CSI161 Introduction

Chapter to 1 Computing (Lecture 4.2)

Introduction
Digital Logic

Department of Computer Science

These slides are derived from those of Null & Lobur + the work of others.
Outline
 Introduction to Logic Gates
 Logic Gates truth tables(Including Universal Gates)
 Boolean Function Representation using Logic Gates
 Combinational Circuits
 Half Adder
 Full Adder
 Sequential Circuits
 Flip Flops
 Registers

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 3.3 Logic Gates

 We have looked at Boolean functions in abstract

terms.
 In this section, we see that Boolean functions are
implemented in digital computer circuits called gates.
 A gate is an electronic device that produces a result
based on two or more input values.
 In reality, gates consist of one to six transistors,
but digital designers think of them as a single unit.
 Integrated circuits contain collections of gates
suited to a particular purpose.

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 3.3 Logic Gates

 The three simplest gates are the AND, OR, and NOT
gates.

 They correspond directly to their respective Boolean

operations, as you can see by their truth tables.
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 3.3 Logic Gates

 Another very useful gate is the exclusive OR (XOR)

gate.
 The output of the XOR operation is true only when
the values of the inputs differ.

Note the special symbol 

for the XOR operation.

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 3.3 Logic Gates

 NAND and NOR

are two very
important gates.
Their symbols and
truth tables are
shown at the right.

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 3.3 Logic Gates

 NAND and NOR are

known as universal
gates because they
are inexpensive to
manufacture and
any Boolean
function can be
constructed using
only NAND or only
NOR gates.

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 3.3 Logic Gates

 Gates can have multiple inputs and more than

one output.
 A second output can be provided for the
complement of the operation.
 We’ll see more of this later.

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 3.4 Digital Components

 The main thing to remember is that combinations

of gates implement Boolean functions.
 The circuit below implements the Boolean
function:

We simplify our Boolean expressions so

that we can create simpler circuits.
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 3.5 Combinational Circuits

 We have designed a circuit that implements the

Boolean function:

 This circuit is an example of a combinational logic

circuit.
 Combinational logic circuits produce a specified
output (almost) at the instant when input values are
applied.
 In a later section, we will explore circuits where
this is not the case.

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 3.5 Combinational Circuits

 Combinational logic circuits

give us many useful devices.
 One of the simplest is the half
adder, which finds the sum of
two bits.
 We can gain some insight as
to the construction of a half
adder by looking at its truth
table, shown at the right.

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 3.5 Combinational Circuits

 As we see, the sum can be

found using the XOR
operation and the carry using
the AND operation.

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 3.5 Combinational Circuits

 We can change our half

adder into to a full adder
by including gates for
processing the carry bit.
 The truth table for a full
adder is shown at the
right.

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 3.5 Combinational Circuits

 How can we change the

half adder shown below to
make it a full adder?

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 3.5 Combinational Circuits

 Here’s our completed full adder.

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 3.5 Combinational Circuits

 Just as we combined half adders to make a full

adder, full adders can connected in series.
 The carry bit “ripples” from one adder to the next;
hence, this configuration is called a ripple-carry
adder.

Today’s systems employ more efficient adders.

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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 Combinational logic circuits are perfect for

situations when we require the immediate
application of a Boolean function to a set of inputs.
 There are other times, however, when we need a
circuit to change its value with consideration to its
current state as well as its inputs.
 These circuits have to “remember” their current
state.
 Sequential logic circuits provide this functionality for
us.
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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 As the name implies, sequential logic circuits require

a means by which events can be sequenced.
 State changes are controlled by clocks.
 A “clock” is a special circuit that sends electrical
pulses through a circuit.
 Clocks produce electrical waveforms such as the one
shown below.

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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 State changes occur in sequential circuits only

when the clock ticks.
 Circuits can change state on the rising edge, falling
edge, or when the clock pulse reaches its highest
voltage.

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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 Circuits that change state on the rising edge, or

falling edge of the clock pulse are called edge-
triggered.
 Level-triggered circuits change state when the
clock voltage reaches its highest or lowest level.

