V ZOOLOGY PRACTICAL SYLLABUS FOR IV SEMESTER
ZOOLOGY - PAPER – IV (At the End of IV semester)
EMBRYOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY
M ax marks: 50 Time : 2Hrs
I. Embryology
1. Study of T.S. of testis, ovary of a mammal.
2. Study of different stages of cleavages (2, 4, 8 cell stages)
II. Physiology
1. Qualitative tests for identification of carbohydrates, proteins and fats (2 for each).
2. Study of prepared slides of T.S. of liver, kidney, bone, charts showing pituitary, thyroid, adrenal and pancreas glands
III. Ecology
1. Determination of pH of given sample.
2. Estimation of dissolved oxygen of given sample 3. Estimation of salinity of given
ZOOLOGY - PAPER – IV (At the End of IV semester)
EMBRYOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY
PRACTICAL MODEL PAPER
Max marks: 50 Time : 2Hrs
1. Estimate DO/PH/Proteins/carbohydrates/lipids of a sample 10M
2. Identification of 5 spotters/Genetic Problems 4 X5=20M A)--------------------(Embryology) B)--------------------(Embryology) C)--------------------(Physiology
D)--------------------(Physiology) E)--------------------(Physiology)
3. Record 05M
4. Continuous Internal Assessment 15M
Total: 50M
T.S OF TESTIS
Transverse section of Testis of a mammal shows the following details:
1.The Testis is some what rounded or oval in shape and surrounded by peritoneum followed by a layer of
fibrous connective tissue, The Tunica albuginea.
2.Histologically each Testis is composed of a mass of coiled seminiferous tubules.
3.The seminiferous tubules are separated from one another by intertubular tissue.
4.The intertubular tissue is formed of connective tissue which holds the tubules together and contains
blood vessels and interstitial cells.
5.The interstitial cells secret a hormone Testosterone responsible for male secondary sexual character.
6.Each seminiferous tubule appears rounded or oval in section surrounded by basement membrane and lined by germinal epithelium.
7.Inbetween the germinal cells certain large cells called
Sertoli cells are usually seen. These cells have the role of
supplying nourishment to the developing sperms.
8. The germinal epithelium gives rise to Sperms which are
seen in various stages of development in a seminiferous
tubule and are as follows (i) The Spermatogonia lie along
the periphery of the tubule and appear closely packed
together.
(ii) The Spermatocytes like just below the spermatogonia
and comprise primary and secondary spermatocytes.
(iii) The spermatids aggregate in clusters below the
spermatocytes.
(iV) The Spermatozoa lie in the cavity of the tubule,
grouped in clusters and a connected with Sertoli cells.
9. A Spermatozoon or sperm has an elongated head and
long delicated tail. Its nucleus lies in the head.
10. The groups of spermatocytes, Spermatids and
Spermatozoa are separated from each other by Sertoli
cells.
T.S OF OVARY
Transverse section of ovary of a mammal shows the following important structures:
1. The Ovary is lined by germinal epithelium which is bounded by the connective tissue, the Tunica
albuginea.
2.It consists of mass of connective tissue and spindle- shaped cells, the two together forming the
stroma.
3. Lying in the stroma are egg cells various stages of development, each surrounded by a nourishing
epithelial layer, the follicle and blood vessels.
4. In the section egg nest, primary follicle (ovum and single layer of follicle cells), double layered follicle, follicle approaching maturity showing
Antrum formation, mature follicle, ruptured follicle, young and fully formed Corpus luteum and Corpus albicans are seen.
5. The primary follicles arise from in growth of the germinal epithelium in to the stroma.
6. One group of cells enlarges to form a developing ovum, while the other forming a single layer of cells the follicle around it.
7. The follicle and ovum slowly move deeper into the stroma and become larger.
8. Later Ovum and cells around it become separated by fluid filled space from the rest of the follicle cells except at one point forming the Antrum.
9. Further the enlargement of the ovum and follicle results in the production of a mature follicle or Graafian follicle.
10. A mature follicle (Graafian follicle ) is made up of three layers, an outer
Theca externa, middle layer Theca interna and the inner layer membrana
granulosa.
11.The mature Graafian follicle then migrates to the surface of the ovary and
ruptures realising the ovum into the fallopian tube.
