be assessed as very high. Although
damage is normally limited to property and operational interruption, it may be so
high that the company cannot survive.

Protection Objective
Protecting material assets and the production clearly have top priority. In the event
of a fire, the fire must be contained and extinguished as quickly as possible. The
production interruption must by no means exceed a certain defined value. For
example, a maximum of one production machine out of three may break down.

Danger to persons is rather low, as few people are present in such facilities, the
fire does not spread explosively, and there are sufficient escape routes.

Fire Detection System

The fire detection system must guarantee quick and reliable alarm with a defined
fire size, as well as the controlling of fire control installations. A defined fire size for
this application would be a paper fire with a diameter of 30cm, for example. Such a
fire burns approximately 4g of material per second, produces 50kW and reaches a
flame height of approximately 1m.

Recycling halls are large, high rooms where rough environmental conditions pre-
vail. In addition to a high temperature and humidity fluctuation, the air usually
contains much dust depositing everywhere. Another aspect is solar radiation in
such halls, which is why deceptive alarms and holding time deserve special con-
sideration when it comes to selecting the fire detectors.

Intelligent flame detectors quickly respond to open fire and are completely immune
to the prevailing deceptive phenomena. However, they have the disadvantage that
they cannot detect smoldering fires. In addition, due to partitions, large machines,
etc., it is very difficult to monitor all areas with an acceptable number of flame
detectors.

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The following combination has been tried and tested in practice:

• Monitoring the production machines with flame detectors.
• Additional monitoring of the entire production hall with an ASD system. To
minimize detector soiling, the ASD system is equipped with a filter and a blow-
out mechanism for cleaning the suction pipes. Long-term tests have shown that
the cleaning interval in very rough environments is 3 months for the filter and 12
months for the built-in smoke detectors.

Early and reliable fire detection in a recycling facility can only be ensured by com-
bining flame detectors and smoke detectors (e.g. aspirating smoke detectors or
linear smoke detectors)!

4.8.2.4 Clean Room in the Semiconductor Industry

Risk
The semiconductor industry is one of the most advanced industrial sectors world-
wide. Chips are produced in clean rooms in expensive and complex processes and
with the finest microstructures. The processes must run in an extremely clean
atmosphere, which is why the quality requirements on the air in these clean rooms
are extremely high.

Typical fire hazards are the ignition of process solvents in electrically heated baths,
short-circuits or overload in technical equipment and installations, or hazards by
external fires.

Fires in clean rooms can have disastrous results. Even minor contamination by fire
aerosols or corrosive gases damages the products and intermediate products. If
the fire becomes larger, this may cause production to break down for many weeks.
The figures below show that the damage to be expected in clean rooms by far
extends the usual scope:
• In accordance with Factory Mutual, the average damage amount in the semi-
conductor industry exceeded the amount of USD 8'000'000 for each event in
1995.
• Also in 1995, one case of damage was registered for every tenth insured object.
• In comparison: In other industrial sectors, one damage case was registered for
every hundredth insured object, with an average damage amount of less than
USD 250'000 per event.

The semiconductor industry thus clearly reaches a new risk dimension!

Protection Objective
In a clean room, the financial damage that can be caused by operational interrup-
tion clearly takes top priority. Everything must be done to guarantee a possibly
early, reliable detection of incipient fires. False alarms caused by environmental
influence also lead to operational interruptions and must be ruled out at any rate.
The protection of people is already ensured by early detection and alarm.

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Fire Detection System

The production processes in the semiconductor industry are highly specialized and
matched to the relevant products. Each production facility is different, with a differ-
ent environment. Setting up a reliable fire detection system requires a lot of experi-
ence, and the detailed concept of the plant ventilation must be known at any rate.

By selecting appropriate ventilation concepts, the desired pureness of the air can
be achieved. The ventilation delivers clean air to the room, supported by a more or
less strong air flow. Basically, we distinguish between systems with low-turbulence
displacement flow producing a laminar, i.e. uniform air flow, and systems with
turbulent mixed ventilation.

In clean rooms, where low-turbulence displacement flow is used, a 600fold air

change and air speeds up to 0.3 to 0.5m/s are to be expected. Early fire detection
in such clean rooms can only be guaranteed by monitoring with high-sensitive ASD
systems. In areas with low-turbulence displacement flow, ceiling detectors assume
the function of additional civil protection.

In areas with turbulent mixed ventilation, for example in service rooms, the ex-
pected air change is 10- to 50-fold. Here, point-type, intelligent smoke detectors on
the ceiling are suited for an early detection of incipient fire. A coverage area of
25m2 per detector and a maximum detector distance of 5m must be provided. In
addition, any possible perforation of the ceiling around the detector must be
avoided.

