Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

Logic
Logic is the study of the principles of correct reasoning. It helps us to differentiate
correct reasoning from poor reasoning. Logic allows us to determine the validity of
arguments in and out of mathematics. It illustrates the importance of precision and
conciseness of the language of mathematics.

Mathematical Logic
Mathematical logic is the context at which rigorous proofs are built. It is the study
of the principles and standards of valid inference and illustrations. Moreover,
mathematical logic is also a branch of mathematics with close connections to computers.
It includes both the mathematical study of logic and the applications of formal logic to
other areas of mathematics.
The importance of logic to mathematics cannot be overstated. No conjecture in
mathematics is considered fact until it has been logically proven and truly valid
mathematical analysis is done only within the rigors of logic. Because of this dependence,
mathematicians have carefully developed and formalized logic beyond some of the
murkier “common sense” we learn from childhood, and given it the precision required to
explore, manipulate and communicate mathematical ideas unambiguously. Part of that
development is the codification of mathematical logic into symbols. With logic symbols
and their rules for use, we can analyze and rewrite complicated logic statements much
like we do with algebraic statements. https://faculty.math.illinois.edu/~vddries/main.pdf

Statement or Proposition
A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence that is true or false but not
both. Propositional Variables such as p, q, r, s, t, etc. are used to represent
propositions.

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Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

Examples:
Determine which of the following statements are propositions and which are not.
1. City of San Fernando is the capital of Pampanga.
Answer: PROPOSITION because it has a truth value (TRUE).
2. Cielo is beautiful and sexy.
Answer: NOT A PROPOSITION because it neither true nor false.
3. Where are you going?
Answer: NOT A PROPOSITION because the sentence is interrogative.
4. Please give me some water.
Answer: NOT A PROPOSITION because the sentence is imperative.
5. Mt. Apo is the tallest mountain in the Philippines.
Answer: PROPOSITION because it is true. Mt. Apo is the tallest mountain in the
Philippines, having an elevation of 2,956 meters, which offers a wonderful scene.
6. 1 + 1 = 2
Answer: PROPOSITION because the sentence has a truth value (TRUE).
7. 𝑥 > 5 if 𝑥 = 3
Answer: PROPOSITION because the sentence has a truth value (FALSE).
8. 𝑥 > 6
Answer: NOT A PROPOSITION because the value of x is not given, hence, the
truth value of the statement cannot be determined.

Remark: If a proposition is true, then we say its truth value is true, and if a
proposition is false, we say its truth value is false.

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Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

SAQ 2.5
A. Determine whether each of the sentences below is a proposition (P) or not (NP).
1. All multiples of 5 are odd numbers.
2. x is a real number.
3. Sketch the graph of 𝑓.
4. Five is greater than 4.
5. -1 < 0.
6. The sun is shining.
7. The sum of two prime numbers is even.
8. 3 + 4 = 7
9. It rained in Manila, on October 30, 1999.
10. x + y > 10
11. Is it raining?
12. Come to class!
13. n is a prime number.
14. The moon is made of green cheese.
15. All even numbers are multiples of 2.

B. State whether or not the following are propositions. In case of a proposition,

indicate if it is true or false.
1. All perfect squares are even numbers.
2. Every decimal number is a rational number.
3. The summation ∑100
𝑖−1 𝑖

4. 12𝑒 𝑥
5. If 2𝑥 + 7 = 𝑥 then 𝑥 = −7

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Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

Logical Connectives
Mathematical statements may be joined by logical connectives which are used
to combine simple propositions to form compound statements. These connectives are
conjunction, disjunction, implication, biconditional, and negation.
The truth value of propositions is presented in a truth table. A truth table displays
the relationships between the truth values of propositions. Truth tables are especially
valuable in the determination of the truth values of propositions constructed from simpler
propositions.
Let p and q be propositions.
1. Conjunction
The conjunction of the propositions p and q is the compound statement “p and
q” denoted as p ʌ q which is true only when both p and q are true, otherwise, it is false.
This is logically the same as the intersection of two sets in a Venn Diagram.