12. After discharging of ovum, the follicle cells undergo proliferation and
change in structure to form corpus luteum which secrets harmone,
progesterone.
STUDY OF DIFFERENT STAGES OF CLEAVAGE
Zygote undergo cleavage two to three hours after fertilization. Cleavage is the segmentation of the zygote into smaller and small
cellular units called blastomeres. Generally, the blastomeres are closely packed without any space in between them.
2- CELLED STAGE:
Cleavage is initiated by the appearance of a groove or constriction called cleavage furrow. The
furrow appears first at one point of the egg. For example, in Amphioxus the first furrow appears at the
animal pole. The furrow then deepens and extends downward on both sides. The to ends meet at the
vegetal pole. The furrow then extends inwards radially, finally constricting the egg into two blastomeres.
4- CELLED STAGE:
First cleavage is meridional, holoblastic, incomplete resulting the formation of two blastomeres. Second division is also meridional, holoblastic
incomplete but result in the formation of four blastomeres.
8-CELLED STAGE:
Third division is equatorial, dividing the four blastomeres
into four micromeres towards animal hemisphere and four macromeres towards vegetal hemisphere.
Qualitative test for IDENTIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are widely distributed both in plants and animals. They may be defined chemically as aldehydes, ketone derivatives of
polyhydric alcohol (or) as a compound that yields these derivatives hydrolysis. The carbohydrates are made up of C,H&O in the ratio of1:2:1.
Carbohydrates provide the required energy to the organisms as reserved food materials. Carbohydrates combine with proteins to form
glycoproteins and proteoglucoses.
Carbohydrates are available in two forms viz., sugars and polysaccharides.
Sugars are the small molecules with low molecular weight. They dissolve easily in water and occur as crystals and taste sweet. These may
be monosaccharides like Glucose, Fructose and Galactose or disaccharides such as Sucrose, Maltose and Lactose.
Polysaccharides are the large molecules with high molecular weight. They never dissolve in water and are not in crystal form. They are not
sweet to taste. Ex: glycogen, cellulose and chitin.
Identification Test:
BENEDICTS TEST
Principle: Aldehydes and ketones and monosaccharides reduce CuSO4 to CU2O. CU2O being red or colour indicates the presence of monosaccharides.
Procedure: Add two ml of Benedict’s reagent to the sample solution taken into a test tube and boil for 2 minutes.
Result: Formation of green colour precipitate turning to brick red indicates the presence of monosaccharides.
IODINE TEST
Principle: Iodine ( I2) is known to form coloured compounds with polysaccharides giving characteristic blue colour.
Procedure: To 1 ml of sample, add one ml of HCL and one ml of Iodine ( I2 )solution.
Result: A blue coloured solution is formed indicating the presence of polysaccharides.
Molish Test
Aim: To identify the presence of carbohydrates in the given solution.
Apparatus: Test tubes, Sample solution and Molish reagent.
Procedure: Take 2ml of sample solution in to a test tube and add equal quantity of Molish
Reagent. To this few drops of Conc H2SO4(Sulfuric acid) are added along the sides of the
Test tube. Leave the test tube for few minutes.
Result: A violet coloured ring is formed at the junction of the two fluids after few
Minutes indicating the presence of carbohydrates.
IDENTIFICATION OF PROTEINS
Proteins are the building blocks of a body. They are nitrogen contain organic compounds, found in the plant and animal cell where they constitute
the major part of the protoplasm. All the proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Some of these salts also contain either sulphur
or phosphorus elements. Biochemically proteins are the polymers of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Proteins serve as the
components of the cell and cytoplasm. Biologically they are very significant as structural components of food and bio-catalysts. The proteins may be
often as peptones, proteoses, albumins and globulins. In the test for proteins, some reactions indicate only the presence of proteins while other
confirm the type of proteins present in the sample.
Tests for the identification of proteins:
Millons Reagent
Aim: Identification of proteins by using Millons reagent.
Apparatus: Test tube, spirit lamp.
Procedure: Take 2ml of sample in to the tube. Add 2 drops of millons reagent. Mix thoroughly till the two substances are completely mixed. Boil
the tube over the bunsen flame.
Result: Appearance of red precipitate with little heating indicates the presence of proteins.
Biuret Test
Aim: To identify the presence of proteins in the given sample fluid using Biuret test.