As clean rooms constitute a very high risk, the use of state-of-the-art technology is
indispensable. Application and placement of the fire detection systems listed below
are to be understood as a basic concept.
• High-sensitive ASD systems for early fire detection by monitoring the exhaust air
from the clean room. The pipe system is usually placed in the false floor and
must be planned depending on the ventilation systems. For maintenance rea-
sons, the ASD must be placed in the servicing area and thus outside the clean
room.
• By installing sensitive point detectors in the pipe system, a second alarm level is
generated, with the purpose of automatically alerting the fire brigade.
• Intelligent, point-type detectors with a high sensitivity level are applied to monitor
false ceilings and ventilation floors in large facilities.
• The servicing area is monitored by point-type smoke detectors; the coverage
area should not exceed 25m2 per smoke detector.
• Manual call points are used for manually alerting intervention forces.

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4.8.2.5 Fire Detection in Ex-Zones

If fire detection systems are installed in explosion-hazard areas, the devices used
and the electric operating equipment must satisfy certain safety requirements. In
addition, special aspects described below must be taken into consideration for the
installation of fire detection systems in explosion-hazard areas.

Zone Allocation
In compliance with the IEC definition, explosion-hazard areas are classified in three
danger zones 0, 1 and 2, with the temporal and local probability of the occurrence
of an explosive atmosphere being relevant (see Annex: “Zone Division of Explosion
Areas” on page 316).

Each industrial facility must be individually divided into such zones. In doing so, it
must be taken into account that the authority in charge may as well divide one
explosion-hazard room into different zones, for example up to 1.5m room height in
zone 1, the part above 1.5m in zone 2.

Ex-zone 0 includes all areas where processes run. These hazards must thus be
controlled by processing technology. Safety technology only handles ex-zones 1
and 2.

Zone 1
Office
spaces

Autoclaves:
Zone 0

Zone 2

Figure 4.44: Zones in a factory building

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Installation
While installing fire detection systems in explosion-hazard areas, it is important that
country-specific regulations are always adhered to!

The following list reveals some points to be taken into account for the installation a
fire detection system in explosion-hazard areas:
• Whether rooms are considered explosion-hazard areas and the degree of dan-
ger are defined by the local authorities in charge. Prior to implementation, a
zone plan must be demanded from the relevant authorities, indicating zones 0,
1 and 2 as well as all zones that are not endangered.
• The passageways for detection lines and other lines from ex-rooms to non-ex-
rooms must be gastight.
• Electric decoupling of the detection line is ensured with specially developed
safety barriers that may not be mounted in the danger zone.
• In explosion-hazard rooms, only such products and installation materials may be
used that comply with the national directives.
• In explosion-hazard zones, plants and pieces of equipment made of metal must
be connected to the equipotential bonding rail.
• In explosion-hazard zones, only such wires may be placed that are used by the
equipment in these rooms. Concealed wiring, completely embedded in concrete,
may be run through the ex-zone.
• The protection distances of electrical equipment to door and ventilation openings
in explosion-hazard rooms must be taken from the national regulations.

The above list only shows the most important aspects but is by no means exhaus-
tive. In addition to products specially developed for such areas, the expert setup of
a fire detection system in explosion-hazard areas requires a lot of knowledge and
experience.

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4.9 Installation, Commissioning and Acceptance

Installation and operation of a fire detection system are governed by standards
and guidelines that must be adhered to by all parties involved, especially the
system provider, planner, installer, operator and servicing company. This also
applies to the installation, commissioning and acceptance of a fire detection sys-
tem.

4.9.1 Installation
The following aspects must be taken into account for the installation of a fire detec-
tion system:
• Deviations from the system documentation can only be accepted after consulting
the responsible parties and upon adhering to the protection objectives defined in
the fire protection concept.
• Each deviation must be laid down and justified in the system documentation.
• When fitting the components of the fire detection system, the installation instruc-
tions provided by the manufacturer must be observed.
• All system parts must be secured to a solid, level surface. They must be
mounted in such a way that the risk of mechanical damage is as low as possible.

When installing the fire detection control unit, the following aspects must be taken
into account:
• The mounting location of the control unit must be close to the area where the fire
brigade arrives in the event of fire. The control unit must be directly accessible.
• The control unit must be installed in a clean room with sufficient room illumina-
tion. It must be protected against damaging environmental influences, such as
direct solar radiation, operational vibrations, dust or humidity.
• A separate electric circuit with a specially marked fuse must be used for the
mains supply.

When setting up the supply network, the following aspects must be taken into
account:
• The supply network must be installed according to approved rules and the local
regulations.
• The lines must be routed in a way that they are sufficiently mechanically pro-
tected and fixed and must comply with the requirements for room usage.
• Only the cable types approved by the supplier for use with the respective fire
detection system may be installed.
• Energy or signal cables must be laid in such a way that damaging influence on
the system will be avoided. In so doing, electromagnetic influence impairing the
correct function must be avoided as well.

