Biology 12 - The Digestive System - Chapter Notes

In a nutshell...
• The body uses a variety of small molecules (amino acids, fatty acids,
glucose) for its metabolic needs. Food is mechanically and chemically
broken down into these molecules during digestion, after which they can be
taken up by body cells through the separate process of absorption.
• Food travels in a one-way path from mouth to esophagus to stomach to
small intestine to large intestine to anus.
• Organs and structures in the digestive system are specialized for specific
functions in digestion.
• Digestive enzymes are specific hydrolytic enzymes that have a preferred
temperature and pH.
• Proper nutrition is necessary to health.

• DIGESTION: the mechanical and chemical breaking down of

ingested food into particles, then into molecules small enough to
move through epithelial cells and into the internal environment.
• ABSORPTION: the passage of digested nutrients from the gut
lumen into the blood or lymph, which distributes them through the
body.
• ELIMINATION: the expulsion of indigestible residues from the body.
We will look at DIGESTION first.
• During digestion, proteins are broken down into amino acids, carbohydrates into glucose, fat to glycerol
and fatty acids, nucleic acids to nucleotides.
• Digestion is an EXTRACELLULAR process. It occurs within the gut (a tube that runs from mouth to
anus).
• Digestion is achieved through the cooperation of a number of body parts and organ systems, and its
coordination depends on the actions of several key HORMONES. Let’s first look at the parts of the
digestive system:

Mouth

• besides emitting pearls of wisdom, your

mouth is where digestion begins. Incisors
• the mouth receives food, chews it up,
moistens it, and starts to digest any starch in Canine
the food.
Structure Premolars Hard Palate
• divided into an anterior hard palate (contains
several bones) and a posterior soft palate, Molars
which is composed of muscle tissue. That
thing that hangs down in the back of your Uvula Soft Palate
throat people think is their tonsils is really the
uvula, and is the end part of soft palate. (the Tonsil
tonsils lie on the sides of the throat).
• sense of hunger is due to the combined
sensations of smelling and tasting of food.
Olfactory (scent) receptors in the nose, and
taste buds on the tongue, remind you that
you’re hungry.
Teeth
• a normal adult mouth has 32 teeth. The
purpose of teeth is to chew food into pieces
that can be swallowed easily.
• different teeth types aid this: 8 incisors for biting, 4 canines for tearing, 8 flat premolars for grinding,
and 12 molars for crushing. (wisdom teeth are final molars which may or may not erupt properly) -- if not,
they must be removed surgically).