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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 To retain their state values, sequential circuits rely

on feedback.
 Feedback in digital circuits occurs when an output
is looped back to the input.
 A simple example of this concept is shown below.
 If Q is 0 it will always be 0, if it is 1, it will always
be 1. Why?

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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 You can see how feedback works by examining

the most basic sequential logic components, the
SR flip-flop.
 The “SR” stands for set/reset.
 The internals of an SR flip-flop are shown below,
along with its block diagram.

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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 The behavior of an SR flip-flop is described by

a characteristic table.
 Q(t) means the value of the output at time t.
Q(t+1) is the value of Q after the next clock
pulse.

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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 The SR flip-flop actually

has three inputs: S, R,
and its current output, Q.
 Thus, we can construct a
truth table for this circuit,
as shown at the right.
 Notice the two undefined
values. When both S
and R are 1, the SR flip-
flop is unstable.

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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 If we can be sure that the inputs to an SR flip-flop

will never both be 1, we will never have an
unstable circuit. This may not always be the case.
 The SR flip-flop can be modified to provide a
stable state when both inputs are 1.
• This modified flip-flop is
called a JK flip-flop,
shown at the right.
- The “JK” is in honor of
Jack Kilby.

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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 At the right, we see

how an SR flip-flop
can be modified to
create a JK flip-flop.
 The characteristic
table indicates that
the flip-flop is stable
for all inputs.

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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 Another modification of the SR flip-flop is the D

flip-flop, shown below with its characteristic table.
 You will notice that the output of the flip-flop
remains the same during subsequent clock
pulses. The output changes only when the value
of D changes.

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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 The D flip-flop is the fundamental circuit of

computer memory.
 D flip-flops are usually illustrated using the
block diagram shown below.
 The characteristic table for the D flip-flop is
shown at the right.

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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 Sequential circuits are used anytime that we have

a “stateful” application.
 A stateful application is one where the next state of the
machine depends on the current state of the machine and
the input.
 A stateful application requires both combinational
and sequential logic.
 The following slides provide several examples of
circuits that fall into this category.

Can you think of others?

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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

 This illustration shows a

4-bit register consisting of
D flip-flops. You will
usually see its block
diagram (below) instead.

A larger memory configuration

is shown on the next slide.
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 3.6 Sequential Circuits

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 3.7 Designing Circuits

 We have seen digital circuits from two points of

view: digital analysis and digital synthesis.
 Digital analysis explores the relationship between
a circuits inputs and its outputs.
 Digital synthesis creates logic diagrams using the
values specified in a truth table.
 Digital systems designers must also be mindful of
the physical behaviors of circuits to include minute
propagation delays that occur between the time
when a circuit’s inputs are energized and when the
output is accurate and stable.
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 3.7 Designing Circuits

 Digital designers rely on specialized software to

create efficient circuits.
 Thus, software is an enabler for the
construction of better hardware.
 Of course, software is in reality a collection of
algorithms that could just as well be
implemented in hardware.
 Recall the Principle of Equivalence of
Hardware and Software.

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 3.7 Designing Circuits

 When we need to implement a simple, specialized

algorithm and its execution speed must be as fast as
possible, a hardware solution is often preferred.
 This is the idea behind embedded systems, which
are small special-purpose computers that we find in
many everyday things.
 Embedded systems require special programming
that demands an understanding of the operation of
digital circuits, the basics of which you have learned
in this chapter.

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 Chapter 3 Conclusion

 Computers are implementations of Boolean logic.

 Boolean functions are completely described by
truth tables.
 Logic gates are small circuits that implement
Boolean operators.
 The basic gates are AND, OR, and NOT.
 The XOR gate is very useful in parity checkers
and adders.
 The “universal gates” are NOR, and NAND.

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 Chapter 3 Conclusion

 Computer circuits consist of combinational logic

circuits and sequential logic circuits.
 Combinational circuits produce outputs (almost)
immediately when their inputs change.
 Sequential circuits require clocks to control their
changes of state.
 The basic sequential circuit unit is the flip-flop: The
behaviors of the SR, JK, and D flip-flops are the most
important to know.

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End

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