Apparatus: Test tube.
Reagents: Biuret reagent.
Procedure: 2ml of given sample solution is taken into the test tube. Add 1ml of Biuret reagent and mix the two solutions thoroughly. Heat the
mixture for 100 minutes at 370C.
Result: the mixture turns to violet colour indicating the presence of proteins in the given sample.
Trichloro acetic acid test
Aim: To identify the presence of proteins in the given sample through trichloro acetic acid test.
Principle: In acidic medium, proteins act as cations and react with acids negatively forming into a insoluble white precipitate. This indicates the
Presence of proteins.
Apparatus: Test tube.
Reagents: Trichloro acetic acid.
Procedure: 2ml of sample solution is taken into the test tube. Add 5ml of 10% trichloro acetic acid.
Results: Appearance of a white precipitate indicates the presence of proteins in the given sample.
NITRIC ACID TEST
Aim: To identify the presence of proteins in the given sample fluid.
Apparatus: Test tube.
Reagent: Concentrated HNO3.
Procedure: Take 3ml of Conc HNO3 into a test tube and add few drops of sample solution along the sides of the test tube slowly with the help of
Pipette. A white colour precipitate ring is forms at the junction of two fluids.
Result: Formation of the white ring indicates the presence of proteins in the given sample.
Qualitative test for identification of fats
Fats are the organic compounds which are insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents like ether, chloroform, benzene etc., Their
molecular structure is constituted by long chain hydro carbons. The lipids are non-polar an hydrophobic in nature. They contribute for the
formation of cellular membranes, hormones and vitamins. They also provide rich energy to the biological systems. They are in fluid state at room
temperature and are commonly known as oils and fats in solid state. Following tests are conducted to the presence of fats.
Methyl Red Test
Aim: To identify fats present in the given liquid.
Apparatus: Test tube.
Reagent: Methyl Red.
Procedure: 1ml of solution is taken into the test tube. To this 3or 4 drops of Methyl Red reagent is added.
Result: Appearance of Orange Red colour indicates the presence of fats.
SUDAN TEST
Aim: To identify fats present in the given liquid.
Apparatus: Test tube.
Reagents: Sudan-III solution.
Procedure: 1ml of given sample is taken into the test tube. To it few drops of 1% Sudan-III-solution is added and shaken the contents thoroughly.
Result: Appearance of the Red colour indicates the presence of lipids.
EMULSIFICATION OF FATS
When an oil is mixed with water, large bubbles are formed. Upon thorough mixing, Fats emulsify into fine droplets. Emulsification plays an
important role in the process of digestion.
Aim: To identify fats present in the given liquid.
Apparatus: Test tube.
Reagents: H2O, Na2CO3 solution, test tube.
Procedure: 1ml of sample solution is taken into the test tube. To this 5ml of water and 1ml of Na 2CO3 are
added. Upon thorough mixing, fine droplets of oil are formed indicating the presence of fats.
Result: Appearance of fine droplets indicating the presence of fats.
T.S. OF LIVER
Transverse section of liver of mammal shows the following histological structures:
The liver is composed of polygonal lobules containing a central vein (inter lobular vein) in the centre and portal canals at the corners.
Each portal canal consists of connective tissue strand and contains a branch of portal vein (inter tubular vein), hepatic artery, bile duct and
lymph vessel.
The liver cells are polyhedral or rectangular and arranged in single celled long chains
extending radially from the central line to the periphery of the lobule.
Each liver cell has granular cytoplasm and prominent nucleus.
The sinusoids are formed from branches of the hepatic portal veins and empty into
central veins.
Liver has several functions which are as follows:
1) It produces bile which plays an important role in the digestion of food.
2) It stores the soluble products of digestion and metabolise them from assimilation.
3) Oxidation of sugar takes place in it.
4) Toxic substances are detoxicated in the liver.
T.S.OF KIDNEY
Kidney of mammal shows the following histological details:
The kidney is surrounded by capsule of dense connective tissue.
The glandular part of the kidney composed of outer cortex and inner medulla.
The cortex contains numerous uriniferous tubules, Malpighian capsules having
Bowman’s capsules and glomerulus scattered throughout.
The medulla is composed of several renal pyramids, medullary rays, column of
bertini, tubules of medulla and connective tissue.