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• each tooth is shrouded by a tough, extremely hard layer of enamel
(composed largely of calcium salts), dentine (a thicker, brownish bone-like
material) and an inner layer of nerves and blood vessels called the pulp.
• “cavities” (proper name for cavities is “caries”) are caused by bacteria in
the mouth feeding on foods (like sugars) and giving off acids that corrode
the tooth. “Plaque” is actually the living and dead bodies of millions of
bacteria. Fluoride makes the tooth enamel stronger and more resistant to
decay.
• Gum disease (inflammation of the gums = “gingivitis” is the most common
disease in the world! If it spreads to the periodontal membrane (the lining
of the tooth socket), it can cause bone loss in the socket and loosening of
the teeth (= peridontitis).
• There are three sets of SALIVARY GLANDS that produce SALIVA:
1. parotid (below ears)
2. sublingual (below tongue)
3. submandibular (under lower jaw).
• You can locate the duct opening of these with your tongue (parotid - by second upper molar, sublingual
and submandibular flaps are under the tongue).
• When you chew food, you moisten and lubricate it with saliva. Saliva contains water, mucus, and salivary
amylase, a hydrolytic enzyme that breaks down starch in the presence of water. Starch is broken down
to maltose (a disaccharide of glucose), which is later broken down to glucose in the intestine.
• Thus, digestion begins in the mouth, even before the food is swallowed. Once food has been chewed, it is
called a bolus.
• Food is then passed through the back of the mouth when you swallow. The first region that it enters is
called the PHARYNX, which is simply the region between mouth and esophagus where swallowing
takes place.
• Swallowing is a reflex action (requires no conscious thought).
• To prevent food from going down your air passages, some clever
maneuvering is necessary. Note that it is impossible to breath and swallow at
the same time. What is happening?
• when you swallow, the following happens in order to block air passages:
1. the SOFT PALATE MOVES BACK to cover openings to nose
(nasopharyngeal openings).
2. TRACHEA (WINDPIPE) MOVES UP under a flap of tissue called the
epiglottis, blocking its opening. When food goes down the "wrong way" it
goes into the trachea, and is then coughed back up.
3. opening to LARYNX (larynx = “voice box”) is called the “glottis.” This
opening is COVERED when the trachea moves up (you can see this by observing the movement of
the Adam's Apple (part of the larynx) when swallowing). It gets covered by a flap of tissue called the
EPIGLOTTIS.
• food then has one route to go ---> down the ESOPHAGUS.
• Esophagus: a long muscular tube that extends from pharynx to stomach. Made of several types of
tissue.
• The inner surface lined with mucus membranes. This layer is attached by
connective tissue to a layer of smooth muscle containing both circular and
longitudinal muscle.
• food moves down the esophagus through PERISTALSIS (rhythmical
contractions of the esophageal muscles). If peristalsis occurs when
Esophagus
there is no food in the esophagus, you will feel that there is a “lump” in your
throat.
• Food bolus reaches the end of the esophagus and arrives at the cardiac
sphincter connecting to the stomach. (sphincters function like valves.
Made of muscles that encircle tubes, open them when they relax, close them
when they contract).
• Normally, this sphincter prevents food from moving up out of stomach, but
when vomiting occurs, a reverse peristaltic wave causes the sphincter to relax and the contents of the
stomach are propelled outward.
Stomach

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• is a thick-walled, J-shaped organ that lies on left side of the body
beneath the diaphragm.

• can stretch to hold about half a gallon (~2 liters) of solids and/or liquids in Cardiac
Sphincter
an average adult.
• three layers of muscle contract to churn and mix its contents Stomach
• “hunger pains” are felt when an empty stomach churns. Pyloric
• the mucus lining of the stomach contains inner GASTRIC GLANDS which Sphincter
produce GASTRIC JUICE. Gastric juice contains PEPSINOGEN and HCl
(hydrochloric acid). When the two combine, pepsinogen forms PEPSIN, a
HYDROLYTIC ENZYME that breaks down proteins into smaller chains of
amino acids called peptides. (further on in the digestive tract they are
broken down individual amino acids by other enzymes. This is the
reaction that takes place.

pepsin
protein + H2O ----------------------> peptides

• HCl gives stomach a pH of ~3. Highly corrosive. This kills bacteria in food and helps break it down
• Why doesn’t the stomach digest itself? This is because its inner wall is protected by a thick layer of
MUCUS secreted by mucosal cells.
• if HCl does penetrate, pepsin starts to digest the stomach lining ---> forms an ULCER (an open sore on
the wall of the stomach). Too much gastric juice can cause ulcers, as can too much nervous
stimulation (i.e. stress), since this will cause over-secretion of gastric juices).
• however, the #1 cause of ulcers is actually a bacterial infections (Helicobacter pylori) that impair the
ability of cells to produce mucus. Thus, most ulcers can now be cured with antibiotics.
• after 2 - 6 hours (depending on the type of food), the food has been turned into a semi-liquid food mass
called ACID CHYME, and the stomach empties into the first part of the small intestine (called the
duodenum). This emptying is controlled by the PYLORIC SPHINCTER at the bottom of the stomach.

Small Intestine: The Food Processor

• In our story, only some digestion has thus far taken place. Most of digestion and absorption of most
nutrients occur in the small intestine.
• Divided into three zones: the DUODENUM, JEJUNUM, and ILIUM.
• is about 6 meters long (~20 feet), compared to 1.5 m (~ 5
feet) for large intestine.
• first 25 cm of small intestine called the DUODENUM. Liver Stomach
The duodenum plays a major role in digestion. It is here Gall Bladder
that SECRETIONS SENT FROM THE LIVER AND
PANCREAS break down fat and peptides, and secretions Pancreas
of the duodenum itself also break down other nutrients.
Duodenum
• the Liver produces BILE, which is sent to the duodenum
via a duct from the GALL BLADDER (where bile is
stored).
• bile is a thick green liquid (it gets its green colour from Jejunum
byproducts of hemoglobin breakdown (another function
of the liver). Illium
• bile contains emulsifying agents called BILE SALTS
which break FAT into FAT DROPLETS.