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4.9.2 Commissioning
The commissioning of a fire detection system is preceded by a detailed mounting
check of all components. Commissioning itself is performed by an authorized
installer.

The commissioning checklists handed over by the manufacturer must be observed

item by item. After each successfully performed test part, the corresponding part of
the acceptance protocol must be completed.
• If deviations from the planning documentation are revealed during the commis-
sioning tests, the respective parts must be replaced and / or relocated.
• Defective devices or defective device components must be replaced by correctly
working devices or components.
• During the course of the testing work, it must be ensured that erroneous activa-
tion of the transmission line to the fire brigade or the actuation of automatic fire
protection equipment (e.g. extinguishing systems) is ruled out.

4.9.3 Acceptance
The prerequisite for acceptance is a successful commissioning test. During the
acceptance test, the test positions listed in the acceptance testing list must be
checked for their compliance with the system setup and the parameter settings.
• As with commissioning, it must be ensured during the acceptance test work that
the transmission facility to the public intervention forces and the actuation of fire
protection equipment are disabled, in order to avoid erroneous activation. The
reactivation of these transmission facilities after the acceptance deserves spe-
cial consideration.
• The operating panel indicators, and especially the customizable texts, must be
checked during the test sequence for their compliance with the parameter set-
ting documentation or the system documentation.
• After a successful acceptance test, the system must be handed over to the
operator by the accepting party. The acceptance protocol must be completed,
signed and also handed over to the operator / customer.

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4.10 Profitability and System Evaluation

As with most investments, the overall costs play a key role for the decision-making
process in evaluating a fire detection system. The classic approach for fire detec-
tion systems is to add ten times the amount of the expected maintenance costs to
the acquisition costs. This corresponds to an expected service life of 10 years. The
sum is then the basis for a cost comparison. Although this method makes possible
a simple cost comparison between systems, it has the following deficiencies:
• Some important cost factors are not considered at all.
• The basic assumption that a fire detection system generally has a service life of
10 years is simply wrong.
• Costs incurring due to insufficient system quality are not taken into account, for
example efforts of the fire brigade in case of false alarm.
• Costs for system extensions and modernization are additional aspects to be
taken into account in the decision-finding process.

4.10.1 Cost Blocks

Setting up and operating a fire detection system can be broken down into the
following cost blocks:
• Acquisition
− system / hardware
− installation and commissioning
− integration into building automation
− staff training and instruction
• Maintenance
− preventive maintenance
− intervention
− personnel expenditure
− false alarms
• Extension
− adapting the system integration
− improving the system features
− extending / increasing the coverage
− adapting the system to internal modifications / change of use
• Modernization
− replacing the system by the next system generation

Ideally, these cost blocks should be recorded and compared for each system.
However, usually this exceeds the scope by far, and most points are difficult to
elicit. The following section covers some aspects that are of significance.

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4.10.2 Service Life

Of course, the service life of a fire detection system cannot be exactly predicted,
but it can be assessed on the basis of the company culture and self-conception of
the manufacturer. The following aspects must be taken into account:
• How often does the manufacturer launch a new system generation?
If a manufacturer launches a new fire detection system, the previous generation
must be phased out within a few years. This is the only way maintenance costs
for the prevision system(s) can be reduced to an acceptable level.
• Since when has the most recent fire detection system been marketed?
Based on the service life of a generation and the year of the first system sales, it
can be assessed after which period of time the most recent fire detection system
will be replaced.
• How can the quality of the fire detection system modules be assessed?
Assessing the quality not only means the actual product quality. The quality of
fire detection is of equal importance, and what possibilities there are to adapt
this quality to changing requirements.
• How much has been invested into the fire detection system regarding
modernization?
Manufacturers who have a good modernization concept for existing systems will
probably continue to do so in the future. For these systems, possibilities for a
step-by-step modernization will most probably continue to be available in the
future.
• For how many years can the availability of the system modules be guaranteed?
In former times, availability guarantees of 10 years after announcement of a sys-
tem phase-out were often given. Due to the use of electronic standard modules
with a service life of a few years only, such time spans can no longer be guaran-
teed today.

Based on two extremes, it shall be illustrated below that service lives between 6
and 15 years are possible.

Example A
• The manufacturer launches a new generation every 4 years.
• The current system was first sold 3 years ago.
• The quality of the products and detection behavior is fairly good, but it cannot be
improved.
• The system is not designed for a seamless integration of modules of an older
system.
• The manufacturer guarantees for the delivery of system parts up to 5 years after
announcing the system’s phase-out.