The depression found in the middle of the inner concave region is known as hilus.
A slender muscular tube known as ureter takes its origin at the hilus and runs backwards to join the urinary bladder.
The renal artery and renal vein are in and out at the hilus.
The renal pelvis comprises uriniferous tubules which includes the Proximal potion of ureter, major renal calyces (branches of ureter towards the
renal portion) and minor renal calyces (branches of major calyces)
T.S. OF BONE
Transverse section of bone exhibits the following important characters:
Haversian system:
Each consisting of a central haversian canal surrounded by rings of osteocytes lying each a lacuna.
The lacunae are connected together by five canaliculi.
Among the rings of lacunae lie very thin concentric layers of bone lamellae which compose the matrix of
tissue.
Some bone lamellae, bone lacunae and canaliculi are present among the Haversian
system but are not arranged around haversian canals. These are called interstial
lamellae or non-haversian system.
Haversian canals are about 22-110 microns in diameter.
Haversian canals are connected with each other by connecting canals.
Osteocytes, bone lacunae, bone canaliculi and bone lamellae are arranged
lengthwise.
PITUITARY GLAND
Pituitary gland of a mammal shows the following histological structures:
The pituitary gland is more or less glandular in shape and occurs at the base of brain in the region of
Diencephalon.
It is composed of three lobes namely, anterior lobe, be intermediate lobe and posterior lobe.
The anterior lobe forms the largest part of pituitary gland.
It is formed of three distinct kinds of cells differing in their staining reactions.
Usually on the outer side are the basophil cells which are stained by basic stains.
In the centre are found acidophil or oxyphil cells which take stain with acid stains.
The third type of cells are chromophobe cells which are indifferent to either basic or acid stains. They are found scattered throughout the anterior
lobe.
The anterior lobe produces many hormones namely Somatotrophic hormone, Thyrotrophic hormone,
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone, Gonadotrophic hormone and thus controls growth, development of
sex glands as well as the activities of thyroid, adrenal and parathyroid glands.
The intermediate lobe is composed of cell cords colloid filled follicles. It produces an intermedin
hormone.
The posterior lobe is composed of neuroglial cells, connective tissue fibres and blood vessels. It
produces pituitrin, vasopressin and oxytocin hormones.
The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland of utmost importance to organisms.
THYROID GLAND
Vertical section of thyroid gland of a mammal shows the following histological details:
The thyroid gland of a mammal lies on the ventro-lateral surface of the larynx and the posterior
portion of trachea.
It consists usually of two lobes connected by isthumus.
Histologically it consists of an outer fibrous capsule and a number of rounded, oval or oblong
thyroid follicles separated by inter-follicular tissue.
The fibrous capsule is composed of fibrous connective tissue containing large blood vessels and surrounds the thyroid gland.
Each thyroid follicle is lined with simple cuboidal epithelium.
The cells of cuboidal epithelium contain large nuclei and pour their
secretion into the cavity of the follicle.
The cavity or lumen of each follicle is filled with colloid.
The inter-follicular tissue is composed of reticular connective tissue
having numerous blood vessels and capillaries.
Thyroid gland secretes thyroxine hormone.
Thyroxine controls the entire metabolism of animals.
Thyroid is an endocrine gland.
ADRENAL GLAND
Adrenal gland of a mammal shows the following histological structures:
The adrenal gland is composed of two distinct parts, i.e., outer cortex and inner medulla surrounded by
capsule.
The capsule is composed of fibrous connective tissue containing blood vessels and nerves.
The cortex lies next to the capsule and is differentiated into three zones namely zona glomerulosa, zona
fasciculata and zona reticularis.
(i) Zona glomerulosa is made up of columnar cells containing nuclei. The cells are
arranged in oval groups which ressemble either closed or open vesicles.
(ii) Zona fasciculata consists of columns of large rounded cells containing nuclei. The
cells are arranged radially in double rows.
(iii) Zona reticularis consists of networks of columnar cells containing pigment
granules. Numerous blood sinusoids are found in the networks.
The cortex produces a hormone known as cortin. It regulates the general metabolism,
controls the sodium chloride content of the blood and also promotes the breaking
down of the tissue proteins to amino acids.
The medulla is the central portion, consists of networks or cords of polygonal cells and
clusters of chromaffin cells, networks of cells containing numerous blood capillaries,
sinusoids and the centre a central vein.