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• PANCREAS sends pancreatic juice into duodenum through duct
• the juice contains enzymes and sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3)
• NaHCO3 makes the juice highly alkaline (pH ~ 8.5). It
neutralizes the acid chyme and make the small
intestine pH basic Add bile salts
• pancreatic juice contains hydrolytic enzymes including (emulsifier)
Emulsifier coats
pancreatic amylase (digests starch to maltose), outside of droplets
Large Droplets of Fat
trypsin (digests protein to peptides), and lipase
(digests fat droplets to glycerol & fatty acids).
• Note: the pancreas also has an endocrine function. It Large fat droplets have now been
broken up into smaller fat droplets
produces the hormones INSULIN and glucagon. Insulin is a
hormone that causes glucose in the blood to be taken up by
cells (i.e. lowers blood [glucose]). It is produced by different
cells (b cells in “islets of Langerhans”) in the pancreas than
the ones that make pancreatic juice. Insulin is released
directly into the blood, and it travels to target cells throughout the body. People who don’t produce insulin or enough
insulin, or who lack insulin receptors on target cells, will suffer from diabetes. Glucagon works opposite to insulin:
Glucagon has the effect of raising blood glucose concentrations.

• walls of the duodenum and small intestine are lined with millions of INTERSTITIAL GLANDS that
produce juices containing enzymes that finish the digestion of protein and starch.
• secretions from the interstitial glands contain digestive enzymes: peptidases digest peptides to amino
acids. also, maltase digests maltose (a disaccharide) to glucose. Other enzymes made here digest other
disaccharides (e.g. lactase digests lactose, the sugar in milk).
The lining of the small intestine is not smooth; it is long and convoluted.

The convoluted lining

itself, under closer
examination, is shown to
consist of millions of
finger-like projections
called villi (singular =
villus)

Lining of each villus made of columnar epithelial

cells, that have microvilli (folds of cell
membrane) across which nutrients are absorbed.

• bile (bile is an emulsifying agent, not an enzyme) sent from the gall bladder to the duodenum emulsifies fat
to fat droplets in the duodenum.
• secretions from pancreas arrive at the duodenum. These secretions contain trypsin, which breaks down
proteins to peptides in the duodenum. Lipase from the pancreas breaks lipids to glycerol and fatty acids.

Comprehensive Summary of DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

• the breakdown of food (fats, carbohydrates, proteins) into molecules small enough to be absorbed requires
the action of specific enzymes
• each enzyme has specific site where it works, and a specific pH range in which it can operate
• all are hydrolytic enzymes that catalyze a reaction of the substrate with water.
e.g. peptidases
peptides + H2O -------------------> amino acids
small intestine

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 The Principal Digestive Enzymes!

Source & Enzyme Substrate preferred pH Product Site of Action

(what they act on!) (Where they work)
SALIVARY GLANDS
Salivary Amylase Starches neutral (~7) maltose Mouth
STOMACH
Pepsin Proteins acidic (3) peptides Stomach
PANCREAS
Pancreatic Amylase Starches alkaline maltose Small Intestine
(~7.5-8.5)
Lipase Fats alkaline FA’s & Small Intestine
glycerol
Trypsin Polypeptides alkaline peptides Small Intestine
Chymotrypsin Poly & oligopeptides alkaline amino acids Small Intestine
Carboxypeptidase Polypeptides alkaline amino acids Small Intestine
Deoxyribonuclease DNA alkaline nucleotides Small Intestine
Ribonuclease RNA alkaline nucleotides Small Intestine
LIVER
Bile (emulsifies) Fat Globules alkaline smaller fat Small Intestine
globules
SMALL INTESTINE
Aminopeptidase Polypeptides alkaline amino acids Small Intestine
Tripeptidases Tripeptides alkaline amino acids Small Intestine
Dipeptidase Dipeptides alkaline amino acids Small Intestine
Maltase Maltose alkaline glucose Small Intestine
Lactase Lactose alkaline glucose & Small Intestine
galactose
Sucrase Sucrose alkaline glucose & Small Intestine
fructose
Enterokinase Trypsinogen alkaline Trypsin Small Intestine
Phosphateses Nucleotides alkaline sugars, bases, Small Intestine
phosphates