Truth Table for Conjunction

p q pʌq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

2. Disjunction
The disjunction of the propositions p and q is the compound statement “p or q”
denoted as p v q which is false only when both p and q are false, otherwise, it is true.
This is equivalent to the union of two sets in a Venn Diagram.
Truth Table for Disjunction
P q pvq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

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Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

3. Negation
The negation of the statement p is denoted by ¬ p where ¬ is the symbol for
“not”. The truth value of the negation is always the reverse of the truth value of the
original statement.
Truth Table for Negation
p ¬p
T F
F T

4. Implication
The implication of the propositions p and q is the compound statement “If p,
then q.” denoted as p → q which is false only when p is true and q is false. P is the
hypothesis while q is the conclusion.
p→q is read as

• p implies q • p is sufficient for q

• if p then q • q is necessary for p
• p only if q • q if p
• Truth Table for Implication
P q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

5. Biconditional – the bi-conditional of the propositions p and q is the compound

statement “p if and only if q.” denoted as p ↔ q which is true only when both p and q
have the same truth values. p is known as the antecedent while q is known as the
consequent.

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Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

Truth Table for Biconditional

p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Examples:
Construct the truth table for each of the following statements.
1. ¬p v ¬q
Solution:
p q ¬p ¬q ¬p v ¬q
T T F F F
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T

2. (¬p ʌ q) v (p ʌ ¬q) Answer

Solution:
P q ¬p ¬q ¬p ʌ q p ʌ ¬q (¬p ʌ q) v (p ʌ ¬q)
T T F F F F F
T F F T F T T
F T T F T F T
F F T T F F F

Answer

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Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

Examples:
Translate the following statements into logical notation, using the following symbols:
M = "There are COVID cases in Metro Manila."
P = "Parts of the country are under ECQ."
C = "Classes are cancelled."
1. There are COVID cases in Metro Manila and parts of the country are not under
ECQ.
Solution: M ∧ P
2. If parts of the country are under ECQ then classes are cancelled.
Solution: P → C
3. Either parts of the country are not under ECQ or there are COVID cases in Metro
Manila.
Solution: ¬P ∨ M
4. Classes are cancelled if and only if there are COVID cases in Metro Manila."
Solution: C ⟷ M

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Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

SAQ 2.6
Given the following statements:
p: Climate change has a great impact to ecological balance.
q: Diseases may arise from climate change.
r: Typhoons and storms are intensified and are highly unpredictable.
s: Some parts of the country will experience an upward trend in rainfall.
t: Other parts of the country will experience an intensification of drought.

Write these propositions in symbols using p, q, r, s, t, and logical connectives.

1. If climate change has a great impact to ecological balance then diseases may
arise from climate change.
2. Some parts of the country will experience an upward trend in rainfall while other
parts will not experience an intensification of drought.
3. Typhoons and storms are intensified and are highly unpredictable only if climate
change has a great impact to ecological balance.
4. Typhoons and storms are intensified and are highly unpredictable implies that
some parts of the country will experience an upward trend in rainfall.
5. Climate change does not have a great impact to ecological balance but
diseases may arise from climate change.

Tautology and Contradiction

A tautology is a propositional form for which all of its values are true (T). A
contradiction is a propositional form for which all of its values are false (F). Example of
tautology is the statement “A number is even or it is not even.”
We may have been using tautology in our everyday language though we do not
notice them. Examples of tautology in everyday language are the following.
• Remember when 4G cell phones were a new innovation?
• The evening sunset was beautiful.
• I need a new hot water heater.
(https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-tautology.html)

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Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

Examples:
Which of the following is a tautology?
1. A→ A
Solution:
A A A→ A
T T T
F F T
Conclusion: It is a tautology.

2. A→ (B →A)
Solution:
A B B→A A→ (B →A)
T T T T
T F T T
F T F T
F F T T
Conclusion: It is a tautology.

3. (p q) (p q)
Solution:
p q p q p q (p q) (p q)
T T T T T
T F T F F
F T T F F
F F F F T
Conclusion: It is NOT a tautology.

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Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

SAQ 2.7
A. Construct a truth table for each of these compound statements.
1. ( p  q ) → ( p  q ) 3. ( p  q ) v ( p  r )
2. ( p ↔ q ) → ( p  q ) 4. [(p v r) ʌ (p → s)] v (p ↔ q)

B. Given the following statements

p: 3 + 4 = 6 q: 0 is an integer. r: 3 < 4
Determine the truth values of the following.
1. p  q 4. q → r
2. ¬p  q 5. ¬( p  q )
3. p  r

C. Which of the following statements is a tautology?

1. [(p q) p] p 2. (r s) (s r)

D. Let p and q be the propositions “The election is decided” and “The votes have been
counted” respectively. Express each of these compound propositions as an
English sentence.
1. p 4. p  q
2. q → p 5. q → p
3. p  q

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Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive

For every implication or conditional statement, you can construct its converse,
inverse and contrapositive.
Suppose we have the following statements for P and Q.
P: It Rains
Q: They cancel school.
The implication, converse, inverse, and contrapositive will be written in the
following forms.
Implication: P → Q
If it rains then they cancel school.
Converse: Q → P
If they cancel school then it rains.
Inverse: ~P → ~Q
If it does not rain then they do not cancel school.
Contrapositive: ~Q → ~P
If it they do not cancel school, then it does not rain.