Medulla secrets a hormone known as adrenalin. It is responsible for maintaining the
blood pressure, dilation of vessels and muscles, increasing the general metabolism rate
and also for hastening the coagulation of blood.
The adrenal glands are endocrine glands and lie just above the kidney attached to it by a fold of
mesentery.
PANCREAS
Pancreas of a mammal shows the following histological details:
The pancreas consists of two portions namely, exocrine portion and endocrine portion.
The exocrine portion consists of a serious of lobules or acini.
The lobules or acini are bound together by loose connective tissue containing blood vessels, nerves and
lymph vessels.
Each lobule or acinus is made up of few pyramidal pancreatic cells having granular cytoplasm and prominent nuclei.
The lobules or acini open into small ductless which join large ducts and eventually the main pancreatic ducts.
The exocrine portion produces pancreatic juice which contains trypsin, amylase and lipase
enzymes.
The endocrine portion is composed of islets of Langerhans found between the acini.
The islets of Langerhans are compact masses of cells and secrete two hormones namely insulin
and glucagon.
The insulin is said to be produced by the beta cells of islets of Langerhans. It reduces the sugar
contents of the blood.
The glucagon is said to be produced by alpha cells. It increases the sugar contents of the blood
and thus causes diabetes.
Pancreas acts both as an exocrine as well as endocrine gland.
DETERMINATION OF PH
Aim: To detect the pH of the given sample solution through proper method.
Apparatus: pH paper, different solutions with different pH, forceps.
Procedure: pH paper is held with forceps. It is dipped in the sample solutions. Colour is developed in a one in a minute. This coloured paper is
compared with the colour chart to find the pH of the given sample.
Precautions: The pH paper dipped should be touched with forceps but the forceps
Should not be dipped in sample solutions.
Acid Nutral Alkaline
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 9 10 11 12 13 14
pH of given sample solutions
Colour developed on pH paper
Meroon 2 (Acid)
Pale Rose 4 (Acid)
Golden yellow 6 (Acid)
Greenish Yellow 7 ( Nutral )
Light Green 8
Grey 10
Blue 10.5 ( Alkaline )
Identification of pH using pH meter:
pH of the sample solution can also be found with the help of pH meter. Here the pH meter is taken and make it ready for Experimentation as for
the specifications given by the suppliers/ manufacturers.
Suitable buffer solutions are selected and used to dip the electrodes. The pH of the buffer should be nearer to the pH of the sample.
Buffers commonly used:
1.Potassium hydrogen phthalate buffer prepared by dissolving 10.2grams salt in 1000ml.
2. Phosphate buffer prepared by dissolving 3.4grams of Potassium biphosphate ( KH 2PO4 ) and 4.5grams of Sodium diphosphate ( Na2HPO4. 2H2O ) in
100 ml of water.
3. Borax buffer prepared by dissolving 3.8grams of Sodium Borate ( Na 2B4O7.10H2O)4 in 100ml of water.
Details of pH of the above buffers at different temperatures:
Temperature (o C) Phthalate buffer Phosphate buffer Borax buffer
0 4.01 6.98 9.46
5 4.00 6.95 9.39
10 4.00 6.92 9.33
20 4.00 6.88 9.22
25 4.01 6.56 9.14
During experimentation, the pH of the solution is identified and then compared with the above given buffers.
ESTIMATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Aim: To estimate the amount of dissolved oxygen in different water samples at different temperatures.
General Principle: The method of measuring dissolved oxygen needs two requirements.
1. Owing to the presence of oxygen, the sample must be in a fluid form.
2. It must be carried out with apparatus suitable for field operation.
Titrimetric method: This is mainly based on the technique described by L.W. Winkler’s.
Principle: This method mainly depends upon the oxidation of magnesium hydroxide by oxygen dissolved in the water, resulting in the formation of
tetravalent component. When the water containing the tetravalent compound is acidified, free iodine is liberated from the oxidation of
Potassium iodide. The free iodide is chemically equivalent to the amount of dissolved oxygen present in the sample. This is estimated by
titrating the sample with standard reagent.
Manganous sulphate (Wrinkle’s- A ) reacts with Potassium hydroxide present in the Potassium iodide mixture ( Winkler’s- B) to
provide a white ppt of Manganous hydroxide.