• The STRUCTURE of the small intestine is well related to its FUNCTION of ABSORPTION.
1. it is LONG with CONVOLUTED
walls to increase surface area
2. surface area further increased
<-- 20 feet long! -->
by presence of finger-like
projections called VILLI (a single one is called a “villus”. Interstitial glands
arteriole side of
are at the base of each villi. capillary network
3. villi themselves are lined with columnar cells coated with MICROVILLI. Each
lacteal (absorbs
villi contains blood vessels and lymph vessels (lacteal). fats)
• ABSORPTION takes place across the wall of each villus ---> this can
happen passively or actively. Recall that active transport across cell venule side of
capillary network
membranes requires ATP. The nutrient can now enter the blood or the
lymphatic system, depending on what type it is.
columnar cells
• Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed across the villi, are recombined into with microvilli
fat molecules in the epithelial cells of the villus. The fats then move into the
LACTEAL of each villus and enter the LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
Interstitial Gland
• sugars and amino acids enter the blood through the capillary network.
• The blood vessels from the villi in the small intestine merge to form the
HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN which leads to the liver.

The Liver
• a critically important organ in digestion & homeostasis

FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER

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1. keeps blood concentrations of nutrients, hormones etc. constant (e.g. converts glucose to glycogen and
back to keep blood glucose levels constant).
2. Interconversions of nutrients (e.g. carbohydrates to fats, amino acids to carbohydrates and fats).
3. removes toxins from the blood (detoxifies). Removes of
Underside of liver showing gall bladder
unwanted particulate matter from the blood through the
mediation of macrophages.
4. Production of Bile. Up to 1.5 liters of bile per day!
5. Destroys old red blood cells.
6. Production of urea. (deamination of amino acids and
excretion of resulting ammonia as urea, uric acid, etc.)
7. Manufacture of plasma proteins such as fibrinogen and
albumin.
8. Manufacture of cholesterol.
9. Storage of iron.
10. Storage of vitamins.
11. In embryos (of vertebrates) , the liver makes Red Blood Cells

Disorders of Liver (not on exam!)

• Jaundice: a generalized condition (there are numerous causes) many causes that gives a yellowish tint
to the skin. This yellowish tint is due to the to build up of BILIRUBIN (from the breakdown of red blood
cells) in the blood, which is due to liver damage or blockage of bile duct (the latter is called “obstructive
jaundice”).
• Obstructive jaundice also causes GALLSTONES (made of cholesterol and CaCO3. Can block bile ducts.
Removal of gall bladder often necessary.
• Viral Hepatitis: causes liver damage and jaundice. Two main types.
• Type A: infectious hepatitis caused by unsanitary food, polluted shellfish.
• Type B: serum hepatitis: spread through blood contact (e.g. transfusions)
• CIRRHOSIS: usually caused by chronic over-consumption of alcohol.
ROH ---> Active Acetate -->-->--> Fatty acids
• Liver fills up with fat deposits and scar tissue
• Kills thousands of alcoholics per year
• first step may be the presence of much
more smooth endoplasmic reticulum in
the liver cells.

Large Intestine

• consists of COLON and RECTUM (the rectum is Transverse

the last 20 cm of the colon). Opening of rectum is Colon
called ANUS.
• colon has 3 parts (ascending, transverse, and Ascending Descending
descending) Colon
Main Functions Colon
• REABSORPTION OF WATER from indigestible
food matter (feces)
• absorption of certain vitamins
• feces also contains bile pigments, heavy Cecum Rectum
metals, and billions of E. coli. While there is no
question that they are parasites, they provide a Appendix Anus
valuable service for us. These bacteria break
down some indigestible food, and in the process produce some vitamins, amino acids, and other
growth factors that are in turn absorbed by the colon.