The system will thus probably be replaced in a year, and the guaranteed delivery of
system parts will end in 6 years from now. Since an adaptation to changed re-
quirements and a step-by-step modernization are not possible with this system, the
realistic service life is 6 years.

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Example B
• The manufacturer launches a new generation every 8 years.
• The current system was first sold 2 years ago.
• The quality of the products and detection behavior is sufficient and can be
improved without problems, for example by compatible fire detectors with im-
proved properties.
• The system is designed so that modules of an older system can be integrated,
for example by means of an interface to older modules.
• The manufacturer guarantees for the delivery of system parts up to 5 years after
announcing the system’s phase-out.

The system will thus probably be replaced in 6 years, and the guaranteed delivery
of system parts will end in 11 years from now. Since an adaptation to changed
requirements and a step-by-step modernization are possible with this system, the
realistic service life is 15 years for most system elements.

These two examples show that a fire detection system’s service life strongly de-
pends on the possibilities for system extension and modernization – features that
have not been sufficiently taken into account in the scope of system evaluation.

4.10.3 Extensions and Modernization

Extensions are a topic rarely handled, and whose consequential costs for the
evaluation are often not considered at all. In accordance with the principle “How
am I to know what the future will bring?”, this problem is set aside although it is
indeed very explosive. Even with very static companies, the expenditures for
extensions and adaptations accumulated over the system’s service life amount to
20% to 200% of the acquisition value. These are absolutely relevant sums. De-
pending on the type of fire detection system, an extension may generate up to 50%
extra costs if, for example, the flexibility for extensions is limited or has been ex-
hausted. In the worst case, an extension is not possible at all, for example when
new requirements on the detection capability simply exceed the system’s capabili-
ties.

Sooner or later, a fire detection system begins to age, and the question for re-
placement arises. As it rarely happens that the complete system requires the same
degree of renovation, the system parts that are still operable should continue to be
used for several years for economic reasons. By means of well thought-out mod-
ernization concepts, a step-by-step replacement is made possible, so that the
system parts that most urgently require replacement can indeed be replaced first,
while others that are in better condition can continue to be used. Smart moderniza-
tion thus has a positive influence on the profitability of a fire detection system.

Simple, cost-efficient extensions and well conceived modernization concepts have

a significant impact on overall costs and must thus be taken into account for the
evaluation of a fire detection system. This topic is covered in detail in chapter 8
starting on page 261.

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4.10.4 False Alarms

Early alarm in the event of fire and a high immunity to deceptive phenomena are
opposite characteristics. Today, it is relatively easy to set a fire detection system so
that it alerts as early as possible. It is not difficult either to install a system that is
highly immune to deceptive phenomena. A state-of-the-art fire detection system,
however, must be capable of alerting as early as possible in the event of fire and,
at the same time, avoiding false alarms.

In large cities, it has been a rule for many years to partially pass on the cost of fire
brigade expenditures in case of false alarms. If it happens repeatedly, it may
exceed 1'000 € per case. Based on a conservative calculation of 1'000 € internal
costs (due to the interruption of productive work), the internal and external costs of
each false alarm amount to a total of 2'000 €. A fire detection system with a service
life of 10 years and two false alarms per year generates extra costs of 40'000 €.
This amount shows that an investment in a fire detection system with intelligent fire
detectors that ensure reliable detection quickly pays for itself.

4.10.5 Conclusion
To evaluate a fire detection system, the required quality regarding the detection
behavior and detection reliability must clearly take top priority. Only this way can
the defined protection objective be achieved, defining the required degree of per-
sonal safety, damage mitigation regarding buildings and assets, as well as the
limitation of operational interruptions and environmental damage.

User-friendliness, additional functions and integration into a superordinated system

are additional aspects to be taken into account and to be assessed. With these
points, the incurring additional costs must at best be compared with the higher
productivity that can be achieved. This can be in the form of time savings, for
example, better system overview or higher flexibility.

During the planning phase, it is virtually impossible to exactly determine the overall
costs of a fire detection system. The result may be more or less accurate, depend-
ing on how thoroughly the different aspects are considered. It is important that the
determination of the overall costs, in addition to the mere acquisition costs, takes
into account maintenance, extendibility and extension costs as well as moderniza-
tion possibilities. Longer service life has already led to an excellent profitability for
many fire detection systems, although their acquisition costs were initially higher.

It is mandatory to give consideration to these factors so that a more or less correct

evaluation can be made. Only this way can the overall costs be determined as
accurately as possible, which is a prerequisite for the selection of the most cost-
efficient system in the long term. Investing in a fire detection system with high
detection reliability, high flexibility and well thought-out modernization concept pays
for itself.

Intelligent investment pays for itself

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