SAQ 2.8
State the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following propositions. Label
your answers correctly.
1. If you will review your lessons, then you will pass GE-MMW.
2. Faye will attend the party only if Joyce will accompany her.
3. The boat will sink if it is overloaded.
4. Ensuring that your products are of good quality implies you will have a high
amount of sales and profit.
5. I attend my class implies there is a quiz.

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Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

Summary
• The mathematical notation used for formulas has its own grammar, not dependent
on a specific natural language, but shared internationally by mathematicians
regardless of their mother tongues. When translating English sentences or phrases
to Mathematical symbols, we perform addition when using the word “sum, addition,
more than, increased by, greater, plus, or total”, subtraction is performed when the
word “decreased by, less, less than, subtract, difference, diminished by, reduced,
minus, or deducted from” is used, multiplication is performed for the word “times,
product of, percent of, twice, or doubled”, while we divide when we use the word
“quotient, divided by, per, or quantity”.
• A set is a collection of well – defined distinct objects called elements. The
cardinality of a set 𝑨, denoted by 𝒏(𝑨), is the number of elements of the set. The
number is also referred as the cardinal number. If a set has an infinite number of
elements, its cardinality is ∞. Some well-known infinite sets are 𝑵 − the set of all
natural numbers, 𝒁 − the set of all integers, 𝒁+ − the set of all positive integers,
𝑸 − the set of all rational numbers, 𝑹 − the set of all real numbers, and 𝑾 − the set
of all whole numbers. Set operations include union, intersection, difference,
complement, and cartesian product. These operations and relationships between
sets can be illustrated using the Venn diagram.
• Cross products of sets A and B or A x B is the collection of all ordered pairs such
that the first component belongs to set A and the second component belongs to
set B. A relation, say R, from A to B is any nonempty subset of the cross product
A x B. The set of all first components of all ordered pairs found in the relation is
called the domain while the set of all second components of the ordered pairs is
called the range. The relation is a function if there exists a unique value 𝑦 for each
value of 𝑥 in the domain of the function. This means that no two ordered pairs in 𝑓
must have the same first component.
• Logic is the study of the principles of correct reasoning. Logic allows us to
determine the validity of arguments in and out of mathematics. It illustrates the
importance of precision and conciseness of the language of mathematics. In
mathematical logic, a statement or proposition is a declarative sentence that is true

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Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematical Language and Symbols | Chapter 2

or false but not both. Propositional variables such as p, q, r, s, t, etc. are used to
represent propositions.
• Mathematical statements may be joined by logical connectives which are used
to combine simple propositions to form compound statements. These connectives
are conjunction, disjunction, implication, biconditional, and negation. The
truth value of propositions is presented in a truth table. A truth table displays the
relationships between the truth values of propositions. Truth tables are especially
valuable in the determination of the truth values of propositions constructed from
simpler propositions.
• The conjunction of the propositions p and q is the compound statement “p and q”
denoted as 𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞 which is true only when both p and q are true, otherwise, it is
false. The disjunction of the propositions p and q is the compound statement “p or
q” denoted as 𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞 which is false only when both p and q are false, otherwise, it
is true. The negation of the statement p is denoted by ¬ 𝑝 where ¬ is the symbol
for “not”. The truth value of the negation is always the reverse of the truth value of
the original statement. The implication of the propositions p and q is the compound
statement “If p, then q.” denoted as 𝑝 → 𝑞 which is false only when p is true and q
is false. P is the hypothesis while q is the conclusion. the bi-conditional of the
propositions p and q is the compound statement “p if and only if q.” denoted as
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 which is true only when both p and q have the same truth values. p is known
as the antecedent while q is known as the consequent. A tautology is a
propositional form for which all of its values are true (T). A contradiction is a
propositional form for which all of its values are false (F).
• For every implication or conditional statement, you can construct its converse,
inverse and contrapositive. In symbols, the implication is of the form 𝑝 → 𝑞. Its
converse is of the form 𝑞 → 𝑝, the inverse is of the form ¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞, while the
contrapositive is of the form ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝.

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