Disorders of the Digestive System (not on exam!)

Diarrhea
• too much water is expelled in the feces.

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• usually caused by infection (in food, polluted water etc.) or stress.
• the symptom is actually a body defense against pathogen (an attempt to “flush it out”)
• loss of water can lead to severe dehydration. Causes millions of deaths per year in Third World nations
Constipation
• feces are dry, hard, difficult to expel.
• Leading cause is lack of dietary fiber. Diet can be supplemented by fiber or natural fiber supplements
(e.g. Psyllium husks). Most chemical laxatives are irritants -- cause increased peristalsis. They may also
weaken intestinal wall such that their continued use is perpetuated (i.e. you may grow to “depend” on them.)
Appendicitis
• a vestigial structure located at bottom of cecum (segment joining large & small intestines). No known
function, but can get infected, and even burst ---> can be deadly as it would fill the abdominal cavity with
infections bacteria.
Colostomy
• removal of rectum and anal canal
• intestine attached to abdominal wall, feces collect in plastic bag

Control of Digestive Gland Secretion

• generally speaking, the presence of food in digestive system triggers digestive glands to secrete their
enzymes.
• more specifically, HORMONES control secretion of specific digestive juices.
• There are 4 hormones that we will look at: gastrin, secretin, CCK, and GIP.

The Specifics! From start to finish

Secretin
CCK Gastrin
CCK CCK Secretin
Gastrin

• When food is eaten, sensory cells in the stomach detect the presence of peptides. Other sensory
receptors detect that the stomach is distending (i.e. stretching). This causes other stomach cells to release
GASTRIN, a hormone, into the blood.
• Gastrin travels through the blood and finally reaches other cells (takes about 1 minute) in the stomach that
produce gastric juices, and stimulates its release.
• Most digestion of food occurs in the duodenum. The acid chyme seeps in from the stomach and is first
neutralized. SECRETIN, a hormone produced by the small intestine, mediates this neutralization by
stimulating the release of SODIUM BICARBONATE by the pancreas.
• The presence of amino acids or fatty acids in the duodenum triggers the release of CHOLECYSTOKININ
(CCK), which stimulates the release of digestive enzymes by the pancreas and bile by the gallbladder.

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• A fourth hormone, ENTEROGASTRONE (also known as Gastric Inhibitory Peptide, or GIP), released by the
small intestine, slows digestion by INHIBITING stomach peristalsis and acid secretion when acid chyme
rich in fats (which require additional digestion time) enters the duodenum.

Here is a great lil’ summary for you!

Hormone Released by What Part/ Acts on What Part? What does it do?
in response to what?
GASTRIN upper part of stomach/in Gastric juice secreting Causes secretion of gastric
response to protein in the cells at top of stomach juices
stomach
SECRETIN Small intestine/Acid chyme Pancreas Causes pancreas to release
from stomach NaHCO3 and pancreatic
enzymes
CCK Small intestine/Acid chyme in Pancreas and Liver (gall Causes liver to secrete bile
stomach bladder) and pancreas to secrete
pancreatic juice.
GIP Small intestine/acid chyme rich Stomach Inhibits stomach peristalsis
in fats enter duodenum and acid secretion (opposes
gastrin)

Human Nutrition: You are what you don’t eliminate!

Main Classes of Nutrients

• carbohydrates • lipids
• proteins • vitamins & minerals

Carbohydrates
• primary source of energy
• diet should consist primarily of complex carbohydrates (not refined sugars)
• carbohydrates are digested eventually to glucose, which is stored by liver as glycogen
• glucose is only fuel brain will use

Fats

• most fats can be made by liver (linoleic acid is an exception)

• fats in food are mostly found in animal products (meat and dairy). These are especially high in saturated
fats. (saturated fats tend to be solid at room temp.)
• high fat and protein diets are number one cause of death in North America (heart disease, strokes,
hypertension, many forms of cancer, many other disorders and diseases).
• You should get about 15% of your calories from fat. Most Americans and Canadians get between 40 and
60% of their calories from fat!
• high in calories (> twice as many per gram (9.1) as carbohydrates or protein (4.4.))