MnSO4 + 2 KOH Mn(OH )2 + K2SO4
Manganous hydroxide reacts with dissolved oxygen forming the brown precipitate (ppt) of Manganic hydroxide (if brown ppt is not
formed, it indicates the absence of dissolved oxygen in water). The amount of brown precipitate formed depends on the amount of dissolved
oxygen.
2Mn(OH)2 + O2 2MnO (OH)2+H2O
By adding few drops of conc. H2SO4 (Winker’s-C). The ppt. is dissolved forming Manganic sulphate which immediately reacts with KI,
KOH mixture, thus liberating iodine and resulting in the typical iodine colouration of the water.
The number of iodine molecule liberated by the reaction is equal to the number of molecules of oxygen present in the sample. The
quantity of iodine is determined by titrating the above sulphate solution, using starch as indicator.
Apparatus: Burette, stand, pipette, conical flask, sample bottle, hot water bath.
Collection of sample water: The sample bottle is rinsed with sample water to be estimated. The bottle is allowed to dip in the water in slant position
so that the water slowly enters into the bottle. Care should be taken to prevent the entry of air bubbles. Finally stopper is placed to close the bottle
while the bottle is still in water.
Procedure:
Volume of the bottle may be determined either by weighing method (or ) by measuring the sample (125ml). To the sample in the bottle,
1 ml. of Winkler’s-A (MnSO4 ) and one ml. of Winkler’s-B added slowly and gently after removing the stopper.
Replace the stopper, and the mixture is rigorously shaked by tilting the bottle and holding the stopper tight. The ppt. formed is then
allowed to settle for 20 minutes by keeping the bottle in a dark chamber to avoid photo chemical reaction. Take out the bottle and add 2 ml of
Winkler’s-C (H2SO4 -50%) carefully by inserting the pipette just below the surface of the sample. Replace the stopper carefully thus avoiding air
bubbles. Then shake the bottle until all the precipitate is dissolved.
Transfer 50ml. of the above sample solution with the help of a volumetric flask into a conical flask. It is titrated immediately against a
0.25N, hypo solution taken into the burette. Titrate until the solution turns to strong yellow in colour. Then add 1ml of starch solution. The contents
of flask turn to blue colour. Continue the titration with drop by drop from the burette till the blue colour disappears. Note down the volume of hypo
rundown. The amount of oxygen present in the sample is calculated by using the following formula.
Volume of hypo rundown x N x8 x 1000
O (mg/l) = V2 V1 – V2
V1
V1 = Volume of the sample bottle
V2= Volume of the sample taken for titration
V= Volume of Winkler’s A&B
Burette readings
Sl. No Initial Final Hypo used
1.
2.
3.
Estimate the dissolved oxygen in different samples of water in the same way explained above either by raising the temperature of the
sample to different levels (at least four levels say 20oC,25oC,30oC,35oC) by keeping the conical flask I hot water bath or by adding hot water to obtain
the desired temperature.
Tabulate the values and see the difference in the quantity of the dissolved oxygen at different temperatures.
a. Vol. of oxygen in flask A at 20oC=
b. Vol. of oxygen in flask B at 25oC=
c. Vol. of oxygen in flask C at 30oC=
d. Vol. of oxygen in flask D at 35oC=
Result: Quantity of dissolved oxygen gradually decreases as the temperature increases.
ESTIMATION OF THE SALINITY OF WATER
Aim: To estimate the salinity of the given water in terms of chloride ions.
Apparatus: Burette, Burette stand, Conical flask, Pipette, Measuring jar, Sample water.
Reagents: Distilled water, 5% Potassium chromate indicator, Silver nitrate solution (Prepared by dissolving 2.73gm of AgNO 3in 100 ml of
distilled water )
Procedure:
Take 10ml of the sample water into a conical flask.
Add 2 or 3 drops of Potassium chromate indicator.
Titrate the sample with Silver nitrate solution taken into the burette.
End point is the formation of a light red coloured precipitate.
Record the final rundown reading of silver nitrate.
Repeat the experiment thrice or four times to get average values.
Salinity of the solution is equal to the reading of the silver nitrate rundown.
Hence the salinity of the sample water = Silver nitrate rundown mg/l.