Proteins

• protein is necessary for tissues, metabolism, enzymes etc.

• it is NOT an energy food
• of twenty types of amino acids, 8 cannot be manufactured by humans --- called essential amino acids.
• protein deficiency is the most common form of malnutrition in poorer countries. The swollen abdomen of
starving children is caused by edema due to the lack of plasma proteins in the blood.
• protein deficiency is not a problem in North America.
• most North Americans eat more than 2 to 3 times the amount of protein they need.
• high protein diets are usually also high fat diets.

Vitamins and Minerals

• vitamins are organic compounds that the body can't produce but must be present in the diet (though they
are only required in very small amounts). Lack of any one vitamin can cause serious health disorders.
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• Vitamin D: deficiency leads to rickets (bowing of legs). Manufactured naturally by skin upon exposure to
sun.
• Vitamin C: deficiency leads to scurvy
• Riboflavin: deficiency causes fissures of lips (cheilosis)
• Niacin: deficiency causes dermatitis of areas of skin exposed to light (called pellagra)
• many vitamins are coenzymes. e.g. Niacin: coenzyme of NAD. Riboflavin: coenzyme of FAD.
• best source of vitamins is fresh fruits and vegetables in a balanced diet.
• Vitamin supplements, in moderation, have not been clearly established as being either harmful or
significantly beneficial.
• Some advocates of mega-vitamin therapy have reported efficacy of Vitamin C (as well as certain other
vitamins) as effective in treating everything from cancer to mental illness.
• Mega-doses of fat-soluble vitamins (e.g. Vitamin A) should never be taken ---> dangerous levels can build
up in body.
• Here is a summary of the important vitamins in human nutrition:
Name, Formula, and Solubility Important Sources Functions Result of Deficiency or Absence (in
humans, except as noted)
LIPID-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
A (C20H30O), antixerophthalmic Plant form (carotene, C40H56) in green Maintains integrity of epithelial tissues, Xerophthalmia (dry cornea, or tear
leaves, carrots, etc.; is changed in liver especially mucous membranes; needed secretion), phrynoderma (toad skin),
to animal form (C20H30O), present in as part of visual purple in retina of eye night blindness, growth retardation,
fish-liver oil (shark); both forms in butter, nutritional croup (hoarseness) in birds
milk
D (C28H44O), antirachitic Fish-liver oils, especially tuna, less in Regulates metabolism of calcium and Rickets in young (bones soft, yielding,
cod; beef fat; also exposure of skin to phosphorus; promotes absorption of often deformed); osteomalacia (soft
ultraviolet radiation calcium in intestine; needed for normal bones), especially in women of Asia
growth and mineralization of bones
Antioxidative; maintains integrity of
membranes
E, or tocopherol (C29H50O2), Green leaves, wheatgerm oil and other Antioxidative; maintains integrity of Sterility in male fowls and rats,
antisterility vegetable fats, meat, milk membranes degeneration of testes with failure of
spermatogenesis, embryonic growth
disturbances, suckling paralysis and
muscular dystrophy in young animals
K (C31H46O2), antihemorrhagic Green leaves, also certain bacteria, such Essential to production of prothrombin in Blood fails to clot
as those of intestinal flora liver; necessary for blood clotting
WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
B complex Thiamine (B1) Yeast, germ of cereals, (especially Needed for carbohydrate metabolism; On diet high in polished rice, beriberi
(C12H17ON4S), antineuritic wheat, peanuts, other leguminous thiamine pyrophosphate, an essential (nerve inflammation); loss of appetite,
seeds). roots, egg yolk, liver, lean meat coenzyme in pyruvate metabolism with loss of tone and reduced motility in
(stimulates root growth in plants) digestive tract; cessation of growth;
polyneuritis (nerve inflammation) in birds
Riboflavin (B2) Green leaves, milk, eggs, liver, yeast Essential for growth; forms prosthetic Cheilosis (inflammation and cracking at
(C17H20O6N4) group of FAD enzymes concerned with corners of mouth), digestive
intermediate metabolism of food and disturbances, “yellow liver” of dogs,
electron-transport system curled-toe paralysis of chicks, cataract
Nicotinic acid, or niacin (C6H5O2N), Green leaves, wheat germ, egg yolk, Forms active group of nicotinamide Pellagra in humans and monkeys, swine
antipellagric meat, liver, yeast adenine dinucleotide, which functions in pellagra in pigs, blacktongue in dogs,
dehydrogenation reactions perosis in birds
Folic acid (C19H19O6N7) Green leaves, liver, soybeans, yeast, Essential for growth and formation of Anemia, hemorrhage from kidneys, and
egg yolk blood cells; coenzyme involved in sprue (defective intestinal absorption) in
transfer of single-carbon units in humans; nutritional cytopenia (reduction
metabolism in cellular elements of blood) in
monkeys; slow growth and anemia in
chicks and rats
Pyridoxine (B6) Yeast, cereal grains, meat, eggs, milk, Present in tissues as pyridoxal Anemia in dogs and pigs; dermatitis in
(C8H12O2N) liver phosphate, which serves as coenzyme rats; paralysis (and death) in pigs, rats,
in transamination and decarboxylation of and chicks; growth retardation
amino acids
Pantothenic acid (C9H17O3N) Yeast, cane molasses, peanuts, egg Forms coenzyme A, which catalyzes Dermatitis in chicks and rats, graying of
yolks, milk, liver transfer of various carboxylated groups fur in black rats, “goose-stepping” and
and functions in carbohydrate and lipid nerve degeneration in pigs
metabolism
Biotin (vitamin H) Yeast, cereal grains, cane molasses, Essential for growth: functions in CO2 Dermatitis with thickening of skin in rats
(C10H16O3N2S) egg yolk, liver, vegetables, fresh fruits fixation and fatty acid oxidation and and chicks, perosis in birds
synthesis
Cyanocobalamin (B12) Liver, fish, meat, milk, egg yolk, oysters, Formation of blood cells, growth; Pernicious anemia, slow growth in young
(C63H90N14O14PCo) bacteria and fermentations of coenzyme involved in transfer of methyl animals; wasting disease in ruminants
Streptomyces; synthesized only by groups and in nucleic acid metabolism
bacteria
C, or ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) Citrus fruits, tomatoes, vegetables; also Maintains integrity of capillary walls; Scurvy (bleeding in mucous membranes,
produced by animals (except primates involved in formation of “intercellular under skin, and into joints) in humans
and guinea pigs) cement” and guinea pigs
Certain MINERALS are also needed by the body.
1. MACRONUTRIENTS: gram amounts needed daily. Na, Mg, P, Cl, K, Ca. Have generalized important
uses.
• e.g. Calcium makes up structural component of important tissues (e.g. bone, cartilage), and is also a
necessary ion for the transmission of nerve impulses across synapses and the initiation of muscle
contraction.
2. MICRONUTRIENTS: (“trace elements”). Minute amounts (micrograms) needed. Very specific. e.g. Fe
(for hemoglobin), Iodine (for the hormone thyroxin), molybdenum (required for vitamin B12), selenium,
chromium, nickel, vanadium, silicon, arsenic, cobalt.

DIETING
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• Reducing the amount of caloric intake and/or increasing the amount of exercise will eventually result in
weight loss. Best way to do this is to reduce your FAT intake, while doing some sort of aerobic exercise
three times per week.
• There are individual differences that must also be accounted for when considering weight loss.
• An individual’s basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of calories (1 C is the amount of heat needed to
raise the temp of 1 kg of water one centigrade degree) the are needed to maintain his or her body at rest
(this # is affected by age, weight, health etc.).
• The recommended daily intake of calories for a woman 19 - 22 whose height is 5’4” and who is basically
sedentary (only light exercise) is 2,100 C.
• For a man 19 - 22, height 5’10”, the recommended number of calories is 2,900. Of course both of these
figures are only average estimates, and will go up if the person is more active.
• Below is a table of the number of calories utilized by various activities.
Activity Calories Burned per hour
sitting at rest 100
dressing and undressing 118
slow walking 200
vigorous exercise 450
swimming 500
jogging 570
walking briskly up stairs 1100

Raycroft < Notes - Digestion - Student.doc — Page 10